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THE ARTIZAN.

No. XIIL— JANUARY 31st, 1844.

Art. I.— THE IRON MANUFACTURE AND MINING EMPLOY-
MENTS OF SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE.

First Report of the Midland Mining Commission, presented to both Houses
of Parliament by command of Her Majesty. London, 1843.

HISTORY OF THE IRON TRADE.

The manufacture of iron is a branch of the national industry in which no
single artizan throughout the whole empire can fail to be interested. The
innumerable branches of the metallic trades which are carried on at the great
emporiums of Birmingham, Sheffield, and Wolverhampton, are comparatively
confined to the fabrication of articles in iron and steel ; and wherever we turn
our eyes, in any part soever of the country, whether near to or remote from
the spot which produces the iron, we find a large proportion of her artizans
engaged in the direct conversion of iron into some one or other of the thou-
sand useful forms which this the most important metal in the world is capable
of assuming. So much for the artizans who may be said to be employed in
the direct fabrication or conversion of iron ; and, next to these, the subject
possesses an interest scarcely inferior for every individual who makes use
of his hands in any kind of labour whatsoever. From the more widely dif-
fused and every-day occupations of the carpenter, the mason, and the smith,
up to the highest departments of art, as practised by the sculptor and the
engraver, where shall we find the artist or the artizan who is independent of
that metal, out of which all his most useful implements are fabricated ? But
neither these, nor a hundred other considerations which might be adduced,
can be necessary to convince any person who reflects at all, of the general
importance to the whole country, of that extensive source of employment
which is afforded by the iron manufacture, and its accompanying branches
of trade.

The historical records of the iron manufacture in this country, apart from
their general and immediate interest to those concerned in any way in the
conversion or application of the metal, possess so close a connexion with the
prosperity of this nation, and its rise into pre-eminence over the whole world,
that they demand a brief notice.

Amongst all the industrial occupations pursued by the inhabitants of this
great manufacturing country, there is none so completely identified with the
expansion of her national resources, with the cultivation of all the useful arts
and sciences, with the increase of her population, and the corresponding
creation of means for their support, as this of the iron manufacture. Unlike
the fabrication of articles in wood, which has to be grown during a great
many years upon land which might be producing the grain and fruits of the
earth, or, perhaps, imported from other countries, in exchange for actual
money from our own — unlike the cotton, silk, or woollen manufactures, for
which the raw material has in like manner to be imported from abroad, or
■grown, at a great expense, on the backs of animals reared almost entirely for
the value of their fleeces — unlike all these branches of manufacture, in which
the article to be wrought has a certain, and in many cases a high, intrinsic
•value, here is a trade concentrated within a few limited spots of our own
country, giving employment to hundreds of thousands, destroying no land
except that necessary for the first establishment of the works, and producing,
year after year, from beneath the same surface, out of the bowels of the earth,
the materials for employing more than a million of persons, who are engaged
in multiplying over and over again the value of this raw material, and forming
it into a countless variety of shapes, both for domestic use and for export to
almost every country, savage or civilized, in the whole world. It was Gibbon
who finely said, that iron had done more than anything else to civilize the
world. And a philosopher, not inferior to him, and possessing statesmanlike
views of the highest order, has acknowledged with gratitude that it was the
steam-engine alone which had fought for England all the battles of the last
great European war, and enabled her to sustain, almost without feeling it,
that incessant drain upon her treasury which would have crushed her into the
•condition of the most abject state in Europe, had she not been gifted with
this inestimable triumph of her mechanical skill. The steam-engine, while it
owes not less than all other machines to that metal out of which it is prin-
cipally fabricated, has at least nobly redeemed its obligation, by putting
into action a power of no less consequence than the modern blast apparatus :
it might perhaps be most correet to say, that the enormous growth of the
iron trade during the last half century has been principally effected by this
application of steam, which gave at once the means of smelting iron with coal
in the modern blast-furnace.

VOL. II.

In looking back upon the iron manufacture within the period of our
national history, it appears capable of division into several remarkable eras.
The first may be included between the time of the Romans and that of Eli-
zabeth, when we find the first legislative enactments against the felling of
timber for this manufacture. It appears that up to the middle of the six-
teenth century, while yet the weald of Kent and Sussex, the Forest of Dean
in Gloucestershire, the district of Furness in Lancashire, and the banks of
the Don about Sheffield, were covered by abundance of oak timber, which
yielded charcoal for the smelting of all the iron in their respective districts,
no alarm was felt about the destruction of timber occasioned by this constant
waste of the woods. In the reign of Elizabeth, and that of her immediate
successors, numerous acts were passed to restrict, and, in some districts, to
prohibit altogether, the felling of timber for this purpose. From this period,
therefore, which dates as the commencement of the second era, the iron ma-
nufacture began actually to decline ; as we find, in the reign of James II.,
there were 300 furnaces, making in all 180,000 tons per annum; while, in
1740, the make had dwindled down to 17,350 tons. During this period we
had become, to a great extent, dependent on foreign countries for a supply
of iron ; the quantity imported at this time being greater than that which was
made at home ; and the country was paying, in exchange for this imported
iron, about a quarter of a million sterling in hard cash. Nothing was more
deplorable than the state of the iron manufacture in Great Britain during the
hundred years preceding 1740. Absolutely without the means of procuring
charcoal for the purpose of smelting, the most enterprising manufacturers
turned their attention to pit-coal ; and numerous are the trials and failures ■
which successively attended the earnest exertions to render this mineral avail-
able for the smelting of iron. The great difficulty arising from the insuffi-
cient draught, and consequent absence of heat in the furnace, every con-
trivance which the ingenuity of the time could suggest was put into requi-
sition for the purpose, such as bellows worked by human labour, oxen,
horses, wind, and water power ; but, notwithstanding every exertion to the
contrary, the production of our furnaces steadily decreased, till, in the middle
of the eighteenth century, all the iron made in Great Britain amounted to
only 17,350 tons.

The next great era may be taken to comprise the history of the manufac-
ture down to the present time. We have no accurate returns for the period
immediately succeding 1740; but we know that in 1788, about which time
the blast-furnace worked by steam' had begun [to be generally used, the
annual manufacture amounted to more than 68,000 tons. From this time
the iron manufacture is characterised by a series of brilliant improvements,
carried into effect by means of great skill and pecuniary enterprise.

A few years before 1788, Mr. Cort's process of puddling and rolling was
introduced. In 1796, the make of iron in Great Britain was 125,079 tons :
in ten years more the annual quantity was 250,406 ; in 1823 it had increased
to 452,056 ; in 1830 to 678,416 ; and in 1841 the produce of the 401 blast-
furnaces in Great Britain was not less than 1,387,551 tons.

SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE COAL-FIELD.

The coal-fields of our midland counties being surrounded by rich agricul-
tural districts, afford excellent examples of the intimate connexion which
always subsists between the manufacturing and the agricultural interests ;
clearly proving, in a variety of ways, that they are mutually dependent on
each other for their prosperity ; and, in like manner, that the one cannot be
injured, and cannot exist in a state of depression, without exercising a cor-
responding influence on the other. For instance, take the simple case of an
agricultural district in a depressed state, and to which some suppose it would
be reduced by certain legislative enactments, which the friends of the
manufacturing interests are loudly demanding at the present time. It is
quite clear, that if the farmer and the labourer are suffering, there will be a
vast difference in their consumption of even the necessaries of life. Agricul-
tural produce will be at a low price, and it will not be worth while for the
farmer to send it to a distance, as in times of prosperity, bringing back coal
as back-carriage for the supply of his own and his labourers' houses. La-
bourers will be driven to make use of wood, peat, or any other substitute for
coal which they can procure ; and, in consequence, collieries will be imper-
fectly worked, and vast numbers of colliers thrown out of employment. Nor
does the evil stop here ; it extends to the diminished consumption of all
manufactures, and, amongst others, that of iron. Agricultural distress is
always accompanied by the blowing out and shutting up of furnaces ; events
which, of late years, have been so frequently trumpeted into notice by the

2

The Iron Manufacture and Mining Employments of South Staffordshire.

newspapers, that they are looked for as a matter of course during every out-
break or disturbance in the coal districts. There are few people, however,
who are at all aware of the immense consequences to the general prosperity
of the country, which are involved in a circumstance so apparently unimpor-
tant as the discontinuance of a single blast-fumace used for the manufacture
of iron. A furnace of medium capacity requires a supply of about 300 to 400
tons of iron mine per week, and about the same quantity of coal, besides
limestone for a flux ; and employs about 300 men to raise the minerals, to
attend the furnaces, and perform the subsequent operations of refining, pud-
dling, and rolling the iron into bars. The average produce of the furnaces
in blast at the present time in the two great coal-fields of Staffordshire and
South Wales, is about 4000 tons of iron per annum, and every ton, averaging
pig and forge iron together, costs at least 41. in actual labour. The produc-
tion of the iron made in a single furnace is therefore equivalent to 16,000/.
per annum wholly expended in wages ; which would agree nearly with the
amount required to pay 300 men for a year, with their overlookers, foremen,
agents, &c. Such is the direct consequence, at the iron-works, of a single
furnace being thrown out of blast. But this is not by any means the whole
injury which the stoppage inflicts. Of the 4000 tons made by a furnace in
Staffordshire, a large quantity goes to the workshops and manufactories of
chain-cables, scythes, spades, nails, bolts, screws, and a variety of other ar-
ticles, which, when manufactured, are worth from 36s. to 84*. per cwt. In
order to make sure of not overstating the case, let us take 45/. as the average
value of a ton of converted wrought iron, and we shall have the produce of a
single furnace increased in value by 160,000/., the whole of which is paid in
labour. It may therefore be estimated, that each one of the 129 blast-fur-
naces in Staffordshire keeps in circulation a sum of more than 176,000/. per
annum ; and that labour, corresponding to this large sum of money, is thrown
out of employment, whenever one of these furnaces is put out of blast.

In the beginning of 1842, there were 129 blast-furnaces in Staffordshire ;
and, for some time after the strike for wages, and the turn-out of the miners
during the summer of that year, the number actually in blast was only 80.
The vast amount of destitution, caused by the stoppage of 49 furnaces in this
densely-populated part of the country, may be guessed at from the preceding
considerations.

In order to obtain the most correct information as to the causes of this
strike, and as to the general condition of the mining population in the coun-
ties of Worcester, Warwick, Stafford, and Salop, the Government shortly
after it appointed Mr. Tancred a Commissioner, with powers to conduct a spe-
cial inquiry into the subject. This gentleman, who had formerly acted as a
Commissioner to inquire into the employment of women and children in
mines, has ably acquitted himself of this task, having brought together a mass
of highly useful information relative to the South Staffordshire, coal-field, to
which his attention has been confined up to this time.

The South Staffordshire coal-field is distinguished by the prevalence, over
the greater part of its area, of the famous Ten-yard coal ; this being the ag-
gregate thickness of the beds which are actually worked in its mines. The
district of the Ten-yard coal is bounded by Wolverhampton, Bilston, Dar-
laston, and Wednesbury, on the north ; West Bromwich, and Oldbury, on the
east ; Amblecott, the Lye, and Wordesley, near Stanbridge, on the south ;
and by Kingswinford, Lower Gornal, and Sedgeley, on the west ; the area
comprised within these limits being about seven miles from north to south,
with an average breadth of about six miles. The coal measures, however,
are not continuous over the whole of this area, being interrupted by a re-
markable upthrow of basaltic rocks extending from Rowley Regis nearly two
miles north-west to Dudley, and, by a continuation of this range,' composed
of silurian rocks, extending from Dudley, in the same direction, to beyond
Sedgeley. These rocks, rising up in the form of a saddle-back amongst the
coal-measures, have tilted up the latter in a corresponding manner; so that
these are entirely wanting along the crest of the intruding ridge, and dip in
opposite directions on the opposite sides of the rocks by which they have
thus been displaced. Besides this area occupied by the thick coal, there are
several beds of thin coal, which commence a few miles from the northern
outcrop of the Ten-yard coal, and extend to Brereton Collieries, near Rugeley,
about ten miles north of Bilston. The district occupied by these thin coal-
measures varies from four and a half to six miles broad ; and, in addition to
Earl Talbot's collieries at Brereton, where they are principally worked to
supply his furnaces for the evaporation of salt brine, there are numerous pits
where they are worked along the banks of the Wyrley and Essington Canal ;
also in the neighbourhood of Walsall, Hayhead Quarries, and Lichfield.

The method adopted in working the Ten-yard coal may be thus explained.
The pits or shafts for pumping, and for raising the coal to the surface, are
sunk through the coal-measures, and through the main coal down to the
bottom, and a heading or gateway driven horizontally through the coal to be
worked. This heading or gateway, intended for the main road along which
the coal is to be conveyed to the foot of the engine-shaft, is usually made
about ten or twelve feet in height, and, when finished, presents a perpen-
dicular face of coal on each side. The operations of getting the coal, there-
fore, are now commenced by a number of miners, who cut away the lower
bed of the coal, which is commonly about 2ft. 3in. in thickness ; and when
they have thus undermined a considerable length, varying from ten to four-
teen yards, by a convenient breadth, they proceed to cut upwards through the
mass of coal to be brought down. In the process of undermining or under-
cutting, pillars are left at distances varying from six to fifteen yards apart,
and the cutting upward is made along the sides of these pillars, so as to isolate

[January,

the mass of coal which is to be brought down. The breadth of coal cut away
at the sides of the pillars will depend upon the thickness of the bed of coal to
be fallen ; this thickness varying from two to four feet, according to the
natural divisions or partings between the beds ; but the cutting, on the
average, is seldom more than a foot wide, being wider at the underside, and
narrowing to nothing at the top, so as just to separate the coal to be brought
down from the general mass. The operation of cutting the coal for this pur-
pose is of course very dangerous, as the miner is working with his whole body
under a mass of many hundred tons weight, which is liable at any moment to
fall down, and crush him to atoms. In order to guard as much as possible
against this danger, small spurrings are left, at about every six feet, connecting
the mass to be fallen with the general body of the coal ; and these spurrings
are not cut away till all the miners are clear of the excavation or hollow
space beneath the coal. When all is ready for the fall, a collier approaches
the work with a long prong, which he uses to loosen and break down the
spurrings, so as now completely to isolate the mass of coal, which, at length,
having no adhesion to the general body, cracks and falls down in all direc-
tions. The stint, or day's work, of a collier in the Ten-yard coal, is commonly
about 35 to 40 cube feet of underworking or holing, and about 27 cube feet
of cutting upwards after the holing has been performed. Each of these
stints will occupy a good workman seven or eight hours, and the present rate
of pay is 2s. 6d. a stint.

After the lower bed of coal has been cut out, and the second bed brought
down in the way which has been described, the work of falling the upper beds
is carried on in the same way ; stages or scaffolds being used for the miners to
stand on when cutting out the upper beds, in order to make the coal fall
down. As the coal comes down in great masses, each weighing many tons, a
number of miners, immediately after a fall, commence an attack upon these
great lumps, and break them up with pickaxes, and by driving wedges into
them, so as to make them of suitable size for loading on the skips. These
skips are low trucks mounted on four small flanged wheels, which run upon
iron railroads laid down in the pit and on the surface of the ground at the
top of the shaft. Each skip has three loose iron rings, within which the coal
is piled up to the height of about five feet, each ring being placed round the
lumps of coal at such vertical distances as to keep the whole heap together,
and prevent any of them from falling off when the skip is being drawn up the
shaft. When arrived at the top, the banksman pushes a frame or covering
over the opening of the shaft. This covering has two lines of rail laid down
upon it, and the skip being lowered on to these rails, is drawn off on one of
the lines of railway leading from the shaft.

The South Staffordshire coal-field, although very insignificant in area, com-
pared with the vast extent of coal strata which prevail in South Wales, and
in the northern counties, is one of the oldest seats of the iron manufacture,
and is surrounded by a vast population engaged in nail-making, and other
branches of the metallic trades. The whole country over which the mining
operations extend has been compared to a vast rabbit-warren, so completely
is it undermined at every part. Houses and roads are constantly being
thrown down and destroyed by the underground operations, and even the
safety of churches is sometimes endangered ; while it is often difficult to find
a secure site for the erection of a new church or any other important building.
The limestone hills in the neighbourhood of Dudley, which have been already
mentioned, are occupied by the crowded villages of the nailers, and so is the
whole zone of country surrounding the outcrop of the coal strata, and sepa-
rating these from the agricultural district of the red sandstone. To a tra-
veller who takes any interest in connecting the indications presented on the
surface of a country with its physical structure, there is nothing more re-
markable than the extreme contrast between the great focus of mining acti-
vity in South Staffordshire, and the vast expanse of agricultural country
throughout which its productions are constantly radiating in all imaginable
directions. Placed in the centre of the mining district, he will find himself
surrounded by heaps of smouldering coal, by blazing furnaces, steam-engines,
chimneys, forges, and cinder-tips ; the whole country being, besides, inter-
sected in all directions by canals crossing each other on different levels, and
crowded by barges conveying the wealth which streams from its mines to
other centres of industry, where other vast collections of human beings are
congregated together for the purpose of manufacturing and converting into
useful forms the raw materials which are yielded by these mines. On leaving
the immediate district where the mines and coal-pits are worked, and where
the iron is cast into pigs, and rolled into bars or plates, the traveller, before
he can reach the strictly rural and cultivated part of the country, must pass
across a zone of very marked character, which extends all round the coal-field
at the junction of the coal-measures with the new red sandstone. This zone
is occupied by long, interminable villages and rows of small houses, chiefly
occupied by nailers and the makers of innumerable small articles of hardware,
such as horse-shoes, hoops, locks, bolts, hinges, currycombs, gridirons, and
other wares generally classed under the head of Birmingham manufactures.
Amongst the larger articles which are manufactured at Rowley Regis, and at
several places on the borders of the iron country, may be mentioned wheel-
tires, chains, traces, scythes, spades, gun-barrels, gas-pipes, &c. All the
persons engaged in these trades, but especially the nailers, are in a very
inferior condition, in point of comfort, to the miners and colliers. This arises
from the excessive fluctuations to which every branch of the hardware busi-
ness is subject, and to the oppression of the travelling hardware-factors, who
go about the country and give orders to the work-people according to the
trade list of prices. These persons of course take advantage of bad times, to

1844.]

The Iron Manufacture and Mining Employments of South Staffordshire.

obtain their articles at a low price ; and, besides this, there are great numbers
of the people who work on speculation, and undersell the others. It is esti-
mated that, when trade is brisk, from 1400 to 1500 tons of iron per week are
worked into nails alone in South Staffordshire ; and the whole number of per-
sons, male and female, employed in this branch of trade, is not less than
100,000. Thus, a hundred years ago, the whole quantity of iron made in
one year by all the furnaces in Great Britain, was only one-fourth of that
which, in this one district of South Staffordshire, is annually manufactured into
the single article of nails at the present time.

After passing through the dense and crowded villages of the nailers, the
view begins to expand, and the country to assume an air of greater freshness.
The smart modern houses of the manufacturers meet the eye in every direc-
tion, while, beyond these, rises the ancient mansion of the lord of the soil ;
the quiet and modest parish church is seen in the distance : and when the
cottages and dwellings of the humbler class no longer wear the blackened ,
dreary aspect which marked those of the manufacturing district, the traveller
fairly perceives that he breathes once more the free, pure air of heaven ; is
greeted once again with the signs _.jd sounds of rural life ; and is at last
fairly in the country of the sickle and the plough.

CONDITION OF THE MINERS AND OTHERS IN SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE.

Amongst the most important of Mr. Tancred's recommendations, are those
which relate to the moral improvement of the workmen employed at the
furnaces and the rolling-mills. It seems to be the practice at a great many
works in South Staffordshire, as in most other mining districts, to keep the
blast furnaces constantly at work without intermission from one week's end
to another. The furnaces are attended by two sets of men, who work twelve
hours at a shift, the night-workers of one week becoming the day-workers of
the following week. In order to effect this change of the shifts, the men who
work through the Saturday night continue at the furnace throughout the
whole of Sunday, making what is called a " double turn" of twenty-four
hours' duration, and then they take the day-shift during the ensuing week.
According to this arrangement Sunday is made a day of excessive fatigue, and
the wise and admirable institution of the Sabbath — not less necessary for the
relaxation of the body than for the elevation of the mind — is entirely neglected :
much to the injury of the workmen, and little, if at all, to the benefit of their
employers. Out of the whole number of 129 furnaces now at work in South
Staffordshire, 52 actually stop the blast for twelve hours on Sunday ; and this
being a voluntary act on the part of the proprietors, it proves clearly enough
that there could be no great hardship in compelling the remaining 77 to follow
the same practice.

The puddling-furnaces and rolling-mills are also worked by two sets of
men, who take turns of twelve hours each ; and when we consider the intense
heat and incessant exertion to which they are exposed in performing this
peculiar kind of labour, it is impossible to doubt the value of the change
proposed by Mr. Tancred, that this work should be performed by three sets
of men, taking shifts of eight hours instead of twelve.

It appears from the decennial enumerations of the last forty years, that the
population of the mining district in South Staffordshire has increased 191
per cent, since 1801, the increase for the whole of England being only 79 per
cent. It is a fact, that while this large and disproportionate increase in the
mining population has been taking place, and while the labours of this popu-
lation have been producing the most signal advantages to the whole com-
munity, increasing the value of landed property to an incredible extent, and
keeping open a field available for the constant immigration of supe-rfluous
hands from agricultural districts — while such has been the condition of South
Staffordshire for more than half a century, the moral and spiritual education
of its vast population has been entirely neglected, and its 200,000 inhabitants
are found at this time in a state of almost utter educational destitution.
Whilst church-accommodation is perfectly inadequate, even with the aid of
numerous dissenting establishments, while schools and mechanics' institu-
tions are almost unknown throughout the district — the whole county has been
rapidly increasing in wealth until its poor-rates are now lower than those of
any county in England except Northumberland, its gentry have been enjoying
estates which in some instances have been quintupled in value, and an amount
of wealth so enormous has been realized both by them as owners of the soil
and by speculators and manufacturers who have leased the mines, that the
voice of the civilized world should indignantly be raised to demand why such
deplorable and degrading ignorance and destitution are allowed to prevail in
a district which has conferred wealth and honour upon so many individuals,
who might have been beggars but for the combined toil and industry of the
humble workmen who crowd the surface of their productive estates. Mr.
Tancred has ascertained from the accurate information he has obtained on the
spot, that in ten of the mining parishes of Staffordshire 50 additional churches
are required to accommodate the population, at the rate of 1200 to a church ;
and 66 public schools are required, at the rate of 200 children of school age
to each.*

Notwithstanding this state of things, it is melancholy to find that, except
in a few honourable instances, the most unfeeling apathy to the claims of the
poor has been manifested by the great neighbouring proprietors when called
on for subscriptions towards the furtherance of any charitable or educational
measures. One individual of great wealth is a proprietor of land in the neigh-

* " In the public schools of Prussia, the average is 95 scholars to each school."
Report, p. cxxxii.

bourhood of Birmingham, which had been bought into his family in the last
century for 30,000?. He has lately sold about 100,000/. worth, and the
remainder is still enormously increasing in value, in consequence of the vast
population collected upon it. When this individual was applied to for a
subscription towards the building of new churches, it was with great difficulty
that 20/. was obtained from him ; and although firmly attached to church
principles, he refused to give a quarter of an acre of land for a site, around
which was congregated a population of thousands.

Besides all this cruel neglect under which the poor miners, nailers, and
colliers of Staffordshire are so grievously suffering, they are afflicted with the
truck system in its worst form ; and notwithstanding the protection which
the law has attempted to throw around the honest labourer, in order that he
shall not be plundered of his hard earnings under pretence of being paid in
goods, here we have the system in full vigour, there being very few works
where the men are paid in money for the work which they perform. As the
law is decidedly in favour of the workman, and as the practice of paying in
goods is known to 'be illegal, it may be asked, why the interference of magis-
trates is not oftener claimed to compel a payment in money at the end of the
month, particularly as the whole wages can be legally recovered, notwithstand-
ing any set off which the master may bring for goods supplied ? The answer
is to be found in the unwillingness of the men to throw themselves out of
work and become marked characters whom nobody will employ ; and partly,
also, in the conduct of the magistrates, who are often themselves masters or
interested landowners, and who will never interfere in any case further back
than the month in which the complaint is made ; judging, probably, that as
the workman has acquiesced in former deductions and accepted the balance
as payment, it would be unfair to sanction his new claim to a cash payment.

The evidence procured by Mr. Tancred on the subject of the truck system
was of course very contradictory. Some masters contended that the interests
of the men were promoted by it, as they were protected from the impositions
of hucksters and small dealers in the neighbourhood ; while others complained
loudly of the injury inflicted on the iron trade by the imperfect state of the
law, which at present is not sufficiently powerful to prevent the practice from
being followed to a great extent by the more unscrupulous of the masters.

To show the inducements which the system holds out to needy persons, it
was stated by Mr. Best, the manager of the British Iron Company's extensive
works, that if he chose to pay in truck, he could make 5000/. a-year by it.
The masters buy the goods with which they pay the men on a six months'
credit, without which their capital would be insufficient to carry on their
works. "There is one work in Staffordshire," says Mr. Best, "which
receives 2500/. a-year for recommending a particular shop in Wolverhamp-
ton," this being, of course, a form of the truck system, as men who do not
deal at that shop are not employed. There can be no doubt in the mind of
any reasonable person as to the injurious consequences of this miserable sys-
tem. It converts the workman into a species of slave, taking from him the
liberty of expending his own money where he pleases, placing him in a
degrading bondage, from which his only alternative of escape is starvation,
and destroying the power of comparing one master's employment with an-
other, because, though the wages may be the same, the goods which corre-
spond to his wages at two separate works may be widely different. The most
disorderly management prevails at the " tommy shops" from which the goods
are dispensed. They are open only on a particular day of the week, and are
beset by crowds of poor women and children, who have to travel, often far from
their home, in all sorts of weather, and wait for hours till the door of the
miserable shop is open and their turn comes to be served. Add to this, that
.the " butties," or petty contractors, who form the class of middle-men between
the workmen and the masters, all keep beer-shops, where the men are ex-
pected to drink ; in default of which they are charged reckoning-drink, as it is
called. Each man is expected to take four-fifths of his wages in tommy, so
that only 4*. in the pound is left to be paid in cash — a sum generally insufficient
to pay for rent and clothing ; so that he is obliged to sell some of the truck
goods, of course at an immense sacrifice, in order to meet these demands.
Numerous small hucksters' shops are established in the outskirts of Wolver-
hampton and other towns, for the purpose of receiving in this way, from the
miners and other workmen, the goods they are thus compelled to dispose of,
and, like the pawnbrokers and other leeches who prey upon the necessities of
mankind, they thrive vastly upon the misery which they seem to relieve.

There are few who are at all aware either of the extent to which this
abominable truck system is practised in all the mining and manufacturing
districts of this country, or of the innumerable expedients resorted to for the
purpose of defeating the law which declares it illegal. It is no uncommon
thing in the iron-works of South Wales, to find the men receiving cash at one
end of a counter and paying it away for goods at the other ; and so perfectly
is it understood that the money is to be expended under the same roof, that
a few shillings of capital suffice to carry on the concerns of a " tommy-shop"
of this description, for the supply of many hundred workmen. Where is the
boasted power, the dignity, the authority of the law, which can be evaded by
such contemptible shuffling as this ?

A signal retribution, truly, is that which the truck system has inflicted on
that very iron trade in which it has been pushed to so extreme a pitch — a
retribution not altogether undeserved by some amongst the masters- — a retri-
bution which, if it affected only a particular district, and only those persons
who had drawn it upon themselves, one would almost be justified in pronounc-
ing proper and beneficial ! Let it be understood, then, that the truck system
is one main cause of the late low price of iron, as it affords to a host of needy

Direct-Action Marine Engines.

[January,

adventurers and speculators, without any real capital, the means of entering
the trade and underselling the respectable master. When times become
excessively bad, and the speculator, being in debt, can no longer obtain
credit for the goods with which he pays his men, then it is that he fails, or
flies the country ; and the plain English of his former apparent prosperity
comes then to be revealed, to the effect that the cheap iron which he has been
selling has, in fact, been all the time supplied at the expense of the provision
merchants, who are now victimised by his defalcation. All this inflicts a
serious injury upon the iron trade, and the respectable master has enough to
do to contend against, and keep himself clear of, the dishonourable practices
resorted to by his more unprincipled competitors.

Various recommendations have been made as to the reformation of abuses
arising out of the truck system. One iron-master says, " legalise the payment
of wages in goods, and then all will equally adopt it, all will be on an equal
footing, and the workman can compare effectually one master's employment
with another, instead of being unable to decide, as at present, between the
value of payments in money and payment partly in money and partly in goods,
the nominal wages being sometimes the same and sometimes different in the
two cases." " Abolish the whole system at once," says another, " by highly
stringent regulations, inflicting, for instance, not only a penalty on the mas-
ters or the middle-men who keep these shops, but also on the workmen who
resort to them."

If the midland coal and iron fields only were concerned, with the manufac-
turing districts which surround them, we should say at once that the system
ought to be abolished, for there is here abundant competition amongst the
retail dealers, and the workpeople would find no difficulty in being supplied
with all sorts of provisions independently of the monopolising shops now kept
under the authority of the masters. In Wales, again, the case is different.
The works there being situate far up in the mountains, at a great distance
from any productive agricultural district and from the commercial establish-
ments which dispense groceries and other colonial produce, it is at present a
great convenience to those engaged in the works to be supplied by the regular
shops of the great iron companies. At the same time, it is very clear that
injurious consequences must always attend the legalizing in one district of any
such practice as that of paying in truck, while it continues to be contrary to
law in another. This must be obvious, for the profits of the truck system
are so great as to induce persons to embark in the iron trade with no other
object than that of realizing a fortune out of the shop. Owing to this, the
manufacturers of one district would have so great an advantage over those of
the other which is denied the advantages of the truck system, that they will
undersell them full 25 per cent. ; this being rather a low statement of the profit
derived from paying in goods which the master himself buys on a six months'
credit, and then pays for by a bill drawn at a long date.

Taking all these circumstances into consideration, there appears to be only
one alternative (for the idea of legalizing the system is intolerable), namely,
that of such peremptory interference as would at once put an end to all
evasive conduct of the less respectable masters. Let the workman be entitled
to recover, without the least trouble, for all the work he has performed, no
matter at how remote a period, and no matter whether he has been paid in
goods or not ; and the supply of goods or " tommy" instead of money would
soon be put an end to. If the law can be followed out in no other way, we
should even, rather than witness continued imposition upon the labouring
classes, recommend the importation of a tribe or two of pettifogging attorneys,
who would find ample employment in asserting the powers of the Truck Act
against the masters. In the mean time we throw out the hint to some of
these gentry, that they might do worse than devote their brilliant talents tp
tripping up the delinquents against the present Truck Act ; and we give this
hint, not out of any sympathy with this branch of the legal profession, but on
the principle, that out of two evils the least should be chosen.

It is probable that some revision of the law against truck will be under-
taken during the ensuing session, when it is hoped that it will be placed on
such a footing as to protect the workman from the injustice he has hitherto
laboured under, and the iron-trade from the injurious effects of its present
inefficient provisions.

Art. II.— DIRECT-ACTION MARINE ENGINES.

We are about to enter upon a most invidious task, and one from which we
would willingly have escaped, had escape been consistent with what is due to
our readers. Our purpose is nothing less than the institution of such a com-
parison between the direct-action engines of our most celebrated makers as
may determine their relative merits, and show which among them is the most
worthy of adoption. This, we shall be told, is an undertaking of infinite
presumption for persons of our insignificance ; and we really fear that there
is good ground for the imputation : for the very act of criticism implies a
claim of superior penetration, which, in the present instance, we fear we
should be puzzled to substantiate. We feel, moreover, that the difficulties
of our position are in nowise abated by the dissatisfaction such a comparison
as we contemplate is almost sure to create among the parties most concerned.
It is rarely a man thinks his own productions praised sufficiently ; and the
propensity of each engineer will certainly be, to charge us with malice when
speaking of his devices, and with partiality when speaking of those of his
neighbours. There are many, no doubt, who will resist this propensity, as

desiring nothing more than an impartial judgment, or, at least, as thinking
they desire nothing more : but even the most magnanimous of these will dis-
cover that our strictures have a different signification, when bearing upon
their own productions, to what they have in other cases. We therefore anti-
cipate that, although we may obtain a tolerable conformity to our major pro-
positions, abundant apologies for dissent will be discovered in matters of
detail ; and we shall be charged with injustice for having overlooked some
petty beauty, or exaggerated some petty defect, though the result would not
be sensibly altered by a different adjustment.

With these impediments before us, we feel that we deserve some little
credit for the courage of our design, whatever opinion may be formed of its
discreetness. We believe that if we had declined the task, it must have re-
mained unattempted, for there are few persons injudicious enough to involve
themselves in its perplexities ; and we think we may reasonably claim some
extenuation of our evil deeds on the strength of incentives so philanthropic.
We must, however, here interrupt this egotistical strain, and proceed without
further preamble to the business before us.

The engines of which we propose to speak are those represented in the
large atlas plate which accompanied our tenth number. These engines are
divisible into five varieties : the Gorgon, Siamese, Annular, Steeple, and
Bury's, which last is of a non-descript species. We distinguish as Gorgon
engines all those which have the connecting-rod between the piston-rod and
the crank, whatever may be their subordinate features, and as Steeple engines
all which have the connecting-rod situated above the crank. The Siamese
and Annular engines are those patented by Maudslay.

The objections to the Gorgon plan of engine are numerous and weighty.
In the first place, only a very short stroke is attainable by this plan of
engine ; and although we are not of the number of those who yield to the
absurdity, that expansion can only be productive of its proper efficacy in a
long cylinder, yet we believe that an engine of a moderate stroke will work
more steadily and smoothly than when the stroke is short and the reciproca-
tion rapid. There is, moreover, a greater waste of steam at the ends of the
cylinder when the stroke is short ; and although the amount of this loss
cannot be great, yet it is too great to be disregarded. We do not attach the
importance attributed by some to the deranging influence of a short connect-
ing-rod upon the slide valve, but we attach a good deal of importance to the
increased friction consequent upon the thrust, when the angle the connecting-
rod makes is great, — not on account of the power absorbed, but on account
of the difficulty of keeping the bearings from heating. To this objection it
is no answer to say, that the friction of a direct-action engine is as little or
less than that of a beam engine ; the vice being, that the friction is not fairly
distributed, but so concentrated at particular points as to be productive of
injury in engines of the common proportions.

There is, however, a far more serious defect of the Gorgon variety of
engine than any we have yet mentioned. It involves the use of a large
paddle-wheel by the elevation of the shaft, rendered necessary to afford room
for the stroke ; and the largeness of the wheel gives too great a velocity to
the float boards, by which means a considerable proportion of the engine
power is dissipated. There is nothing better known, than that in all cases
where there is a great disparity between the speed of the wheel and the speed
of the ship, a large amount of the power is wasted in throwing the water
back from the wheel, instead of being employed in forcing the vessel for-
wards ; and in the Gorgon plan of engine, as applied to ordinary sea-
going steamers, a serious loss from this source must be perpetually going on,
or else the engine must be working under its proper speed and power.

These objections apply to all short connecting-rod engines, of which the
stroke is small and the shaft high ; and in our eyes they carry sufficient
weight to justify the condemnation of this species of engine in toto. As,
however, there will be many persons, probably, who will not concur in this
opinion, we may here set down some remarks respecting the several varieties
of Gorgon engine represented in the plate, with the view of further illus-
trating our convictions.

First in order, then, comes the plan of Messrs. Boulton and Watt, the
engine represented being, we believe, that of the " Virago." In this plan of
engine the condensers are situated between the cylinders, and at the extremity
of each condenser an air-pump is situated. These air-pumps are wrought
by a beam, the centre of which rests on the condenser top, and which derives
its motion from a crank on the intermediate shaft — a rod extending from this
crank to one of the ends of the beam — which is made something in the bell-
crank fashion — to communicate the movement. The top of the piston-rod
is maintained in the vertical position by guides.

There is much ingenuity in this plan of working the air-pumps, but it is
attended with the very obvious defect, that if the beam breaks, both engines
are disabled ; and a beam we believe to be as likely a part to break as any in
an engine. The plan further has this disadvantage, that by the projection of
the air-pumps beyond the line of the cylinders, a larger space is taken up in
the vessel than is necessary. Messrs. Boulton and Watt, we understand,
have a newer and better plan than this, of which we trust we may be able
very shortly to give a drawing.

The next Gorgon engine in our list is that of Messrs. Miller and Raven-
hill, the engine represented being, we believe, the one now being put into
the " Infernal." This plan of engine takes up less room in the vessel than
that last described ; and, indeed, no engine can occupy less room than this,
for its length is very little more than the diameter of the cylinder. The
condensers extend from cylinder to cylinder, having the air-pumps within

1844]

Direct-Action Marine Engines.

them, so that the whole of the cast-iron part of the engine is bound together
in a solid mass. The air-pump buckets are wrought by means of cranks
on the intermediate shaft.

This certainly appears to be one of the most sensible engines of the
Gorgon brotherhood — or sisterhood, it may be, for we are not Artizans in
mythology. It is as compact as can be, and enjoys the advantage of two
air-pumps, the fracture of either of which does not impair the efficacy of the
other. We must, however, we suppose, have some fault to find, and we are
disposed to call the efficacy or at least the safety of the intermediate shaft in
question, for such a multitude of cranks present great difficulties in the
manufacture. In some of their very recent engines, Messrs. Miller and Co.
have discarded the double crank in the shaft, and have wrought both air-
pumps by one crank, the air-pumps being placed on the same vertical plane,
and lying at an angle to permit this adaptation.

We next come to the plan of Messrs. Fairbairn and Co., as applied on
board the " Vulture," of the engines of which vessel the view given in the
plate is a representation. These engines are certainly a most creditable pro-
duction in many ways. The general arrangement is judicious, and the
framing, which, in all its main parts, is of malleable iron, is unusually sub-
stantial and well adjusted. We think more favourably of the plan of a
parallel motion for guiding the top of the piston-rod than the plan of slides,
for we believe the parallel motion may be more easily kept from heating.
One great perfection of Messrs. Fairbairn's plan is, that the bearings of the
parallel motion are made unusually large ; and we feel assured that this
engine will give less trouble to the engineer, and consume less oil and brasses,
than is usually chargeable upon the Gorgon appetite.

The most of what we have said respecting Messrs. Fairbairn's engine will
also apply to that of Messrs. Rennie, of which we entertain a very favourable
opinion. The engines depicted as Messrs. Rennie's are those made or making
for the " Samson."

To Messrs. Seaward, we believe, belongs the merit of introducing the
Gorgon genus of eDgine ; and we trust this distinction may stand them in
some stead, as their plan, we fear, very much requires some diversion in its
favour. The length of this engine, it will be remarked, is very little less
than that of the common side lever kind ; so that we are thrown upon all the
evils of a short connecting-rod and leviathan paddle-wheel, for the sake of a
gain that is scarce worth having. In some of Messrs. Seaward's engines the
evils of too high a shaft have, we understand, been very severely felt; and
we learn that in the " Prometheus," which is fitted with these engines, the
shaft has lately been considerably lowered, though at the expense of making
the connecting-rod still shorter. The defect, however, of too high a shaft is,
it must be remembered, not a peculiarity of Messrs. Seaward's variety of
engine, but is a vice which attaches to the whole Gorgon tribe ; and Messrs.
Seaward's claim is therefore restricted to the merit of having carried the
defect further than any one else.

We fear that much of what we have said respecting Messrs. Seaward's
engine is applicable, also, to that of Mr. Robert Napier, which is at best
only a side lever engine in disguise. In other words, this engine is charge-
able with the defects of the Gorgon plans, without accomplishing much
saving of space ; and appears as if the disposition of the contriver had been
to carry out the letter of direct-action, without regard to the spirit. The
truth, we suppose, is, that Mr. Robert Napier was very spectical whether
direct-action engines would do, and therefore took the laudable precaution of
so constructing his direct-action engines, that they might be turned into
side lever engines with as little tremble as possible. Now this, we submit, is
depriving a new principle of a fair trial, an expedient by which many a good
scheme is made to fail ; and such a spirit speaks more strongly of untractable
prejudices than of enlightened and discriminating opinion. There is nothing,
we believe, clearer to every mind untinctured with engineering bigotry, than
that the orthodox side lever engine must be given up, for this, the best of
all reasons, that it will not pay. If engineers be only left to their own vain
imaginations, they will generally fill a ship with engines and boilers ; nor
will it signify much what becomes of the rest of the ship, provided the ma-
chinery be lodged handsomely. To this rule there are no doubt some very
eminent exceptions, among which each engineer may have the satisfaction of
ranking himself, if that be any consolation ; yet it would be easy to point
out some very recent examples in which large vessels have been so filled with
machinery, that there has been very little room left for anything else. Such
vessels, if for commercial purposes, must necessarily be very unprofitable ;
and we look upon it as a thing imperative, that machinery shall be introduced
by which a smaller space will be occupied. There is therefore very little
chance, at least in our commercial marine, that we shall return to side lever
engines again ; for it is out of the ineligibility of the side lever plan that the
recent innovations have sprung ; and although those innovations must at the
outset be crude and unsatisfactory, they will, we are persuaded, gradually
ripen into a better practice than that whose imperfections have called them
forth.

For these reasons we are of opinion that those who speculate on the re-
sumption of the side lever engine will find themselves in the wrong ; and the
ambition of wise engineers should, we conceive, now be directed to the deve-
lopment of some plan of direct-action engines which is exempt from the
predominant disadvantages. We do not look upon such a task as hopeless.
On the contrary, we are fully persuaded that such an engine will be found ;
and the avidity with which certain plans have been seized upon, which pre-
tended to this consummation, may be accepted as some augury of the high

renown which waits upon its actual attainment. — We have, however, we find,
suffered ourselves to be seduced from the dull work of analysis, to which,
for a little longer, we must now return.

The last Gorgon we have to notice is that of Messrs. Scott and Sinclair,
of which we must confess the picture we have given is rather a caricature
than a portrait ; but this implicit disparagement can hardly have been wilful,
as all the rest of the engines are similarly distinguished. There is much
symmetry and nicety of adaptation in this engine ; yet, upon the whole, we
should be disposed to say that it is less remarkable for judgment than inge-
nuity. The condensers are situated between the cylinders, as in Messrs.
Miller and Co.'s arrangement, and there is a separate air-pump for each
engine, so that the engines are compact, and precaution has apparently been
taken against accidents. Nevertheless, the engines, if we rightly comprehend
their structure, have the fatal and, indeed, ridiculous defect, that if an acci-
dent happens to any part of either engine, both engines are disabled. To
comprehend the ingenuities by which this is effected, it is necessary to remark
that the air-pump of each engine appears to be wrought off the cross-head
of the opposite one — to the end, we suppose, of giving the air-pump bucket
the same movement as the valve, and thereby realizing a better vacuum.
This design is no doubt to be commended, but the plan adopted for carrying
it out gives rise to the dilemma we have indicated; for if the crank-pin, con-
necting-rod strap, or other material part of one engine breaks, that engine is
of course disabled by the fracture, and the other engine is disabled by the
loss of the movement of its air-pump. In justice to Messrs. Scott and Sin-
clair we ought to add, that this plan of engine is merely a design, and has
never been executed ; and in such a case the same perfection is not to be
expected as where plans have been matured by practice.

The Steeple plan of engine, which is the invention of Mr. David Napier,
has the merit of being very compact and effectual, and in the case of river
vessels, offers advantages which have led to its extended adoption. The pro-
trusion of a large portion of the machinery above the deck is, however, much
objected to in the case of sea-going vessels ; but as this is rather a nautical
than an engineering point, we do not profess to resolve it. We must, how-
ever, here record our disapproval of long air-pumps, such as that employed
by Messrs. Tod and Macgregor. Where the air-pump bucket moves with
a great velocity, the valves strike so forcibly as to wear themselves out very
soon. The injury might, however, be mitigated by the use of the Cornish
equilibrium valve, both for the delivery valve and the air-pump bucket.

Of Messrs. Maudslay's " direct-actions" we took the liberty, on a former
occasion, of expressing our opinion ; and although, perhaps, we may have
spoken of their vices with needless asperity, we believe our judgment to have
been substantially just. We do not for a moment doubt that Messrs.
Maudslay think very differently from us upon this point, and they have, of
course, attributed our censures to every cause but that which really called
them forth ; but the public, at least, have no interest in disguising from
themselves the truth ; and whatever may have been their original impression,
we believe that all unbiassed and intelligent observers are fast coming round
to our way of thinking. The fact is, Messrs. Maudslay, in the production
of these engines, speculated rather immoderately upon their former good
name ; and the plan was accepted by the public, not because it was good,
but because it was Messrs. Maudslay's. This experiment it will, we believe,
be very difficult to repeat, and we do not see how Messrs. Maudslay can add
much to their fame by such bold and hazardous adventures.

Of the two devices of Messrs. Maudslay, the Annular scheme is probably
the worst, but both are sufficiently bad to satisfy the ambition of ingenuity
the most perverse. We have, we believe, already enumerated the losses
attendant on these varieties of engines, in increased friction of the pistons,
increased leakage, and increased radiation, as well as the imperfect fulfilment
of the grand purpose of direct action — saving of room. To this category
we have only now to add the difficulty which must exist in the Siamese
engine, of making the twin pistons move simultaneously. Any difference in
the friction of the piston packings or the stuffing-boxes, arising from the one
having been screwed up more than the other, will have a tendency to retard
that piston in which the extra friction exists, and impart a corresponding twist
to the cross-head which binds the two piston-rods together. It is very well
known, moreover, to engineers, that of two engines in every respect identi-
cal, the one will generally work better than the other, though no cause can
he assigned for the difference ; and should any such inequality of efficacy
arise in the two cylinders of a Siamese engine, the strain thereby occasioned
must sooner or later work the destruction of the machine. Nor is a differ-
ence of pressure in the cylinders a thing unlikely to occur, for it will cer-
tainly arise should either of the pistons leak steam at any time, or either of
the stuffing-boxes leak air ; and he must be a novice indeed in steam ma-
chinery, who can suppose that such leakages may be absolutely prevented.

The last engine in our catalogue is that of Messrs. Bury, Curtis, and Ken-
nedy ; and we believe our more sagacious readers will concur with us in the
opinion, that it is by much the best of the lot. It is not to Messrs. Bury,
however, that the main features of this contrivance are due; but to Mr.
David Napier, of whose ingenuity and enterprise this is only one among
many mementos. Mr. Napier is the author of more new plans in steam
machinery, we believe, than all our other engineers put together ; and it ap-
pears to be the happy prerogative of all his plans to be good plans, and such
as must command the respect of discriminating observers. His productions,
indeed, are often faulty in details ; but the faults are those merely of negli-
gence and inattention, which are the natural inheritance of genius. There is

Styles of Architecture,

[January,

no penury of sagacity, ingenuity, or adventure discoverable in his works ;
but there is a manifest contempt of those petty perfections on which less-
gifted inventors rest their claims to admiration. The merit, therefore, which
is due to Messrs. Bury for this engine is chiefly that of selection ; to which
we must add, that of the general refinement of Mr. Napier's original con-
ception, and the introduction of a number of improvements which are calcu-
lated to add materially to the symmetry and efficacy of the machine. The
most remarkable of these is the double acting air-pump, which has been
substituted for two air-pumps of the common kind. This air-pump will,
we trust, be found to be effectual. A common objection to this description of
pump is, that the air accumulates underneath the piston ; but it will be re-
marked, that a provision is made to counteract this tendency, the bulk of the
air-pump piston being made to travel past, the port, so as to expel air as well
as water. We may here remark, that it appears expedient in this engine to
avoid injecting from the bilge into the lower condenser, as coal-dust and
other foreign matters might be drawn into the air-pump chamber, which
would resist the descent of the piston, and probably occasion fracture.

We have given, in another part of the present Number, a more detailed
description of this engine of Messrs. Bury than would consist with the de-
sign of this comparative estimate, and can here only afford to express the
opinion, that Messrs. Bury's plan fulfils the intentions of the direct-action
scheme with fewer objections, and more benefits, than any other of the plans
we have considered. That there may not be a better, we by no means main-
tain ; but that for the general purposes of sea-going steamers it is the best
represented in our " comparative view of direct-action engines," we are pre-
pared to maintain against all objectors. There is not one of the other plans,
indeed, that we could honestly recommend ; and if it be the fact, as we have
heard, that the Admiralty has resolved to have nothing more to say to the
Gorgon, Siamese, or Annular schemes, we must say we applaud the determi-
nation. It is to be remembered, however, that the return to the side lever
plan is not the only other alternative ; nor is any engineer bound to adhere to
his present plan after its ineligibility has been fully established. The grand
problem now is to invent a good direct-action engine — one that will be light,
compact, and free from the vices we have indicated ; and we trust oirr engi-
neers, instead of feeling sore at our strictures, or attempting to cling to
schemes which are untenable, will relinquish them with the same indifference
with which they took them up, and set themselves seriously to work in de-
signing something better.

There are some plans of direct-action engines with which we have not yet
been furnished, and of which we are unable at present to give an account.
We are not sure that some of these may not endanger Messrs. Bury's supre-
macy ; and, indeed, the tenor of the rumours which have reached us inclines
us to suspect that such will be the case. But so far as our present view
extends, Messrs. Bury indisputably stand at the top of the tree ; and it re-
mains partly with other engineers, and partly with Messrs. Bury themselves,
whether they shall continue to maintain that proud position.

Akt. III.— styles of architecture.

Although the introduction of styles in architecture was probably as un-
avoidable as that of parties in politics, it has produced as injurious an effect
upon the art of construction as the existence of factions upon the science of
good government. He was a wise though a wily man, who, to strengthen his
interests, and promote his ambitious objects, first combined his principles or
dogmas under a party name ; for, while it offered a general designation by
which his followers could be known, it enlisted as his supporters many who
would have taken no part in his quarrels, — having more regard for their per-
sonal interests than for the motives which were urging him forward in the
impetuous career of ambition. So, when civilized nations have adopted
styles of architecture, and given to them a name, they have characterised all
others as barbarous, and made the adoption of their modes the test of civili-
zation. It was thus that the Romans, upon the establishment of their impe-
rious empire, gigantic alike in intellect, physical force and energy, modified
the chaste architecture of the Greeks to suit their inflated vanity, and called
the adulteration by their own name. From land to land they wandered,
extending their dominion, and knitting the bonds of slavery by which all
nations were held enthralled, and leaving the vices, if not the benefits, of their
own measure of civilization. But seldom did they derive, from those whose
differences of custom and architecture were sufficient to procure for them
the epithet of barbarian, the advantages which even a cultivated people may
sometimes obtain from the strong though uncultivated intelligence of nations
in an inferior state of refinement. This inaptitude to learn has been the
universal concomitant of conquest, and the victors have generally carried
with them the prejudices of national style, as well as of religious and civil
custom. There has, therefore, always been, in every age, one predominant
style, or, at least, one which has been considered superior to all others, and
which has been introduced wherever its inventors or patrons have succeeded
in establishing their power. It is only in the present age that just views have
been entertained of the empiricism of architectural prescription, or that a
greater freedom of design than has heretofore obtained, has been considered
permissible. But even this new-born freedom has been invaded by the zealots
of mediaeval architecture, who would banish from our land all that cannot find
a model in the relics or ruins of the middle ages.

The finest specimens of architectural taste being in all nations introduced
into the houses of public worship, particular styles, unfortunately, become
identified with particular religious opinions. Those styles consequently
become, in time, the representatives of truth, or dogmas assumed as true ; and
the reception of the one is held to involve the necessity of adopting the other.
We have an instance of this in the efforts which have been recently made to
identify the revival of Gothic architecture with the acknowledgment of the
doctrines of the middle ages. Since the study of this style has been brought
into fashion, and especially during the last few years, many absurd and
ridiculous theories have been gravely proposed by its injudicious admirers, in
an attempt to trace it to its origin. Of these there is none more visionary
and fantastic than that which considers the Gothic to be the natural, if not
the necessary, development of the great principles of Christian faith. From
the writings of those who maintain this doctrine, one might infer that some
devout person of the middle ages, having, among other holy meditations,
traced the connexion between the unaspiring and earthly horizontality of
Grecian architecture and polytheism, applied himself to the invention of some
architectural forms representative of the faith and hopes of the Christian
doctrine, and produced a Gothic church as the incarnation of those mysteries.
From the study of Christian doctrine, and the rites of the church, if these
authorities can be credited, the style received all its subsequent additions and
forms of decoration ; and having been brought to perfection by the united
labours of the pious and learned, is now incapable of change without dete-
rioration. In the adoption of this theory we may perceive the true effect of
established styles upon the progress of architecture — forms are made the
representatives of belief, and to invade the one is considered little less criminal
than to renounce the other. The theory we have mentioned is, it is true, as
absurd, as its reception would be injurious to the progress of the art ; but it
has had the tendency of diverting the attention of some of our best architects
from those studies which would be most congenial to their own minds, and
at the same time most profitable to the public taste. The works which they
will leave to posterity will have no claim to attention, except as copies, and
the age itself will be more distinguished by its servility, from the fear of doing
wrong, than for its faults in attempting to do something which had not been
before attempted.

The style which is cursed by the praises of these mediaeval zealots, and the
beauties of which can only be imperceptible to those whose taste is narrow
and exclusive, was probably rather the result of accident than of design, and
may, with more propriety, be called a discovery than an invention. It
originated, there is little doubt, in the debasement of classical architecture,
and was not the offspring of religious meditation and church doctrine, so
much as that of passion for change, which leaves mankind unsatisfied even
with perfection. The development of the style was progressive, and con-
sisted in the adaptation of forms and ornaments, suggested, it is true, by the
habits of the clergy and the doctrines they taught, to a newly-discovered arch.
It is not the peculiarity of the ornaments, but the general and more detailed
forms and mouldings, which constitute the style. The ornaments are purely
adventitious, and many of those found in the finest specimens of the pointed
architecture in this country might be changed with advantage. The age of its
introduction was peculiarly adapted to encourage the growth of innovations
upon the classic model, which, having lost its purity and the grandeur of
simplicity under the touch of the Roman artist, and what remained of these
qualities in the rude imitations of distant colonies, ultimately lost all its cha-
racteristics in the ungainly efforts of the Lombards and Normans. An in-
ventive people, who probably knew nothing more of what is called Roman
architecture than the mode of turning a semi-circular arch, and forming a
column with its three necessary and constituent parts, a base, shaft, and capi-
tal, having, probably by accident, become acquainted with the pointed arch,
developed, with wondrous taste, that extraordinary combination of forms now
known as the Gothic style. But whatever may have been, in the opinion of
the reader, the origin of this beautiful adaptation of natural forms and orna-
ments to construction, it affords us, in the motives under which it is studied
by so many in the present clay, an instance of the injurious effects of an iden-
tification of styles with certain religious opinions.

It would be easy to find many other examples proving the readiness with
which the human mind transfers its dislike of a system of doctrines or of
ceremonies to the innocent and frequently beautiful forms which have been
their accessories. The Puritans, under the impulse of this natural and almost
universal feeling, destroyed the images, painted windows, and other orna-
ments of our churches, frequently leaving little more than the skeleton of
that which was once so beautiful and expressive. For years, and it may
almost be said for centuries, those who followed these opinions imbibed and
expressed the same aversion to the things which reminded them of the doc-
trines their forefathers had been instrumental in suppressing, and, to avoid
even the semblance of circumstance or ceremony, erected, as places of wor-
ship, buildings far inferior in form and decoration to the houses in which the
richer members of the community resided. Time had nearly worn away the
impress of this false and foolish, yet justifiable, prejudice, and the Dissenters
began to feel that something more might be done in the decoration of their
chapels, when the promulgation of the notion came, that for the revival of
obsolete ecclesiastical rites and ceremonies a strict adherence to the form and
decoration adopted in the churches of the middle ages was necessary, and the
Dissenters are now doubting whether they have not conceded principles in-
stead of forms, and forsaken the simplicity of their forefathers.

The practice of giving a great prominence to " the styles of architecture"

1844.]

The Mines of Cornwall.

is attended by another serious evil — that of cramping the invention and re-
straining the imagination. The leading principles or motives of a style, if we
may so speak, are forgotten, and the architect follows, with all the servility
of a copyist, some particular example which, in his opinion, is best suited to
the object he has in view. The art is thus resolved into a judicious selection
of what has been before done, and of enlarging or diminishing the parts as
may be necessary. That this is the state of architectural practice, is proved
by the majority of the buildings erected during the present century, as well as
by the usual character of architectural criticism. This building is objected to
because the architect, having adopted the capital of the Ilissus, has failed in
maintaining the proportions on the section of the base ; that, because a but-
tress is not panelled, or because no authority can be found for the foliage of
the pinnacles. These are the causes which render architecture in the present
day so inferior, as an imaginative art, to what it was in the time of the
Greeks, or even in that of the middle ages. If all has been done that can be
done, the only object of the architect must be, to copy faithfully the most
beautiful remains of former times, and to prevent, as far as he can, the possi-
bility of deterioration, carving upon the hardest stones the forms which time
is rapidly defacing, that they may not be lost to future ages. But as well
might it be argued, that because Homer wrote the Iliad and Milton the
Paradise Lost, works perfect in their kind, all future epic poets must follow
the styles they adopted, and copy the ornaments of their verse. And if
architecture, like all the other noble productions of the human mind, is as
unlimited as the varieties and capacities of the mind itself, — if it may, like a
picture, represent the several phases of nature and the varieties of human
emotion, then the dogmas which reduce it to a mere mechanic art are futile
and fallacious, and their effect must be to paralyse rather than excite the
efforts of those who lie under their thraldom.

The slavish adherence to styles leads to their adoption in situations most
inappropriate. There are some men, admitted by all to possess a more than
ordinary amount of information, skill, and invention, and, in their own esti-
mation at least, far in advance of their day and generation, who seriously
maintain that the Gothic is the only style that ought to be used in this coun-
try ; and seem to imagine that it is but necessary to restore the houses,
monasteries, and churches of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, to bring
back the poetical happiness of that period when she was called " Merry
England." There are other notable men-of-the-age, who are quite as much
enamoured of the architecture of the Greeks, and who, by their works, if not
by their writings, have inculcated the reciprocal error, and practically as-
serted the doctrine that the same kind of beauty is applicable to all situations.
There is obviously, however, one kind of beauty which captivates us in the
drawing-room, and another which challenges our admiration in a church ;
the one speaking in accents of gaiety or affection, and the other subduing the
spirit by its severe and awful majesty. Nor can any style be set down as the
necessary representative of particular aspects of nature, or particular varieties
of mental emotion ; for an object will not speak in the same language to all
spectators ; but the interpretation will vary with the nature of the feelings
with which the beholder has learned to associate it. There are certain archi-
tectural forms, however, which are the natural and ordinary insignia of par-
ticular trains of thought ; and it is important that the symbols employed
should be the common representatives of the desired emotion.

Should these remarks appear to have any weight, it follows, we conceive,
that the predominant notions relative to architectural styles are erroneous ;
and, having indicated these errors, we may now briefly explain in what man-
ner styles may be employed with advantage to the art, without involving any
of those consequences to which we have referred.

It is very frequently stated that every nation or tribe has its own peculiar
style of architecture ; and this is to a certain extent true ; but it might with
more propriety be said, that every nation has its peculiar mode of building.
There] is no tribe, however barbarous, that has not some determined mode
of applying its building materials ; which mode, in fact, regulates the form :
for it is not the form , as some writers suppose, that determines the appli-
cation of the materials. It would be ridiculous and pedantic to assume that
any one theory can explain all the varieties of form and construction observ-
able in the huts of the barbarians, or the constructions, more properly, of
uncivilized men ; for chance has often concurred with reason in determining
the final result. As a general rule, however, it may be stated, that the
nature and condition of the materials available for the purposes of construc-
tion, have determined the character of habitations, and occasionally influence
the character of the natives. This, we feel, is a subject worthy of a more
extended examination than we can now pretend to give ; but we here remark,
that what is true of communities in an unimproved condition, or in an inci-
pient state of civilization, equally applies to the constructions of men in a
more advanced stage, though then modified by the state of society, and the
influence of religious dogmas. The first and leading object in the design of
every structure has been, until modern times, accommodation. The purpose
to which the building was to be applied was ever first in the consideration
of the artist, as is proved not less by the village churches of England and the
houses of Pompeii, than by the temples of Egypt and Greece. In the absurd
attempts to follow the styles of other nations and ages, this is frequently
forgotten by the modern architect ; and it is really curious to observe how
strangely, and yet pleasingly, many who would not sacrifice this principle,
and cling as tenaciously as they can to classic architecture, have been driven
into the invention or adoption of designs, which, though maintaining much
of the simplicity and elegance of Grecian proportions, would have been con-

demned by the ancients as invasions of their styles, in which the column was
an indispensable member. This primary regard to the domestic habits, or
public ceremonies or rites, was, however, contingent upon the physical
condition of the country, and the character of the materials most available for
building purposes. We, who have now the command of the produce of every
clime, and have brought within our reach all that has been rendered available
by the progress and development of science, the energies of commerce, and
the supercession of those mechanical impediments which once stood in the
way of gigantic projects, can have no conception of the amount of invention,
skill, and forethought, required by the architects of earlier ages to adapt their
designs to the materials within reach of moderate and inexpensive labour.
The chains which fettered the progress of the art in former ages have been
broken, and we who now practise it must have sadly degenerated, if, with all
the advantages of giving a permanent and enduring existence to our designs,
we must still follow the examples of those who lived two or three thousand
years ago, and in the infancy of the science of construction.

From these remarks, our readers will have no difficulty in discovering it to
be our doctrine that the first principle of architecture is utility ; and those
who overleap this great principle, in their passion for particular modes of
decoration, insult the spirit in which their idolized style had its origin. The
Egyptian, the Grecian, the Gothic — all had their rise in the wants of the
people ; and it is in the employment of an architecture suited to our wants,
wherein the true imitation of those forms of beauty consist. Our associations
cannot be the same as those of the dark or classic ages ; and any instruments
of emotion appealing to such associations, speak in a language no more in-
telligible than would be that of one of an Egyptian mummy, if it awoke
from the tomb. It is only by virtue of the feelings suggested to the ima-
gination, that any kind of architecture is enabled to please; and the obvious
condition of success, therefore, is to employ such instruments as will suggest
the greatest number of agreeable trains of thought to the greatest number
of spectators.

Art. IV.— THE MINES OF CORNWALL.

A mass of curious, and, we have reason to believe, accurate information re-
specting the metalliferous deposits of Cornwall, has been collected by Mr.
W. J. Henwood, of Penzance, after fourteen years' researches, and is now
given to the world in a portly volume, under the title of ;' Transactions of
the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall." There is an appendix, contain-
ing four papers, also by Mr. Henwood, on the temperature of the mines, the
quantities of water that enter them, the electric currents in the rocks and
veins, and statistical notices of the mines. The papers in the appendix are,
perhaps, more generally interesting than the work itself, which is principally
directed to those who take interest in mining operations ; but it contains also
much matter well deserving of notice : and it derives additional value from
the circumstance that it is the result of observation by a practical man, who
has examined more than two hundred mines, and has travelled underground
nearly two thousand miles. Mr. Henwood commences his survey at the
Land's End, and proceeds thence in a north-easterly direction, describing
minutely the circumstances and peculiarities of each mine in the different
districts as he progresses ; giving numerous tables wherein the direction of
the veins or lodes, their depth, dip, and size, with the appearance and com-
position of the lodes at various depths, and the appearance of the accom-
panying rock, are all set forth in tabular form.

The mining operations of the St. Just district, situated to the north of the
Land's End, present some remarkable features. The veins dip under the
sea, and the workmen follow, in search of the mineral treasures, far under
the Atlantic; and, in their submarine passages, they hear the roaring of the
stormy ocean above them. Sometimes the miners are so hazardous as to
follow the veins when they take an upward course ; and they have made
openings through which the water rushed in upon them ; but the hardness
of the rock was their protection, and, by cementing and plugging, they con-
trived to keep out the further intrusion of Neptune into their works. The
quantity of water that enters these submarine mines is extremely small,
though its briny taste tells whence it proceeds.

The rocks wherein the mineral veins of Cornwall are found are granite and
slate ; and the richer veins are found near the junction of the two. The
Cornish granite is generally in a decomposing state ; and in many parts the
feldspar is so disintegrated as to be pulverulent, and to form the kaoline or
china clay which supplies our Staffordshire potteries. The slate and the
granite are curiously intermixed. Frequently the granite mingles with the
slate, by becoming more and more schistose, until it is difficult to distinguish
the point of division between them ; and in other cases veins of granite
shoot into the slate : these veins are usually very small, not exceeding a few
inches in diameter, and they seldom penetrate above a few fathoms into the
slate. Throughout the slate formation, which rests upon the granite, veins
and beds of quartz are often found, and sometimes it is diffused through the
whole mass : many of these veins of quartz contain ores of tin and copper.
The granite is always found to extend as the depth increases ; and, were the
workings continued sufficiently low, there cannot be much question that the
granite would be found to unite and form the only rock, whereon the slate
rests in the hollows of the elevated granite.

The metalliferous veins or lodes are described by Mr. Henwood to be

8

Noad's Lectures on Electricity.

[January,

" quartzose portions of the rock, highly inclined, and of no great thickness,
which are more or less mixed with metals and their ores. They have com-
monly one prevailing direction, subject to slight irregularities and curvatures,
as well in length as in depth, and traverse granite, slate, and the elvans indis-
criminately, and almost always without other interruption than what may
take place from their interferences with each other, and with the cross-
courses, flucans, and slides." These lodes seldom continue for more than a
mile, and generally terminate by throwing off-shoots and branches into the
rock ; so that the whole forms a kind of net-work of veins. Some of these
ofF-shoots, however, will occasionally swell out, and become richer in ore
than the original lode. It is a curious fact, which experience has established,
that the lodes in almost every district are rich on similar lines taken at right-
angles to their bearings : hence has arisen a proverbial phrase, " ore against
ore." The metalliferous veins are generally smaller in granite than in slate,
and they diminish also as they descend ; but it is worthy of remark, that in
every lode, whether it yields tin, copper, or lead, the most perpendicular
parts are the most productive.

Mining operations in Cornwall, as elsewhere, are frequently obstructed by
the upheaving of the rocks and the rupture of the metallic veins. Those ob-
structions which in the coal districts are termed faults, or dikes, are, by the
Cornish miners, called " leaps " and " slides." These leaps are not occa-
sioned, in the primary rocks of Cornwall, by a protruded mass of igneous
rock dissimilar to the rest of the strata, but they are produced by cross-
courses and veins, most frequently similar in constitution to the rocks they
disarrange. Respecting the cause and modus operandi of these disrupting
veins, much speculation has been expended ; and Mr. Henwood, on this
point, ventures on the sea of speculation, though in other parts of his volume
he has confined himself to facts. He shows, from the nature of the disrup-
tions, that existing theories are inadequate to explain them ; and he discoun-
tenances the opinion that the slides were posterior to the formation of the
veins they intersect. He appears to conceive, that the disruptions were pro-
duced when the whole of the rocks were in a semifluid state.

We have extended our notice of Mr. Henwood's paper on the metalliferous
deposits of Cornwall so far, as to leave scarcely any space for the other sub-
jects contained in the appendix. Respecting the temperature of mines, Mr.
Henwood makes the following general remarks : — " From the surface to 150
fathoms deep, the rise of temperature for equal increment of depth seems to
be in a diminishing ratio ; a fact previously known. But deeper observa-
tions disclose the curious, and, as it would seem, almost anomalous circum-
stance, that, at more than 150 fathoms deep, the progression again becomes
more rapid ; and that the ratio, at about 150 fathoms in depth, is at a
minimum, and increases both at greater and smaller depths." It is a curious
fact, also, that tin lodes possess the lowest temperature, and copper lodes the
highest.

We cannot close this store of information connected with the mining ope-
rations of Cornwall, without noticing the encroachments of the Sand in the
district of St. Agnes, near the Bristol Channel. It is stated by Mr. Hen-
wood, in alluding to the general features of the country, that these encroach-
ments of the sand during heavy storms have been so destructive that large
tracts of land have been irrecoverably lost, and two churches have been suc-
cessively abandoned, by the advance of the sand. A field under tillage was
covered in a single night to a depth of one foot. These accumulations of sand
form a peculiar feature near the coast, where masses of it have been agglu-
tinated into a moderately hard sandstone.

Art. V.— NOAD'S LECTURES ON ELECTRICITY.
The rapid strides recently made by the science of electricity, with its correla-
tive sciences of electro-magnetism and galvanism, have rendered it difficult
for those not actually engaged in its study to keep pace with the progress of
discovery ; and a work which should comprise all that is known on the sub-
ject up to the present time has been long wanted. The Lectures on Electricity,
by Mr. Noad, which have been just published by Messrs. Knight, appear, in
a great measure, to supply this deficiency. Mr. Noad undertakes to trace
the progress of the science from its earliest development to the latest disco-
veries ; and as he is fully possessed of his subject, and has no peculiar theo-
ries of his own to propound, he has done this in a clear and comprehensive
manner, without perplexing the student by theoretical disputations. The
work is, indeed, remarkably free from theory, almost to a fault ; for it would
be desirable to have an impartial examination, by a competent judge, of the
various theories which divide the philosophical world respecting the nature of
electrical agency. The author commences with a brief sketch of the history
of what is termed, for distinction, " statical electricity," or that which is
usually excited by mechanical means. He notices Dufaye's theory of resinous
and vitreous electricity, which was for a long time supplanted by Franklin's
more simple explanation, of all bodies having a certain capacity for electricity,
and that it is only when they are in a plus or minus state in relation to surround-
ing bodies that electrical phenomena are exhibited ; but Mr. Noad enters not
into the discussion : he subsequently, however, pronounces in favour of the
existence of two electricities, though the terms of Dufaye are repudiated and
those of Dr. Franklin retained. Dr. Faraday is, deservedly, a great authority
with Mr. Noad, who appears to adopt his views implicitly, even to the extent
of agreeing with him that the friction of water is the most powerful known
means of exciting electricity.

The disturbance of the electrical equilibrium by induction, is one of the most
curious of the phenomena of electricity. The approach of a positively excited
electric to an insulated body induces in the part nearest to it, without contact,
an opposite electrical state ; and the insulated body may, by temporary con-
nexion with the earth, when within the influence of the excited electric, be left in
a negatively electrical state after the electric is withdrawn, though the latter has
not parted with any of its electricity. This phenomenon has been attributed by
Faraday to a physical action occurring between contiguous particles, each par-
ticle of air intervening between the electric and the insulated conductor, for
example, assuming a state of polarity, one pole being negative and the other
positive, and this polarization, it is assumed, is communicated to all the particles
of metal in the body in which electricity is induced. This theory Mr. Noad
adopts, and it is thus applied to the explanation of the action of the electrical
machine : " On turning the handle of the cylinder or plate the electricity natu-
rally present in the rubber becomes decomposed, — its positive adhering to the
surface of the glass, and its negative to the rubber : the positive electric por-
tions of the glass coming during its revolution opposite to the points on the
conductor, act powerfully by induction on the natural electricities of the con-
ductor, attracting the negative, which, being accumulated in a state of tension
at the points, darts off towards the cylinder to meet the positive fluid, and
thus reconstitute the neutral compound. The consequence of this is, that the
conductor is left powerfully positive — not, it must particularly be understood,
by acquiring electricity from the revolving glass, but by having given up its
own negative fluid to the latter. The rubber is left in a proportionately ne-
gative state, and, consequently, after revolving the glass for a few minutes,
can develop no more free, positive electricity, provided it is insulated." The
more simple explanation on the hypothesis of Franklin is, that the rotation of
the glass cylinder deprives the rubber of its natural share of electricity, which
is conveyed to the conductor ; and when the rubber is insulated, the action
ceases, from the want of supply of further quantities of electricity to the rub-
ber from the earth.

The question which has agitated the electrical world of late more than any
other is that of lateral discharge, in reference more particularly to the safety
of lightning-conductors, and in consequence of its practical importance, Mr.
Noad enters further on this debateable ground than is his wont. He states
the question in dispute very impartially, mentioning broadly the objections
that have been raised by Mr. Marty n Roberts, Mr. Sturgeon, and by Mr.
Walker, to the efficacy of Mr. Snow Harris's lightning-conductors on ships,
and stating the answers of the latter. Mr. Harris's lightning-conductors,
which have now been generally adopted in the navy, consist of strips of sheet
copper let into the masts, and connected with the sheathing of the ship. It is
objected to the use of these conductors, that in every electrical discharge there
is a lateral emission of electricity ; consequently that great danger might be
incurred from the effects of that portion of the electric fluid that is not con-
veyed directly through the copper. These objectors, however, do not deny
the efficacy of lightning-conductors in the abstract: it is to Mr. Harris'
strips of sheet-copper let into the masts that they demur, each one having a
nostrum of his own for conducting the lightning with perfect safety. Mr.
Walker is of opinion that the electricity of a Leyden jar is not in so high a
state of tension as lightning, therefore the experiments with discharges from
jars cannot be taken to represent the effects of lightning. To properly esti-
mate the conduction of lightning, he contends that the spark from the con-
ductor of an electrical-machine affords the best criterion ; and his experiments
with the monster machine at the Polytechnic Institution lead him to infer that
a division of the charge will take place among neighbouring conducting bodies.
Mr. Harris, however, seems to have the best of the argument ; for the fact
appears to be, that though a lateral discharge will take place when the con-
ductor is imperfect or inefficient, the electric fli#d will not pass out of its
course from a perfect and sufficient conductor into one that is less direct and
more imperfect.

The important and mysterious effects of the continuous action of electricity,
more particularly in reference to Mr. Crosse's experiments of the develop-
ment of living insects, are considered at some length by Mr. Noad, who ap-
pears to think the acarus to originate from electrical agency. In some expe-
riments, however, which he has himself continued uninterruptedly for sixteen
months no acari had appeared within the vessels carefully excluded from the
atmosphere, though several had been observed on the outside. It appears,
also, that Mr. Weekes, who had successfully repeated Mr. Crosse's experi-
ments, admits that the acari generally appeared on the outside before any were
observed in the closed vessels. In some experiments recently conducted by
Mr. Weekes in vessels exposed to the atmosphere, after swarms of the usual
electrical acari had appeared and continued for three or four months, a host of
other insects followed, and all the acari disappeared ; the latter having, as Mr.
Weekes supposes, been eaten up by the succeeding generation. There is,
truly, much mystery yet about this matter which requires solution.

There are many other points dwelt upon by Mr. Noad to which we would
willingly advert did space allow.. We cannot conclude our notice of his book
without again recommending it as one that supplies, and very efficiently, a
vacuity that has for some time existed in scientific literature.

1844. J

The Monthly Record of Architecture and the Arts.

Art. VI.— THE MONTHLY RECORD OP ARCHITECTURE AND

THE ARTS.
!. Honest criticism, it is almost a truism to say, has a tendency to awe the
pretender, to encourage the man of genius, and to benefit society. This is
particularly the case in the arts, where we find ignorance generally allied with
presumption, and censoriousness heralding incapability. Those men who by
some lucky accident are buoyed for a time upon the waters of popularity, are
more frequently found attempting to submerge others than holding out a
hand to assist them to rise ; while those rash and confiding spirits who launch
upon the ocean of life without forethought, trusting to fair winds and deceit-
ful skies, are only brought to see the dangers of their course by the shipwreck
of their hopes upon the rocks and the quicksands of a treacherous shore. To
record the accidents which thus occur — to raise beacons over spots of danger
— to encourage the buffeted voyager — to point out to him the errors of his
navigation, and the enemies with which he has to contend, is our duty. This
we trust faithfully to perform — exaggerating no danger, abiding by the esta-
blished rules of the navigation : we will charge no man in malice, and will
excuse no man in partiality.

2. The British Museum and Sir Robert Smirke still occupy public atten-
tion. That the public of Britain should in the present day be kept in igno-
rance of a design chosen for a national building, and for an institution in
which every member of the state, even the poorest, is as much interested as
the trustees of that public property, is a more contemptuous assumption of
superiority than governments have of late years been accustomed to exercise
in matters of state policy. Sir Robert Smirke has sailed with a fair wind and
few impediments down the stream, and, if he has not reached a peaceful haven,
he has, at least, been embayed in a fertile and fragrant nook. Whether he
started fairly, and sailed in his own boat, we will not at present inquire ; but
if he values a repose which in old age we would not disturb ; if he wishes to
be spared from the bitter criticism his works are calculated to call forth, —
whether regard be had to his expensive constructions, and lifeless, frigid de-
signs, or to his jobs, failures, and laborious puerilities, — we should desire him
no longer to dare the public censure, with which culprits of his calibre cannot
afford to tamper.

3. The architectural societies are still actively engaged in their crusade
against pews, and in many places they have succeeded in ejecting the usurpers,
and establishing benches. That pews, such as were erected in the time of Sir
Christopher in the London churches, are heavy, soporific objects, destroying
the architectural character and interfering with the general internal effect, no
one can doubt ; and if beauty be the primary consideration in a place of public
worship, the architectural societies are fully justified in their determination to
eject them. But this same architectural character, according to the present
style of church building, is still more interfered with by the introduction of
galleries ; and the societies are using every exertion to dispose of them in the
same summary manner. If our churches are to become places of prayer only,
we can perceive no objection to these reformations ; but if the people are in
them also to receive instruction, and if the accommodation offered by our
churches is insufficient for the population, we might urge many objections to
so intolerant a procedure. The architectural style, according to these autho-
rities, must not, on any account, be interfered with, and, therefore, there must
be either a large increase of churches, or else a large number of worshippers
and learners must be excluded. If the architectural societies are prepared to
give this increased accommodation, the objections to their dogmas would lose
much of their force, — provided, however, that it were a matter of indifference
what preacher we heard. But, with all our love of art, we are still of opinion
that to secure architectural effect in a Gothic church is a less important object
than to give religious instruction to the people ; and we are opposed to every
alteration that must diminish the number of those who may avail themselves
of this privilege. We have often regretted the arrangement and the forms of
modern pews — we have regretted the state of society which introduced them
— and still more the necessity of galleries for the accommodation of large con-
gregations. In the erection of new churches they may, and ought to be,
avoided ; but to dispense with these utilitarian resources where the accommo-
dation is really necessary, is, in our opinion, to mistake the means for the
end — making architecture, the servant of religion, its superior. It is possible,
men say, to pay too much for a whistle : the architectural societies do not pay
for that on which they make their flourishes, and those who do buy it ought
not to pay a larger price than the thing is worth.

4. The existence of Saxon architecture in any of the ancient churches of
this country has again become a question of dispute. Everything that can
illustrate the domestic habits and opinions of our Saxon forefathers, their
mental condition, and the state of the mechanical and fine arts among them,
is peculiarly interesting in the present day. The researches of Lye, Thorp,
Kemble, and others, have excited a deep interest respecting this remarkable
race, and new investigations are frequently brought before us with the labours
of new students in this school of our history and literature. A versified and
alliterative translation of a Saxon poem in the Exeter Book, called "The
Phoenix, the King of Birds," was, during the last month, presented to the
Society of Antiquaries, by Mr. Stevens. But while the linguist is constantly
bringing new evidence of the genius of the Saxon people, the architects of the
university schools are labouring hard to prove that they were much less
acquainted with the art of construction than has been commonly believed. It
is well known that many of the Saxon churches were built of wood ; but it is
now maintained that they were all constructed of this material, and that the

VOL. II.

characters supposed to distinguish these buildings cannot be depended on.
Long and short work, according to the secretary of the Oxford Society, is no
evidence of Saxon, because it is occasionally used in the jambs of windows in
churches well known to vary in age from the Norman to the perpendicular :
of the former we have an evidence at Syston, in Lincolnshire ; of the latter, at
Copstock, in Suffolk, and Eyzey, in Wilts. The absence of buttresses is con-
sidered as no evidence, and the triangular-headed opening does not distinguish
the Saxon from the Norman. At some future period we may find it necessary
to state and examine the arguments on both sides of this question.

5. The Americans are about to erect in New York a pentagonal Gothic
tower and spire, to be called the Washington Memorial. There is some rea-
son to fear that this is a work to which the American architects are scarcely
equal. The style, though well understood in this country from a constant
familiarity with the best examples, has hardly, we fear, been mastered upon
the other side of the Atlantic ; and works in this style require for their design
and execution a more than ordinary attention to the spirit and character, even
in the most minute details. The want of the specimens and the experience
possessed by European architects in this particular walk, must make the de-
sign, and still more the execution, of a Gothic tower and spire a work of great
hazard in the hands of an American artist.

6. The Nelson monument, or Trafalgar Square memorial, is exciting much
amusement among the wags of the metropolis. The cocked-hat is an exceed-
ingly exciting object, whether of taste, patriotism, or ridicule, we are not
bound to specify. One thing, however, must be admitted, — its outline is
well defined against the bright sky of a clear summer's day, and, when the fog
is high, it may be distinctly traced in November, which is more than can be
said of every part of the figure. In truth, the Nelson column has been raised
for the glorification of a cocked-hat ; but as a cocked-hat is the sine qua norl
of an admiral, and as Nelson is the ne plus ultra of admiralism, the column,
being raised in honour of a cocked-hat, must necessarily have been erected in
honour of Nelson. — a.B.D.

But what shall we say of that which is behind and that which is to be be-
fore ? We do not know any warrior, whether he fought on land or sea, more
worthy of a monument, that is to say, of a column, than Nelson ; nor do we
know any man who would have objected more positively than himself to the
situation in which he has been placed. Not long after he had received his
knighthood, he was sitting for a bust to a friend of ours, a man of genius,
whom the nobility have patronized but never raised to the station he deserved,
and still deserves, in his profession ; and at the time of his first sitting several
tradesmen called upon him. One of these was peculiarly anxious to please a
customer of such notoriety and fame, and all that he said was prefaced and
concluded with " Sir Horatio." Nelson, having selected from a number of
articles those he wished to purchase, asked the price, and when he had been
told, turned with a searching glance to the trader, and said, •' And now, sir,
what is their price without the Sir Horatio ?" This is the man who is raised
in effigy upon a lofty column, with his head covered by a cocked-hat, and
with his sovereign, George IV., mounted, uncovered, behind him. To place
the proudest monarch in Europe in such a situation is a national insult to his
memory, and an act of which we could hardly suppose those would have been
guilty who had the arrangement of this memorial.

7. While we trace with pleasure the career of some of our contemporaries
and record their success, we have also to follow others to the termination of their
course — some at the first stage of life, and some after running almost the full
allotted journey. Our first obituary is that of David Hamilton, a veteran
architect, a man of great energy and talent, who has closed an active career in
the 75th year of his age, honoured for his professional skill, beloved for his
private virtues. Mr. Hamilton was a self-taught architect, having been an
artizan in the earlier period of his life. He commenced the practice of the
profession he adopted in the city of Glasgow, about fifty years since, and has
since that period enjoyed a more than ordinary degree of success. The two
most important buildings erected by him are, Hamilton Palace, the seat of the
Duke of Hamilton, and the Royal Exchange of Glasgow ; both classical struc-
tures, exhibiting great skill and carefulness in detail, and high powers of de-
sign. In addition to these large structures, he erected many others, both
public and private, which will transmit his name as one of the most successful
architects of Scotland. He was a competitor for the new Houses of Parlia-
ment, and succeeded in obtaining a prize of 500/. He was so much beloved
for his amiable and generous disposition, and so much respected for the up-
rightness of his conduct and his more than ordinary talent, that he may almost
be said to have passed through life without experiencing the effect of any of
those jealousies which too frequently embitter the life of the successful archi-
tect. He was born on the 11th of May, 1768, and died on the 5th of De-
cember, 1843.

It is our melancholy duty to record the death of a young artist of great
promise and energy, who has fallen a sacrifice to a love of his art and filial
affection. Mr. Thomas Hollis was the son of George Hollis, well known to
the architect and antiquary for his engravings of monumental effigies, in-
tended to form a companion to Stothard's admirable work on the same sub-
ject. The father died in 1842, and the son in the October of the following
year. Thomas Hollis commenced his studies as an artist in the gallery of the
Louvre at about fourteen years of age, and continued them in the British
Museum and public galleries of the metropolis. In 183G he was admitted
as a student of the Royal Academy, and having resolved to devote himself to
historical painting, became a pupil of Mr. Pickersgill. In 1839 his father
commenced the work on Sepulchral Effigies, in which he assisted, many, if not

c

10

The Building Arts.

[January,

all, of the drawings being the work of his pencil. Upon the death of George
Hollis, the son undertook to continue the publication, and commenced the
etching of the plates as well as the drawing of the figures. To this great
work, it is understood, he was led by his anxiety to alleviate the loss of his
father, in a pecuniary sense, to the members of his family. His health failed
under his intense exertions, and a rapid consumption terminated his course in
the 25th year of his age. The early fate of this young man is another com-
mentary upon the advice and experience of Horace :

" Fuge magna : licet sub paupere tecto
Reges et regum vita prcecurrere amicos."

Art. VII.— ENGINES OF THE " GREAT WESTERN " STEAMER.

Of these engines, of which we give a drawing in the rpresent Number, we
have little to say ; and, indeed, machinery of this quality is very well able to
speak for itself. Messrs. Maudslay might, indeed, afford to laugh at our
malignity, as we suppose they call it, if they produced only such works as
this ; for we do not know of any production in steam machinery that is in every
way more creditable. The framing, indeed, has been found to be rather weak,
for it has broken in several places ; but this may, perhaps, be owing to the
deficient strength of the ship ; and, at all events, the imperfection has sprung
out of the laudable desire of making the machinery as light as possible. It
is certainly to be regretted that the side-lever engine, after having been
brought to the perfection of which this specimen gives evidence, should have
to be rejected: yet such, we are assured, is its destiny; and the best plan of
a compact engine will now win the day. This engine is, therefore, rather to
be looked upon as a monument of former glory, than as a specimen of future
practice ; and so soon as Messrs. Maudslay shall have produced anything
nearly so good on the direct- action plan, they will at once disarm our cen-
sure : until then, however, we shall continue to testify as resolutely of their
faults, as we now do of their past perfections.

Art. VIII.— THE BUILDING ARTS.

BUILDING-STONES.

The magnesian limestone having been selected for the new Houses of Par-
liament by the Commissioners appointed to examine all the different kinds of
building-stone which this country produces, will probably become the fa-
vourite stone of the London builder for many years to come. It is curious
'to observe that several well-marked*varieties of building-stone, like many
other articless of less importance and more transitory in their character, have
enjoyed for a certain period during which they were in fashion, a high degree
of reputation, which has in time yielded to the popular passion for some new
introduction. In many of the older buildings in London and the south of
England, as in Rochester Castle, old London Bridge, and Westminster
Abbey, we find the soft oolite of Caen, in Normandy; a stone which must
have been extensively imported into this country when learned monks were
our architects, and when it was desirable to keep up a friendly intercourse
between England and her French possessions. In buildings of about the
same date, particularly in many old cathedrals, we find specimens of the beau-
tiful but fragile native marble of Purbeck, Petworth, and other places in
Sussex. This marble, which was much used for columns and slender shafts,
is wholly made up of a dense mass of univalve fossils, mistaken by the vulgar
for periwinkles, imbedded in a calcareous cement, which unites them into
stone. This marble is now entirely out of use, and is scarcely known beyond
the immediate localities where it is quarried. Another favourite stone in
London, where it was much more generally used than the Sussex marble for
common building purposes, was the firestone of Reigate and Merstham, in
Surrey. There is a good deal of this stone to be seen in St. Paul's Cathedral,
in Westminster Abbey, and the neighbouring buildings, and in several old
buildings about Croydon. It was altogether too soft for common buildings,
at least for exposure to the weather ; and is now applied to what is probably
a more profitable use, namely, the lining of ovens, furnaces, brick and lime-
kilns, &c. The common hearthstone, so extensively used in the culinary de-
partment of the metropolis, is precisely similar to the once famous firestone.
The lower beds of the chalk were at one time much employed for building in
the neighbourhood of London ; but these, like the firestone, are only suitable
for interiors. All the varieties of stone which have been mentioned were
superseded by the native oolites, which came to London principally from
quarries in the neighbourhood of Bath. These are still extensively used for
mouldings, cornices, and other intricate parts of buildings. For general
building, again, the Bath stone was entirely thrown aside, in favour of the
Portland stone, an oolite, which has become highly celebrated, from its em-
ployment, since the days of Sir Christopher Wren, in all the principal public
buildings, and many private mansions, of the metropolis. The Portland
stone has enjoyed undivided celebrity for about 200 years ; during which time
churches, palaces, public halls, mansions, and bridges, have been built of it
in every part of London. It is said to have been owing, in a great measure,
to the rapacity and bad faith practised by the stone merchants in the Isle of
Portland, and the London contractors, who seem to have connived at the
employment of soft and inferior stone, that the produce of the Portland

quarries had been for some years declining in public estimation, and that
engineers and architects would no longer use it in extensive works. Hence
many modern buildings, and particularly the two most famous bridges over
the Thames, those of London and Waterloo, have been built wholly of
granite — a stone which was not recommended for the new Houses on account
of its great cost.

The magnesian limestone, which they considered, under all the circum-
stances, to be the most suitable stone, and which is the one actually being
used, lies immediately over the coal-measures, and is one of the lower mem-
bers of the extensive formation geologically termed the new red sandstone.
Its colour, when wet and first quarried, is commonly a reddish or brownish
yellow ; but it dries to a fine cream colour, superior to that of the Portland,
or any other common building-stone. From its granular texture, the mag-
nesian limestone was long mistaken for a sandstone ; but since the geology of
this country has received so much attention, the magnesian limestone has been
more particularly examined, and recognized as a compound substance, consist-
ing of carbonate of magnesia and carbonate of lime. The fracture of magnesian
limestone exhibits innumerable small specks, which are crystals of these earths,
arranged in such a manner as to form an aggregate of great toughness ; a
quality by which the magnesian limestone is particularly characterised.

In order to form the most correct judgment as to the properties of a
building-stone, and its capacity for resisting the action of weather, it is
necessary to observe closely the evidences of decay and disintegration which
it presents in the walls of old buildings, where it has been exposed for a con-
siderable length of time to the vicissitudes of the seasons. The various forms
under which this decay is presented, are almost as numerous as that of the
stones themselves. In some the surfaces are observed to flake, or shale off
in fragments of various sizes ; while in others, the surface appears shivered
into loose, thin fragments, which hang together with considerable tenacity,
and give to the whole face of the wall a peculiarly ragged and weather-worn
appearance. This form of decay is strongly exhibited in the walls of many
of the ecclesiastical and collegiate buildings of Oxford, where some of the
softest and worst varieties of oolitic stone have been employed with very little
judgment or discrimination. Other stones, such as the firestone of Reigate,
and the varieties of chalk procured from the lower beds of the formation, are
worn into large hollows and cavities, which indicate the progress of a constant
and regular destroying action, in the alternations of weather to which they
are exposed. The old buildings about Dean's-yard, Westminster, exhibit
this form of decay in the firestone of which they are built : and in the old
buildings about St. Alban's Abbey, and at Woburn, Bedfordshire, the Tot-
ternhoe stone, which is a celebrated building-stone, procured from the chalk
of Dunstable, may be seen in a similar state of decay. The oolitic stones,
where their composition is nearly uniform, and where the fossils they contain
are of minute size, will commonly decay in the same manner as the firestone,
and others of the same soft and homogeneous character. But where fossils
of large size are abundant, as in most varieties of the Portland oolite, the
smaller grains will decay, and leave the fossils projecting out in a remarkable
manner. This may be observed more or less in almost every block of oolite
in Westminster Bridge, where the fossils stand out in relief on the surface of
the stone, and indicate, with mathematical accuracy, the amount of disinte-
gration which has taken place in the calcareous matrix which incloses them.

Although there are many bad specimens of Portland stone in London, there
are also others which justify the high reputation it has acquired. In every
quarry, whether of Portland stone or any other kind, the upper beds are
commonly much inferior to the central and lower strata of the rock ; and
hence it is easy to account for the great difference which has been observed
in specimens of Portland stone procured from the same or neighbouring
quarries. The magnesian limestone, judging from the best tests which can
be applied, appears to be a stone well adapted for external work in this cli-
mate. It is true that the evidence to be drawn from old buildings can
scarcely be said to support its superior character over all others of the same
class, because it has not been used to anything like the same extent as many
other building-stones of repute. In their investigation into the qualities
of this stone, however, the Commissioners, who fixed upon it for the new
Houses of Parliament, met with a sufficient number of ancient structures
in which it had been employed, to justify the favourable opinion they
arrived at.

In buildings where the stone has to be carved and chiseled into mouldings,
and other intricate forms, the immense expense of labour almost prohibits
the use of a very hard stone ; otherwise it would always be preferable to use
the most imperishable granites, and the hardest siliceous grits, which can be
procured. The process for hardening the softest varieties of stone, to which
Mr. Sylvester has directed his attention, is, therefore, very important, since,
if successful, it will enable the architect and the sculptor to indurate the
softest stones of nature, after they have received the last finishing stroke of
the chisel. In Mr. Sylvester's process, the stone is said to be hardened by
being steeped in a compound of alum and soap-water. The more porous the
stone is, the more of this solution will it absorb ; and the consequence is,
that its pores become filled with what chemists call an insoluble salt. The
extent to which a stone so prepared will resist the action of the atmosphere,
remains to be proved. There are various other compositions with which
stones might be saturated, and which, in our opinion, would enable them to
resist decay. Amongst these mav be mentioned the native bitumens, which,
for this purpose, would be improved by being mixed with an equal weight of
pounded chalk : secondly, coal tar mixed with an equal quantity of pounded

184*.]

Naval Architecture.

n

chalk : thirdly, resin dissolved in boiling oil, mixed, in like manner, with
pounded chalk. We have tried, on a small scale, the first and last of these
compositions with success ; and we recommend them to the attention of ar-
chitects and others desirous of preserving the softer kinds of building-stone
from decay. In order to use either of these compositions, nothing more is
necessary than to heat it in a large cauldron to about the heat of boiling-
water, and immerse each block of stone until it shall cease to absorb any of
the mixture, when it may be taken out and dried.

Art. IX.— NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
The introduction of the scientific principles of constructing ships into this
country is comparatively of recent date, when we consider the number of
years we have had a navy consisting of large ships. The more immediate
steps which led to the auspicious event are worthy of notice.

During the latter part of the past century the inferiority of our ships to
those of the French was a subject of humiliation and regret to many who were
interested in naval affairs, and who understood the importance of her navy to
Great Britain. It was believed that whatever improvements had been intro-
duced were derived from the French, and it was known that the ships of
France were constructed on scientific principles. To discover the principles
of construction was considered most desirable, and efforts were made to in-
duce scientific men to apply their knowledge and abilities to the subject. A
society for the improvement of naval architecture was formed by a number of
private individuals, which in a few years classed among its members gentle-
men of high rank and eminent attainments. Their endeavours, whatever may
have been their amount, were not followed by any immediate benefit.

The attention of the government, had, however, been directed to the state
of naval science, and in 1805 a " Commission of Naval Revision" was ap-
pointed to investigate the affairs of the navy. The report of the commis-
sioners on the qualifications of the officers whose business it was to make the
designs for our ships of war, as well as of those who were looking forward to
be their successors, was accompanied by a recommendation to the government
to establish a school of naval architecture, where a course of scientific study
should be pursued, such as would qualify the students for the offices in
question.

In the year 1811 a school of naval architecture was established in Ports-
mouth Dock-yard, and a professor was appointed to it who had distinguished
himself at the University of Cambridge by his acquirements in science. His
first object was to ascertain the state of naval science in France ; and he
found that the treatise, which was pronounced by the French naval architects
to be the best that had been written on naval architecture, was one by Chap-
man, translated from the Swedish into French by Clairbois. This work he
procured, with notes by the French translator and other writers on the sub-
ject, and it was studied at the school in conjunction with practical ship-
building.

In the meantime every means were employed which could be devised, in
the absence of scientific knowledge, to improve the navy. Whenever a French
ship came into our possession she was " taken off," as it is technically phrased,
and used as a model to build from. Sometimes alterations were ventured on,
but in no instance was an improvement made by the alteration. Ships were
added to our navy in this manner ; and now a great majority of our ships of
the line and frigates are French designs, or imitations of them, more than a
half century old.

The French navy has been greatly improved by a general increase of the
principal dimensions of her new ships, a measure which was recommended for
all classes of ships of our navy by the professor of the School of Naval Archi-
tecture ; the necessity of which, and the benefits to be derived from it, have
been continually insisted on by the members of that institution from its com-
mencement. The principles of naval architecture, and the method of apply-
ing them, are as well understood in this country as in any other, and it is
hoped, that as opportunities offer for the substitution of new ships for the old
ones as they may go to decay, the advantages of science will be taken to ren-
der our fleet as efficient as the fleets of other nations.

Of our mercantile navy it has been truly said, that, with few exceptions, it
is composed of ships which would disgrace any civilized country. The laws
of tonnage, which many of them were built to evade, are happily altered, and,
by the alteration, one great obstacle to improvement is removed. The safety
and expedition of the voyages which would be performed by well-designed
ships would be a great advantage to the merchant, and the loss of human life
would be small in comparison with what it has been for many years past.

It is our intention to devote some of our columns to as plain a method of
explaining the principles of naval construction as the nature of the subject
will admit of : it will first be necessary, to show the manner of making the
calculations of a ship from the draught, to ascertain the areas of the principal
sections, their centres of gravity, the displacement of its centre of gravity con-
sidered as a homogeneous body ; the height of the metacentre and moment of
stability.

The draught of a ship is a representation of its form by lines of intersection
of vertical-longitudinal and transverse, horizontal and diagonal planes, with
the exterior surface of the timbers. It is composed of three plans : the sheer
plan, the body plan, and the half-breadth plan.

The sheer plan shows by its boundary -line the form of the ship when inter-
sected by a vertical-longitudinal plane dividing it into two equal and similar

12

Naval Architecture.

[JANUARY;

parts, to the fore-side of the knee of the head, under-side of keel, after-part
of rudder, the rake of the stern-timbers, and at the upper part by a line at
the top of the side showing the curve of the top side, or the sheer of the top-
side line.

The stem, stern-post, and keel, with their rabbets, are shown in this plan ;
also the water-lines and the sections ; the principal or midship section de-
noted thus, © ; those before it are distinguished by letters A, B, C, &c. ;
and those abaft it by figures 1, 2, 3, 4, &c.

The projections of vertical-longitudinal sections are shown in this plan as
curve lines.

The load water-line is a line drawn to the draught of water of the ship at
the stem and stern-post, and the other water-lines are parallel to it ; the
draught of water being generally greater abaft than forward, the water-lines
are oblique to the upper part of the keel.

The level lines are parallel to the keel.

Besides the lines described above, there are shown the heights and sheer of
the decks, ports, upper and lower edge of whales, channels and dead-eyes, cat-
head, head-rails, quarter-gallery, and pintles and braces which hang the rud-
der, and any internal or external fittings which may be required.

BODY PLAN.

The body plan is a projection of the several transverse-vertical sections on
a vertical plane. The principal longitudinal section is represented in this
plan by a straight line perpendicular to the keel, termed the middle line of
the body plan ; at distances from this middle line on each side of it are set off
the half breadth of the ship to the timbers, which is half the moulded breadth ;
and perpendicular to the keel at these places lines are drawn to the height of
the top-side line at the midship section. The level lines in this plan are
straight lines ; the water-lines are curves passed through the spots at the
several heights of the water-lines on the sections ; the diagonal sections are
represented by straight lines oblique to the middle line, and the bow and but-
tock lines by straight lines parallel to the middle line.

On the right-hand side of the middle line are the projections of the sections
of the fore-body, and on the left side of the middle line those of the after-
body.

The half-breadth plan is a projection, on a horizontal plane, of the inter-
sections of horizontal longitudinal planes with the ship. The forms of the
water lines, level lines, top-side line, &c, and the diagonal lines, are shown :
it is a representation of the larboard side of the ship, and is usually placed so
that the sections may be immediately under the corresponding sections of the
sheer plan.

In the body and half-breadth plans, the half-breadths of the stem and stern-
post are shown at the upper and lower ends, and the depth of the rabbets.

The middle of the rabbets of the stem and stern-post in the sheer plan is
taken in the middle, between the fore and after- part of the rabbet, at the
upper part where the body is full ; but lower down, where the body is finer,
the middles of the rabbets are taken at one-third the distance from the fore-
part, which is considered sufficiently correct in practice.

To transfer the water lines from the sheer plan to the body plan, take the
height on each section, from the upper side of the keels, of the intersection of
the water line with the section, and set it off on the middle line of the body
plan from the upper side of the keel, and square out from this height to the
corresponding section in this plan : the heights of intersections of water lines
with the sections being thus transferred to the body plan, the perpendicular
distances are taken from the middle line of the body plan to the heights of the
water lines on the different sections, and are transferred to the corresponding
sections in the half-breadth plan, and through the spots so obtained curve
lines are passed. To end these lines in the half-breadth plan, square down
the points where the water lines meet the middles of the rabbets of the stem
and stern-post to the corresponding middles of the rabbets in the half-breadth
plan ; — these will be the points on which to end the water lines.

The level lines being parallel to the keel, to transfer them to the half-
breadth plan the distances from the middle line of the body plan are taken to
the intersections of the level lines with the sections, and are set off from the
middle line in the half-breadth plan on the corresponding sections: these lines
end in the half-breadth plan at the middle of the rabbets. The top-side line,
port-sill lines, and any lines originating in the sheer plan, are transferred to

the other plans in the same manner as described for the water lines. The
diagonals are run off in the half-breadth plan by taking the diagonal distances
in the body plan from the middle line to the intersections of the diagonals
with the sections, and setting them off on the corresponding sections in the
half-breadth plan from the middle line ; curves passed through the spots so
obtained will be the forms of the diagonal sections.

To end these lines at the stem, the heights at which the diagonal lines cross
the half-siding and middle of the rabbet in the body plan, are transferred to
the corresponding lines in the sheer plan ; that is, to the middle and to the
after-part of the rabbet. These points are squared down to the middle line
in the half-breadth plan, and perpendiculars are drawn from them, on which
are set off the diagonal distances from the middle line of the body plan to the
siding and middle of the rabbet : the diagonals will end at one of these points,
— the upper ones on the perpendiculars at the aft side of the rabbet, and the
lower ones on those at the middle. To end those which cross the margin,
take the perpendicular distance from the middle line in the body plan to the
intersection of the diagonal with the margin, and set it off in the half-breadth
plan perpendicular to the middle line, to meet the margin ; and through this
spot extend the perpendicular, on which set off the diagonal distance from
the middle line in the body plan to the intersection of the diagonal with
the margin: this will be the ending. The lower diagonals are ended on the
stern-post similarly to the manner of ending them on the stem. The main-
breadth line, or line at the height of the broadest part of each section, is
transferred from the body to the sheer plan and half-breadth plan, in the
same way as water-lines are.

The bow and buttock lines are run off in the sheer plan, by taking the
heights in the body plan from the upper edge of the keel to the intersections
of these lines with the sections, and transferring them to the corresponding
sections in the sheer plan, and passing curves through the spots. These lines
may be ended on the main-breadth line. Those which cross the margin in
the body plan will end on the margin in the sheer plan : by squaring up the
intersection of the buttock line with the margin in the half-breadth plan to
the margin in the sheer plan, we get the ending.

When the diagonals, bow and buttock lines, and level lines, all run off fair,
the body is fair.

To calculate the Displacement of a Ship.
The displacement of a ship, when it floats at rest in a fluid, is the weight
of the fluid displaced ; and this is equal to the weight of the ship : for the
ship is supported by the upward pressure of the fluid against its immersed
part ; and this pressure supported a quantity of fluid equal in magnitude to
this immersed part, the space occupied by the ship being previously occupied
by the fluid ; and when there is an equilibrium, the same pressure sustains
the same weight. The weight, therefore, of the ship is equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the ship.

The form of the body of a ship is not that of any regular solid : we are
therefore obliged to employ rules for approximating to the displacement.
The rules given for calculating the area of a curvilinear space, are founded on
the supposition that a parabolic line passes through the extremities of a cer-
tain number of equidistant ordinates, and coincides with the curve, the area
of which is required : if the ordinates be taken sufficiently near each other,
the error in the assumption is inappreciable.

The same rules are likewise applicable in finding the contents of irregular
solids. Having found the areas of the equidistant sections of the solid, they
may be employed as linear measurements of the ordinates of a curve, the area
of which contains as many superficial feet as there are solid or cubic feet in
the body. This may be plainer, if we imagine the areas of the sections to be
rectangles, one side of each being one foot ; it follows, that in the other side
of each rectangle there will be as many linear feet as the areas contain super-
ficial feet.

There are several rules given for finding the areas of curves ; but only two
of them are in general use for this purpose.

The first rule is applicable when there is an odd number of equidistant
ordinates ; that is, when the axis is divided into an even number of equal
parts. It is founded on the supposition, that the curve of a parabola of the
second order passes through the extremities of three successive ordinates of
the curve whose area is required, and that it coincides with this curve between
these limits : the third of the first three ordinates being the first of the second
three, and so on.

The rule is, — Measure the equidistant ordinates : add the first and last
ordinate together : take the sum of the even ordinates, and multiply it by
four : then take the sum of the odd ordinates, and multiply it by two : add
these products to the sum of the first and last ordinates, and multiply this
sum by one-third of the common interval between the ordinates. This will
be the area of the curve.

The second rule, which is sometimes used, is applicable when the number
of ordinates is greater by one than some multiple of three, as four, seven,
ten, thirteen, &c. It is founded on the supposition that the curve of a para-
bola of the third order passes through the extremities of four successive
ordinates of the curve whose area is required, and coincides with it between
these limits : the fourth of the first four ordinates is the first of the second
four ; the fourth of the second four, the first of the third four ; and so on.

The rule is, — Measure the lengths of all the equidistant ordinates : add
the first and the last together : take the sum of all the remaining ordinates,
which are one greater than a multiple of three, as the fourth, seventh, tenth,

I

1844.]

Canal across the Isthmus of Suez.

13

\~c, and multiply it by two ; and take the sum of all the others, and mul-
tiply it by three : add these products to the sum of the first and last ordi-
nates, and multiply this sum by three- eighths of the common interval be-
oeen the ordinates, and it will give the area of the curve.
When the areas of all the equidistant sections have been calculated by one
of these rules, they are, as has been explained, used as ordinates of a curve:
and the same rule is applied to find its area, which contains as many super-
ficial feet as there are cubic feet in the displacement.

Art. X.— CANAL ACROSS THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ.

1. Observations on the Practicability and Utility of opening a Communica-
tion between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean by a Ship Canal. By
Arthur Anderson. London : Smith, Elder, and Co. 1843.
. Inquiry into the Means of establishing a Ship Navigation between the
Mediterranean and Red Sea. By James Vetch, Capt. R.E., F.R.S.
London: Pelham Richardson. 1843.

These are both very able pamphlets ; and the subject of which they treat is
one well deserving of a large expenditure of talent. Captain Vetch contents
himself with showing that the project of a ship canal across the Isthmus of
Suez is accomplishable ; and he points out, with much clearness and force
of argument, the engineering expedients which must be adopted in its for-
mation ; while Mr. Anderson takes a still wider range, and discusses the
questions, whether financial or international, which naturally arise out of
such an undertaking. We fear that we shall not be able to follow Mr. An-
derson very far into these inquiries ; and, indeed, the questions which he has
touched may well afford to dispense with our elucidations. We shall be rash
enough, however, to volunteer a few remarks ; and they maybe classed under
these two heads : — 1st, Is this enterprise expedient ? and, 2nd, Is it possible?
There are some persons, it appears, who object to the formation of a ship-
canal across the Isthmus of Suez, on the ground that we should thereby be
opening up a highway to the East for the Mediterranean nations — an achieve-
ment which would derange the current of commerce, and give our competitors
an undue advantage in the Indian market. These, it will be remarked, are
the very objections brought against Oriental steam navigation ; and, as we
answered the objections to steam navigation at some length on a former occa-
sion, we may be excused from again performing the inglorious office. We
may, however, here observe, that whatever force maybe attached to the argu-
ments of these objectors, their premises are obviously untenable, as they one
and all proceed on the assumption that India does not constitute a part of the
British empire. Whatever might be the effect upon England per se of open-
ing up this line of intercourse, there is no one who doubts that the effect
upon India would be highly beneficial ; and, even were a little injury inflicted
by the measure upon England, in her individual capacity, the loss might be
more than made up by the benefits conferred upon the British empire. We
do not, however, believe that any injury would be done to England, either
individually or otherwise, by the formation of this canal ; nor would the
stream of commerce, in our opinion, be in any degree disarranged, though its
current would, no doubt, be enlarged and quickened. All nations would be
benefited, but England more than any other, as she has the greatest interest
in the amelioration.

We think, then, that the formation of this canal ought to be promoted by
England, even supposing that its formation, or otherwise, depended entirely
upon her nod. But we would beg leave to insinuate, that this is by no means
the case ; and, as a canal of some sort will probably be made, whether Eng-
land likes it or no, the question for her to consider is, whether she is willing
that such a canal should be made as will satisfy the wants of the insignificant
ships of the Mediterranean, but will be of inadequate dimensions to be navi-
gable by the larger ships of England ? Such a canal as this would, there
can be no doubt, be hurtful to British commerce ; and England's interest,
therefore, obviously lies in taking such a part in the formation of this canal
as will ensure its suitability for the ships of all nations.

There are three projects, which have been lately agitated in*Egypt, for
facilitating the intercourse between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean.
These are, 1st, a railway from Boulac to Suez ; 2nd, a canal from the Nile
to the Red Sea ; and, 3rd, a ship canal across the Isthmus. The first two
are projects of merely local interest ; for nobody in Europe imagines that the
accomplishment of the one or the other would sensibly affect the current of
commerce between Europe and the East. Whether the passengers of the
monthly mail vessels are transported across the Desert in eight hours, by
means of coaches, or are whirled across in four hours by means of a railway-
engine, really appears to be a matter of very small importance, or, at least,
the acceleration is not worth the outlay at which it would be purchased. The
canal from the Nile might be useful for the purposes of irrigation, and might
also facilitate the transport of luggage and coal ; but the first of these benefits
is one in which Egypt alone is concerned ; and the second is too trivial in
amount to be an object of solicitude to any party. So far, then, as the in-
tercourse between Europe and the East is concerned, there appears to be no
advisable alternative between constructing an effectual ship canal, which may
be navigated by the largest vessels, and doing nothing at all ; for the other
expedients proposed would cost a thousand times more than any benefits they
could produce would be worth.

The distance between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean is about 75

English miles ; and the level of the waters of the Red Sea above those of the
Mediterranean, is about 30 English feet. This declivity, Capt. Vetch com-
putes, would give a current of about two miles per hour ; the canal being
supposed to be of a size suitable for large vessels : and this velocity he con-
siders abundant for maintaining a navigable channel, especially as the scour-
ing efficacy of salt-water is superior to that of fresh, on account of its greater
specific gravity. The ground between the two seas presents no engineering
difficulty : the water at Suez, however, is shallow ; and the same objection
holds to the Mediterranean shore ; for there is no port in the Bay of Tineh,
and but little depth of water. We agree, however, with Captain Vetch, in
thinking that the current in the canal would suffice to cure these evils ; for
the in-draught at Suez would carry away the mud and sand opposite to the
mouth of the canal ; and the rush of water into the Bay of Tineh would
deepen the water there. The French engineers of 1800 proposed, with the
view of giving a greater scouring efficacy in the Bay of Tineh, to carry the
canal from Suez, for a certain distance, on a level, and to throw the whole
fall into the remaining distance. Of this plan we do not think favourably, as
the effect would be, to raise a bar at the mouth of the canal, in consequence
of the water being deflected upwards when it impinged upon the bottom
of the sea. The greatest evil to be apprehended, indeed, is the formation of
a bar at the mouth of the canal ; and the way to obviate its formation is, to
so deflect the current at the mouth of the canal, that its waters will not con-
flict with the ocean waves in a direct antagonism.

In ancient times, as is very well known, a canal existed, connecting the
Mediterranean with the Red Sea ; the remains of which are visible still : and
there is every reason for believing that, in times still more remote, the whole
of the isthmus was submerged, constituting Africa a continent. The record
of this state of things is preserved in the geological features of the country ;
the most prominent of which is, the existence of a number of salt-lakes and
marshes, extending nearly across the isthmus ; and, if the obstructions which
now block up the ancient canal were removed, these lakes would assume the
same level as the Red Sea, and, in all probability, overflow into the Medi-
terranean. The track of canal which has been viewed with most favour, runs
through these lakes : but we agree with Captain Vetch, in thinking that a
straight cut across the isthmus, without weakening the current by need-
less bendings, or entangling it in lakes and marshes, is by far the preferable
procedure. Indeed, there is much danger, in our judgment, in filling these
lakes up to the Red Sea level ; as, in certain states of the Red Sea, they would
overflow through the valley, which extends from the Bitter lakes to Bubastes,
on the Nile, and the Delia might be inundated with salt water. It was,
probably, some such accident as this that caused the ancient canal to be
stopped up. A wall, at some remote period, has been built across its mouth,
and mounds have been raised in the valley, which reaches from the Bitter
lakes to Bubastes, to prevent any flow of water in that direction.

It is impossible to determine, at present, the exact direction which a canal
between Suez and the Mediterranean ought to follow ; for the necessary
borings and levels have not yet been taken with sufficient accuracy to justify
a decided opinion. In the event of no obstacle interposing, however, the
straightest line is the best ; not merely because there is less cutting, but
because the straightness of the channel will have a great tendency to keep it
clear. Captain Vetch recommends that the entrance of the canal at Suez
should be capable of being closed by gates, and that the entrance should be
situated within a basin, so as to protect the gates from the effects of storms.
He also proposes that the bottom and sides of the entrance should be pro-
tected by a strong gauge of masonry, and piles of masonry, of the form of the
cross section of the canal, should be constructed at regular distances, so as
to prevent the current from making dangerous inroads. In the whole of
these suggestions we concur ; and we would merely remark, in addition, that
we would make two sets of gates at the entrance, instead of one, as the one
set would sometimes require to be removed for repair, and might get damaged
by the awkwardness of some ship in passing through.

Captain Vetch estimates the cost of this canal at about two millions ster-
ling ; and Mr. Anderson computes that the receipts would be 200,000^. per
annum, or 10 per cent, on two millions of outlay. The canal would be used
chiefly, we think, by vessels to India. Steam-vessels would, of course, make
use of it in both directions ; but sailing vessels Jrom India would still, in our
opinion, prefer the route to India by the Cape, on account of the prevalence
of northerly winds in the superior part of the Red Sea ; and the difficulty, in
so narrow a sea, of contending with them.

There is only another question of any moment, connected with this work,
which remains to be considered ; and that is, by whom it should be under-
taken ? The Pacha of Egypt ought, in our opinion, in some way or other,
to be connected with it ; yet we do not think the weight of the enterprise
should rest upon his hands, as, in that case, the probability is, that it would
be committed to the care of some ignorant pretender, and would be executed
on an insufficient scale of magnitude. The best plan, perhaps, would be, for
the Pacha to be associated, in the undertaking, with a company of English
merchants. He would take care that all local impediments were removed, and
they would take care that the work was executed upon a proper scale, and
that the money was not uselessly squandered. We agree with Mr. Anderson,
in thinking that gain is not the only incentive that would stimulate Mehemet
Ali to take part in such a work. He appears to feel that it would add to his
renown, and be a worthy climax of that career which has already achieved
immortality.

14

Our Club.

[January,

Art. XL— OUR CLUB— No. X.

The Jubilee.

Welcome, brother labourers all !
Come ye here at Friendship's call — •

(Whose dear voice doth oft create

Joy in hearts most desolate) ;
Hither drawn by Poesy —

(That fair maid whose sacred mien

Wraps the soul in thoughts serene) ;
Or by stern Philosophy —

(His staid visage for a while

Brightened to a jovial smile) ;
Or by Curiosity —

(Who, in search of strange and new,

Lights, sometimes, on what is true) :
What for differing moods care we ?
Welcome to our jubilee !
Hither to our banquet haste !
We have food for every taste ;
Be your motives what they may —
Pleasure, profit, or mere play —
Hither come — ay, great or small 1
Welcome, welcome, one and all !

(Club.)

Scene — The Club-room: illuminated with a mild refulgence from a globe
of light, resembling the moon at full rising in the east : the western hori-
zon skirted with a dense cloud, which " turns forth its silver lining to
the night." Banquet laid out on the table. Reporting box on the side-
board.

Present, Gray, solus.

Gray {with folded arms, gazing round the room). Feth, it's a' admirably
contrived ; they '11 no ken the place again — that 's positive. Ha ! ha ! It 's
well they gave up the management to me. I certainly have a genius that way ;
neither Sir Jonah, nor that poetical chap Montgomery even, would ever
have thought of this, I 'se warrant ye. I should no wonder now if Scalpel
turns up his nose at it, and calls it a violation of decorum — protests it is not
in good keeping, and pours oot such like phrases which the critics have aye
at their fingers' ends to damp the fire, or, as they are pleased impertinently
to call it, the extravagance of genius. A pretty tame warld of it we should
hae if criticism succeeded in chaining doon genius with its airen fetters 1 But

it canna. The young eagle soars aloft into its own etherial expanse high
aboon the shafts o' criticism, and looks down with pity on its puny malevo-
lence. {Looks curiously at the self-reporter.) So this is the marvellous
production of our President. A wonderfu' man is Sir Jonah. There is no
fathoming the depths of his mind. To think, now, that this little creatur'
should be gifted as it were wi' intelligence — instinct with life. {Peeps into
it, and starts with surprise.) Preserve us a', if it is na operating awa at
this blessed moment, I 'm no man ; there it is — scribble, scribble, like, a hu-
man creatur'. Why I can see, even while I speak, the letters form them-
selves on the paper. Sauf us, but this is a most marvellous affair. No
wonder that the Artizan flourishes under the superintendence o' such a
man. {Advancing footsteps heard.) Hush ! here comes the company.
I '11 hide myself, just to hear their opinions on my handiwork, and enjoy
their surprise. {Goes behind Sir Jonah's chair.)

Enter Sir Jonah, Scalpel, and Montgomery, ushering in Lardner
and Jeffrey.

Sir Jonah. And now, gentlemen, let me bid you welcome to the Artizan
Club-room — converted for the nonce to a banqueting hall. Once before you
honoured it with your presence, and — {Turns round, as he perceives Scalpel
and Montgomery start with astonishment, on viewing the change which
the room has undergone, and all three laugh heartily.)

Gray {softly). A hearty guffaw that — at my expense too.

Montgomery. This is a metamorphosis truly : pray who is the artist,
Sir Jonah, who has shown so much judgment, as well as skill in the
affair ?

Gray {sotto). I hardly expecket that frae you, my bonny chiel.

Scalpel. Need you ask who is the artist ? 'T is Gray, to be sure ; who
else, do you think, would have concocted such a raree show ?

Sir Jonah. Ay, you are right : Gray is the culprit. Some explanation
is due in the matter, especially to you two gentlemen {turning to Lardner
and Jeffrey). Know then that Gray (who has come from Scotland on
purpose to be present at our jubilee) asked for, and obtained my consent, to
make such alterations to the room as he deemed necessary, to befit it, as he
said, for so august an occasion as our jubilee — the first anniversary of the
birth-day of the Artizan. He has taken rather a freer license than I could
have wished, or than good taste would perhaps dictate. [Gray. You too,
Sir Jonah !] But he meant well : be that his apology.

Jeffrey. Oh 1 it is a very picturesque extravaganza.

Lardner. Considerable skill is shown, too, in the execution. That moon
is really quite moonlike.

Scalpel. " Very like a whale." It is a sorry attempt altogether — I am

1844.]

Our Club.

15

surprised, Sir Jonah, at your permitting the man to perpetrate such a kick-
shaw.

Gray {rushing from his concealment). Keekshaw to your teeth, Mr.
Scalpel. You would never have had genius to conceive, nor skill to execute
such a work.

Scalpel (laughing). I should not, indeed !

Montgomery. " Listeners," you know, Gray, " hear no good of them-
selves."

Lardner and Jeffrey (in a breath). Ah ! Gray, glad to see you
(shaking him heartily by the hand). Never mind our censures. You can
afford to laugh at them.

Gray. Thank you, gentlemen, both. But it is hard, you will allow, for
flesh and blood to thole when censured by those we love. You, too, " damn-
ing with faint praise." I '11 never forgive either of you, till I have had my
revenge ; so I tell you.

Sir Jonah. Tut, man, tut ! At your time of life to expect to please every
body — you ought to know better. Remember the fable of the Man and his
Ass.

Gray. I did not expect it, Sir Jonah. I knew that Scalpel, if in one of
his crabbid humours, would have his sneer, and so I was saying to myself
before you came in.

Sir Jonah. Enough. Let us be seated. Montgomery, I nominate you
vice-president.

[The magic reporter, it is supposed, was here seized with a fit of obdu-
rate disloyalty ; for of all the preliminary toasts — such as " The Queen,"
"The Church," "Army and Navy," Sfc, 8fc. — which were, of course,
given from the Chair in due form, and drunk with all becoming warmth —
of all these, not one word hath our reporter vouchsafed to give : and of the
conversations of several additional guests who now arrived, it has preserved
no memento. It would have been easy to fill up this blank from imagina-
tion, and to intersperse it with brilliant sallies of wit, which, doubtless, were
uttered on the occasion ; but as that is a thing not to be thought of in a
veritable report, such as ours, the reader is affectionately requested to supply
the wanting matter from his reminiscences of similar interesting occasions,
and then pass on with us to the toast of the evening. ]

Sir Jonah. You are aware, gentlemen, that this is the anniversary day of
the Artizan. In the pleasure and pride derived from its unexampled suc-
cess all of us may justly share, because in it each has been more or less in-
strumental. Our gratification at the favourable reception of the Autizan is
derived, however, from a purer source than self gratulation ; for in its suc-
cess the best interests of the working-classes, I am convinced, are deeply con-
cerned. But why expatiate on such a theme to you whose contributions
have so dignified its pages, and whose encomiums, the more to be prized,
coming from such severe judges, have strengthened our feeble hands ? A set
speech would be here misplaced, especially as I purpose, by and by, to call
upon my zealous and ever honoured co-labourer opposite to sing us some-
thing in praise of the Artizan. So I beg you will hold yourself in readi-
ness, Montgomery, and Gray, — and Scalpel as well, — for each of you must
contribute your share of verse, to the harmony of the evening. Without
further preface, then, let me give you — Success to the Artizan.

Omnes. Success to the Artizan.

A great clattering of glasses, Gray hob-a-nobbing with every one in his
vicinity.

Lardner. Mr. President, I crave permission to give a toast.

Sir Jonah. It is given as soon as asked.

Lardner. At the outset of your undertaking, I looked very doubtingly
upon the institution of "Our Club" — I could not divine its purpose. I
wish now to make the amende honorable ; for " Our Club," so far from ap-
pearing misplaced or purposeless, is to my mind one of the most charming
features in the Magazine. I fancy that it gives evidence at times that a cer-
tain person (looking significantly at Jeffrey) takes his share in the dialogue.
Gentlemen, I give you — The health of the members of "Our Club," and
may their monthly sittings continue to delight and enlighten the world.

Gray. That 's very like drinking to our noble selves. Shame will prevent
its being drunk with much spirit.

Jeffrey and Lardner. Gray ! Gray !

Sir Jonah. You hear, Alexis, you are called on to speak to the toast just
given.

Gray. Na, that maun surely be meant for a taunt. It is long since I had
any han' in the doings of the Club, although I have often longed, I '11 confess, to
be wi' you when far awa. For my part, I never had any misgivings, though
many persons had, about the success of the Club. I knew what stuff ye a'
were made o'. And did na Sir Jonah himsel', in the second Number, say, in
answer to the doubts enterteened concerning the purposes of the Club, —
" Twelve months hence our superfine literati may understand more about our
aims, as well as about our means of giving them effect ?" And did na some-
body say at the same time how that we would " touch the hearts of the
illiterate with a live coal from the altar of genius ?" Sure, truer prophets
never spake. I think the world pretty well kens by this time all aboot the
" aim" and " means " of Our Club ; it has spoken out with a voice not to
be misunderstood, and wi' a power which all maun hae felt. In conclusion,
Sir President, I would make bold to drink to the health of our venerated visit-

ors, Misters Jeffrey and Lardner and the lave, and may Our Club be often
honoured with their presence, and the Artizan with their writings. (Mut-
teringly) — That 's a fair tit for tat. I 've caught them in their own trap.
[Drunk with three times three.']

Jeffrey. You do me too much honour. I am sure that the gentleman
whose name is coupled with mine in the toast just given, and so flatteringly
received, will agree with me, that it is a sufficient honour to be thus admitted
to your editorial sanctum. My abilities, such as they are, you know that
you can command ; and I only regret, for the sake of the Artizan, or in
other words, for the sake of the public, that they are not of more avail.

Lardner. To the remarks of my worthy friend I have only, on my own
account, to repeat, that to the sayings and doings of Our Club I
attach infinite importance. Of the scientific portion of the Artizan, there
is, I believe, but one opinion. What that is I need not say — nor, indeed,
from me, would any Pcean be perhaps altogether becoming.

Sir Jonah. Now, if you please, Montgomery, for your song. I would
just hint to you that, as it is to save you from making a speech, which, in
your capacity of vice-chairman, is expected from you, the lines should be
applicable to the subject of our meeting.

_ Montgomery. I fear I am not rightly in the key to-night. Scalpel, with
Sir Jonah's permission, I must beg you to go on with something while I
endeavour to collect my ideas.

Scalpel. I have no objection. (Sings.)

The Artizan.

Artizans ! for you we toil :

Oft — how oft ! — the midnight oil

We have burn'd for your dear sake, —
Toiling many a weary hour,

That with us ye might partake
One and all of wisdom's dower ;

Striving ever to impress

This great truth with earnestness —

Knowledge is the spring of power —
On your heart of hearts, that ye
Might be wise, and just, and free,
So upraise each artizan
To a veritable man.

Man I what power is in that word !
Rightly spoken — rightly heard,
To its depths the mind is stirr'd
With a kind of dread amaze —
In bewilderment we gaze,
Dimm'd by the excessive blaze.

Ye who 'd reason's depths explore,
Or in beauty's regions soar,
Search that miracle call'd man —
All his complications scan.
Mind ! that beautiful profound —
Plummet ne'er its depths could sound —
Dimly seen the riches shine
Of that all but unwork'd mine.

Giant ! waking from thy trance —

Captive ! struggling to get free
From the bonds which ignorance

In thy nonage forged for thee —
Eaglet ! whose unpractised glance
Strives to pierce the far expanse,

Soon to scour earth, sky, and sea,

Winging, with tempestuous glee,
Like a thunderbolt, thy race
Through illimitable space —

Thee in each we pictured see

Mind ! thou spark of Deity !

To upraise man's low estate,

Prompt, enlighten, elevate, —

Purge the bad, and re-create

All the good ; behold our plan

Thus to mould each Artizan

To a veritable man.
Jeffrey. Excellent ! Why, Scalpel, that is a flash of the vigour of your
early youth. How you misconceived yourself when you set up for a misan-
thrope ; you have none of the requisite ingredients, man, for such a
character.

Montgomery. Scalpel has, perhaps, rather too keen a sense of the ridicu-
lous for his own comfort. A foible is to him what the rumpled rose-leaf was
to the Sybarite.

Sir Jonah. I am not aware that Scalpel ever set himself up as a misan-
thrope. There may be those who have imputed such a character to him.
But they know not the man.

16

Our Club.

[January,

Gray. It's a' in the manner — he's a wee rouch an' rugged — no polished,
like me. Then he 's perpetually twitting me, as Sir Jonah ca's it : but I ken
he means nae harm. Misanthropic, indeed — didna he rescue a poor —

Scalpel {putting his hand on Gray's mouth). Have done, have done;
we want no sycophants here, to trumpet forth a man's praises to his face.—
Montgomery, I call upon you for your song. You 've had plenty of time to
think of the subject ; and, as Sir Jonah has set me improvising, he shall have
abundance of songs to-night : on that I am determined.

Gray. The more the better, for I daur say it will save muckle foolish
talk.

Sir Jonah. Hush ! Alexis, be more guarded over your words.

Scalpel. He means, that it will keep him from talking, Sir Jonah. I
am glad the man possesses so much self-knowledge.

Gray. I 'm no angry — ye canna mak' me.

Lardner. Now then, Montgomery.

Montgomery. My stave will be lugubriously sentimental ; so I prepare
you.

Gray. All aboot plighted troth, an' vows forsworn, an' broken hearts.
Let 's hae it in a' its horrors.

Montgomery, with much feeling, sings the following

Serenade.

Wake, Mary, wake ! it is the hour

You loved in former days so well ;
And still as sweetly blooms each flower,

As blithely through your own loved dell
The wild birds pour their joyous strain :
Shall they and I but sing in vain ?

Wake, Mary, wake !

A lovelier morn ne'er rose on earth :

What glories meet the raptured eye !
How softly swells the song of mirth !

How sweet the rose's fragrant sigh !
Earth's radiant things — around, above, —
All nature breathes a tale of love.

Wake, Mary, wake !

Wake, loved one, wake ! for ah 1 too soon

These rapt'rous moments fleet away ;
Like flowers, which, ere the burning noon,

Have wither' d into dull decay.
Life hath but few such joys as this :
O haste ! and seize the fleeting bliss.

Wake, Mary, wake 1'

I've cull'd for thee each lovely flower,

I've wreath'd a chaplet for thy brow,
I've deck'd with spring's first fruits thy bower,

But, Mary ! Mary ! where art thou ?
Each beauteous object chides thy stay :
O, why dost thou so long delay ?

Wake, Mary, wake !
Jeffrey. Beautiful, but incomplete. I must tack on a sequel. (Recites
with solemnity) —

Hark ! in low whispers, faintly heard,

Some far-off echo seems replying —
Like leaves with summer breathings stirr'd,

Or e'en as Nature's self were sighing —
A dirge-like moaning on the gale —
And this the burthen of the wail : —

Nor spring's gay smile, nor summer's bloom,

Will cheer again thy Mary's breast ;
Oh I nought can lighten now the gloom

Where low she sleeps in dreamless rest.
In vain the birds their wild notes pour,

And flowers their choicest fragrance shed —
E'en thy glad voice delights no more :

Ah ! what can rouse the slumb'ring dead ?

Sleep, Mary, sleep '
LapvDNEr. Pitched in the il penseroso key, but withal most sweet. There
is no gift I envy more than that of thus giving expression to one's sentiments
in verse. How poetry leads the soul captive — giving to truth a twofold charm
— playing upon our heart-strings, and evoking thence most subtle music !

Sir Jonah. I fully agree with you, sir, as to the elevating tendency of
poetry ; and you will perceive we make pretty free use of it, from time to
time, in Our Club — such sort, at least, as our Artizans can produce ; and I
really think they acquit themselves respectably, all things considered.

Jeffrey. Our young friend at the foot of the table could, single-handed,
maintain the honour of any manufactory, if he only chose to put forth his
strength. It is rare to find so delicate a taste with so comprehensive a one,
or so much vigour with so much sensibility.

Gray. Haud — haud — you '11 shame the callant. Dinna ye see hoo he
blushes areddy ! But the truth is, he 's as clever as he 's braw, an' as
amiable as he 's clever.

Sir Jonah. Come, come, Alexis, you are only making the matter worse ;
though, indeed, I cannot contradict you. I will not ask you, my boy, to
reply to these fine compliments, for I know you can say nothing ; but, if you
will, you may give us another song, to extricate yourself from the dilemma.

Montgomery (sings) —

I tread alone the sacred spot

Long consecrate to love and thee,
Where once it was my happy lot

To hear thy vows of constancy ;
And oh ! all other joys above !
When first I breathed my tale of love,
To feel thy beating heart reply,
And give me, answering, sigh for sigh.

But all the hopes which then shone bright,

And flourish'd as the flowers of spring,
Now mourn a desolating blight,

And cheerless lie, and withering.
I look back on the happy past
As on a dream too sweet to last ;
And ah ! a dreary blank to me
Are present and futurity.
Gray. It 's glorious ! — an' she maun be a gude for naethin' jaud. But
dinna greet, my bonnie callant : here, dicht your een wi' this naupkin.

Scalpel. Pooh ! it 's all pretence ; and, if not, who could feel thus who
had the spirit of a mite ? Any puling rhymester could spin such poetry by
the yard. I must cure this weak sentimentalism, by Sir Jonah's permission.
(Sings) —

Crumbs of Comfort for a Love-sick Swain.

Come, cease this childish folly,

And dry these foolish tears ;
Why should dark melancholy

Invade youth's sunny years ?

Because a jilt deceived thee,

Why make so much ado ?
Thou mayest find, believe me,

As fair, and far more true.

Nay, tell not of her graces,

Her many witching wiles —
When round thee radiant faces

Are brightening with smiles ;

And hearts with love are glowing,

And eyes glance tenderly ;
And Beauty is bestowing

Her blandishments on thee.

O shame ! to pine in sadness,

Those beauteous forms to leave !
To turn from haunts of gladness,

For one false fair to grieve !

Then cease this childish folly,

And dry these foolish tears ;
Nor let dark melancholy

Abridge youth's joyous years.

There — I put it to the company, whether my song is not better than the
lack-a-daisical production that preceded it ?

Gray. Your song better ! — as if the likes o' you could haud a caunle to
Montgomery !

Sir Jonah. For my part, I do not aspire to determine the knotty question.

Gray. Then I '11 determine it; an' I determine it by sayin', that Mont-
gomery's is divine, an' yours — pretty fair.

Montgomery. The point is not worth contesting. We are not a pair of
poetical gladiators, but merely seek to make ourselves agreeable to our worthy
friends here assembled. But, if I do not mistake, Alexis, you told me you
had prepared a song yourself in honour of this occasion.

Gray. That have I. Ah', what is more, I 've been burstin' this half-
hour to deliver it ; for I 'm flied, that it gangs oot o' my head ; an' I canna
mak' a sang at a breath, as you twa gentry can. I hae na book lear aneuch
for that.

Lardner. Your song, I presume, is something about the steam-engine?

Gray. Then your presumption is quite in the wrang, as presumption
generally is. A bonnie thing 't weel be to mak' a sang aboot — the overhang
o' the beam, an' lap o' the slide, an' way o' fixin' the holding-down bolts,
or of makin' the foot or discharge -valves gang easy! These are a' poetical
subjects, truly. O, Doctor, Doctor, does your raither know you 're oot ?

Sir Jonah. Now, Alexis, I must call you to order — really, you 're very
rude.

Montgomery. Let us have the song : it is to the pressure within we owe
the impetuosity without.

1844.]

Our Club.

17

Jeffrey. And, pray pitch it in a sprightly key — something after the
fashion of V allegro.

Gray. Na, I dinna ken what ye mean by your foreign lingos ; but I '11
tell you what I would wish my sang to be— the blast o' a trumpet, to mak'
your hearts dirl within your bosoms ; and then, again, like the distant bag-
pipe, echoed by the rocks o' my native valley, subdued, an' woefu', an' soli-
tary, so as to melt your very heart into tears. That 's what I would do, if I
could. Shall I go on ?

(Sir Jonah nods assent.)

Gray sings —

Rhymes of the Poor.

The rank is but the guinea stamp ;
The man 's the gowd for a' that."

Burns.

I sing the Poor ! The Rich can bribe
Flattery frae many a hireling scribe ;
But me ? — I '11 shun the venal tribe,
Nor add one to the number more,
Wha sell their sangs for glittering ore.
No — I '11 not prostitute my lays ;
My 'feckless voice I rather raise
To celebrate the poor man's praise.
I sing the Poor !

The rich man doth some deed o' worth ;
A thoosan' clarions trumpet forth
To a' the corners o' the earth

The wondrous tale :
His lights on every hill are seen,
An' fix mankind's admiring een :

Yet, not without avail
In Poverty's low hut, I ween,
The light of love doth burn serene,
Though by the multitude unseen,

Deep hidden in the vale.

Its bonny glimmer shineth clear,
Bright'ning, within its narrow sphere,
All the relationships so dear,

O' parent — husband — wife.
What merry groups ilk ane may see !
What pictures o' felicity

In humble life '

Such scenes o' perfect happiness
The human heart doth seldom bless,

As in the poor man's hut is known,
When, frae his daily toil set free,

His bairnies welcome dad's return
Wi' mony a noisy burst o' glee ;
The youngest perch'd upon his knee,

As cheerily the fire doth burn,
An' the gade wife, wi' quiet smile,
Attends his savouiy mess the while.

Proud as a monarch on his throne

Is he— for these are all his own.

Ay ! let the vulgar great disdain
The sons o' care, an' toil, an' pain,
And o' themsells unseemly vain,

Scorn a' below.
One o' your sells, O, let me not,
Unmindfu' of your rugged lot,

Contumely throw.
Your many vices— chief of all,
Vile drunkenness, whose hellish thrall
Holds iron bondage o' the soul, —

Owre weel I know.

But while for vice we heave a sigh,
To virtue shall we close the eye —

Blind only there ?
Intent for fauts alone to pry

Wi' howlet stare ?

No — let the better part be mine
To show their virtues as they shine

O'er Life's dark way ;
To prove that in each bosom's shrine
Still burns unquench'd the spark divine,

Though dimmed its ray.

And Education's breath will blow
That spark into a flame whose glow,

Serenely bright,
Shall soften doun the shades o' woe
An' owre the gloomiest prospects throw

A chastened light,
Like that which moonlight doth impart
To the dark sorrows o' the heart.

Though on the simple poor looks down
The noble wi' disdainfu' frown,
Oft might he from the veriest clown

A lesson learn ;
An' oft beneath a home-spun gown

Affections burn
Micht shame full many a high-born jade
Flauntin' in satins an' brocade.

Nature's nobility surpass

Art's creatures, as the horse the ass,

Or man the monkey-kind ;
It 's true they are na formed to grace
A court wi' sycophant grimace,
Or stab a foe wi' smilin' face ;

Not to one spot or race confined,
They spring promiscuous every place
To dignify the human race.

Ane o' these worthies know I well,
An' o' his life such tales could tell

As would each honest heart delight ;
But, being well-nigh spent in rhyme,
Must leave it to some future time

His history to write.

No baron, earl, or duke, was he :
To fix, atweel, his due degree,
Wad task the scrolls of heraldry,

And shame the paltry art :
He knew nought of earth's pageantry ;
A common labourer was he,

Wha drove his horse and cart ;
His patent of nobility

Was of the heart ;
His 'scutcheon was his own true breast,
Wi' virtue's coat-of-arms imprest !

Spirit of Independence ! thou

Dost deck the common labourer's brow,

In pride of honesty,
With a far nobler coronet
Than graced the haughtiest forehead yet

Of aristocracy.
Dukes, earls, and barons — great and small —
One honest man is worth ye all !

0 Honesty ! best policy
Indeed thou art.

Can wealth, or fame, or rank impart
Such hallowed joy as springs from thee,

Gem of the heart ?
The lowliest mortal, thee possessing,
Is wealthy in thine own rich blessing.

1 sing no rich man's merits. He
Lives shrined in fame's emblazonry ;

Him multitudes adore ;
His deeds of generosity
Are writ in sunbeams all can see :

What wants he more ?
The deeds o' virtuous poverty,
These are the fittest themes for me —
I sing the Poor !
(Prodigious applause, distinguished in the notation of the reporter by nu-
merous blurs and contortions in the writing,)
Sir Jonah. Why, my dear Alexis, you have outdone yourself — I never
heard anything half so admirable or half so benevolent.

Scalpel. Your hand, my worthy friend — that song has clinched the few
loose rivets in our friendship — I have done with bantering for the future ; and
you may stick yon moon of yours in the floor, or beneath the table, for what
I care. The man who can conceive such a song as that, whatever be his
whimsicalities, is sacredly exempt from aught of ridicule at my hands.

Montgomery. You have indeed roused us with the voice of a trumpet.
I fear our " book lear," as you call it, stands little chance against so vigor-
ous a genius —

18

Engines of the Steam-Vessel " Nimrod"

[January,

Gray. Noo that 's ane o' the maist sensiblest things you 've said the
nicht-, for I ken, brawlies, I 'm a man o' genius, and what 's the use —

Jeffrey. But where, may I ask, did you pick up that wild, unearthly
music to which your lines are set ? Sure it was formed by the spirits of air
in their midnight revels round the top of Lochnagar.

Gray. Ah ! that 's a secret. Whether it was given to me by a war-
lock, or by some natural-born genius made a musician of by frequent com-
munings with nature in her wildest mood, and who framed it as if in scorn o'
your rules of art, I am no gaun to tell.

Lardner. Well, we must drink to your health and song, I suppose.

Jeffrey. Yes ; and may as well include the two previous performers in
the aspiration — The Rival Nightingales ?

Gray. The what? Rival Nightingales? He! he! haugh! — a ;bonnie
cagefu'. Haugh! haugh! haw. It 's capital !

Lardner. How is it that we have not been favoured with the company
of your reporting-box this evening, Sir Jonah? I expected to have seen
this curiosity of science.

Jeffrey. Ay, ay, the msgic-reporter — where is it?

Sir Jonah. It is in the room, gentlemen.

Jeffrey. What, here ? And has it been chronicling Gur sayings ?

Gray. That 1'se warrant ye it has. I took a peep into it before ye cam
in, and faith it was working away just like a leevin' creatur'.

Lardner. But surely it does not work when there is nothing for it to
do ? Coining words when none are uttered ?

Gray. No ; but ye maun ken I ha'e a knack of talking to myself at
times ; so, whilst I was speaking, I could see the words as they dropped from
my lips form themselves on the paper. It 's a real fact, 1 can assure ye.

Lardner. May I be permitted to inspect it, Sir Jonah ?

Sir Jonah. Most certainly. Perhaps Gray will take it to you.

Gray. That will I. [Takes the box from the sideboard with a reverential
air, andplaces it on the table before Lardner. .] Here, Doctor, is a thing not
to be equalled ia the whole world, I take it. Do ye see ? Whilst I am speak-
ing— jot — jot — down goes every word as steady as clockwork.

Lardner [examining it curiously). It is indeed a miracle of human skill.
It must have cost you much time, after the crude suggestion had first flashed
upon your mind, Sir Jonah, to bring it to maturity ?

Sir Jonah. Many years of persevering toil. Sometimes baffled for a
length of time in some apparently trifling point ; but gradually, bit by bit,
overcoming all difficulties.

Jeffrey {eyeing the box attentively). Little skilled as I confess myself
to be in chemistry and mechanics, there is no wonder that I cannot conceive
what the manner of the process is : I can only wonder and admire.

Enter Servant with another bowl of punch.

Scalpel. Most opportunely arrived.

Montgomery. Yes ; we cannot do better than drink to our President's
health.

Jeffrey. In a bumper ?

Gray. Ay, ay. -■" Whatever the drink, it a bumper must be."

Lardner. With all my heart ; and pray couple with Sir Jonah this piece
of natural magic.

Scalpel. Our wotrthy President and his Self-reporter.

{The toast, drunk with enthusiasm : all standing.)

Sir Jonah. Honoured friends,- — from the bottom of my soul I thank
you for this mark of your regard. Praise is at all times dear to the human
iieart ; how much, then, must it be prized by me on the present occasion,
coming, as it does, from friends long tried ; whose praise is not tendered
lightly, and whose attachment I know to be as deep as it is ardent ! Permit
me, in return, to drink to your very good health, one and all.

Montgomery. Here 's to our next merry meeting.

{Drunk with much cheering.)

Gray. [Aside. Umph ! strong symptoms of breaking up, I 'm thinkin'.
There canna be a better time. Sir Jonah is just sittin' as he oucht to do for
his picture, wi' the ladle in his han' an' his feet upon the wee stule there ;
an' Montgomery, opposite to him, will show his bonnie profile. It 's nae
odds for the lave except mysel', an' I took care to put on my best coat an'
brawest ruffled shirt to meet the occasion. Some o' them will no like to see
the pictures o' their bald pows ; but then there 's Montgomery and me to
grace the group. I '11 tak my staun here by the fire an' engage them a' in
conversation while the man is striking it aff. Ah! there 's Mr. Varryjust
come in : he '11 be took as well. It will do exactly.] Rings the bell.

[The bell is no sooner rung than the decorations of the room disappear — the
moon suffers an eclipse — the ordinary Boccius globe-lamps resume their
wonted position on the table — and the sanctum recovers its ordinary
aspect.']

Montgomery. Hallo ! The place is bewitched.

Sir Jonah. Why, what means all this, Alexis ? What infernal machinery
have you beneath the floor to work all these theatrical enchantments ?

Jeffrey. Machinery ? I hope there 's nothing that can explode. Really
transformations of this description are scarcely safe or prudent.

Gray. Poo ! ye needna be on the fidgets ; am I no' here mysel' ; an' div

ye think T 'd blow myself 'up wi' gas or pouther ? There 's nae machinery
forbye that wee bit black box in the wa'.

Mr. Vairy [Aside. There 's a demon in the box ; he 's actually making
signals to it] . What does the box contain ?

Gray. It contains you, an' me, an' Sir Jonah, an' us a' ; or, at least, will
contain very shortly. Na, Sir Jonah, you needna put that smirk upon your
face, for I 'm no' fou, that 's positive. It 's as true as the book o' Nehemiah.

Montgomery. Why, man, the box is not twelve inches square.

Gray. Ay, ay, lauch awa' — maybe it '11 be a little against you presently ;
but I told you I 'd ha'e my revenge.

Jeffrey. [Aside. An explosion to a certainty.] What means the man ?

Gray. Why this ; that 1 've stolen a march upon you a'. As Sir Jonah
has thought proper to give a' our stitchet sangs to the world and vapouring
speeches, I have thought that they might as well ha'e our portraits also ; so,
whilst you 've been boozing here, I got a chap to tak' ye all aff by the po-
pho-to — ay, that 's it — the photographic system ; and there you are in the
box every father's son o' ye.

Sir Jonah. Now, Alexis, have done with your jokes.

Gray. Jokes ? It 's nae jokes— as sure ,as death. What 's mair, too,
I ha'e told the printer to clap the picture aboon Sir Jonah's report, so that
you '11 be a' kent noo. You won't be able to walk the streets without hearing
ae laddie whispering to anither, " that 's Sir Jonah,'' and '•' that 's Scalpel ;"
an' the lasses will be sayin', " there goes Montgomery, the bonnie chiel that
sings the love-sangs ;" and " there 's me, a braw an' salutary man ;" and the
men will be a' spierin' when the next Club sits, an' whether we '11 let them
in. I tell you ye 're marked for life.

Sir Jonah. It 'sa most malevolent invention.

Gray. Not waur than yon clyping-box there : mine is only a magical
reporter o' the ootside, but yours is of the heart. I told you I 'd ha'e my
revenge.

Montgomery. And most skilfully you have taken it ; but I hope the
printer will have more sense than to put it in.

Gray. It 's in already— now bein' prented ; for you see the — the — ay,
the process prents an' carves at the same time, according to the last improve-
ment. But I see the Bockys are beginning to wink, an' — for you see 1 broch
them back an' performed the ither cantrip o' makin' the room as ordinal-', to
prevent the photy writing it down ; for if the extravaganzas had been pic-
tured, as our frien' ca's them, folk wad hae thoucht it was Beldam we
were in.

Sir Jonah. The toast.

Cray. Ay, this is it. You 've been drinking success to a' sorts o' per-
sons an' things the nicht except one class o' persons for whom we 'd, I sure,
a' do muckle. I therefore give you, " Success to the readers of the Artizan;
— may they increase in knowledge and in numbers."

Lardner. A right good toast.

Jeffrey. Ay, we '11 drink it with hearty good will.

Sir Jonah. Fill all glasses — to the brim.

Omnes. SUCCESS TO THE READERS OF THE ARTIZAN.

[Drunk with the most rapturous enthusiasm — again, and again — and one
time more, and then anothei — and then once more ; Gray volunteering the
musical hips, in which Sir Jonah joins heart and soul. The bowl of punch
is ladled dry. The guests break up, with many cordial shakes by the
hand; and hopes expressed of more such merry-makings. And so the
curtain drops upon the first Anniversary Jubilee of the Artizan. Reader,
we wish you had been at it.]

Art. XII.— ENGINES OF THE STEAM-VESSEL "NIMROD,"
BY MESSRS. BURY, CURTIS, AND CO.

We give in our present number a portrait of the direct-action engines intro-
duced by Messrs. Bury and Co. into the Nimrod, of which we gave a carica-
ture in the Atlas plate of direct-action engines. Of the merits of Messrs,
Bury's plan we have already expressed our opinions, aod have now only to
furnish such technical explanations as will make the structure of the engines
more fully comprehended. This will best be done by furnishing letters of
reference in the usual way, and they are as follows : — rA, cylinder ; B, air-
pump ; C, slide-valve ; D, slides for guiding bottom of side-rods ; E, con-
denser separated into two chambers by a diaphram, which chambers are con-
nected or disconnected by the valve O ; F, hot wells ; G, expansion-valve ;
H, feed-pump ; I, bilge-pumps ; J, cross-head ; K, cross-tail ; L, inner side-
rods ; M, outer side-rods; N, columns; P, cane for expansion-valve; Q,
air-pump cross-head ; R, air-pump connecting-rod ; S, air-pump slides ; T,
crank or intermediate shaft for working air-pump ; U, steam-pipe ; V,
cranks ; W, shaft; X, framing ; Y, waste water-pipe ; Z, eduction-pipe.

The air-pump, it will be seen, is double-acting; and there are two injec-
tion-pipes, fj q, one for the upper and the other for the under condenser.
This air-pump has not, we understand, recommended itself so fully as Messrs.
Bury expected, though we are at a loss to conceive why. The foot and dis-
charge-valves appear to us to be set at too great an angle : they will strike
more heavily than if more upright.

18-44.]

Relative Merits of Wood and Iron Steamers.

19

Art. XIII.— DISCONNECTING GEAR FOR PADDLE-WHEELS.

In our last number we gave drawings of the disconnecting gear employed by-
Messrs. Maudslay and by Messrs. Miller, but had not space left for the de-
scription of those plans, which we therefore now give. Messrs. Millers' plan
is a mere clutch upon the shaft, the paddle-wheel being loose upon the shaft,
and consequently moving with the engine only when the clutch is in gear.
Messrs. Maudslay's plan is less easily comprehended, and requires a longer
explanation to make it understood.

The plumber-block and bottom brass is made and fitted in the ordinary
way, but the top brass is five inches longer than the bottom one, and fitted
into the bearing of the shaft. In the top of this brass is a recess and teeth-
rack, as shown at A ; and in gear with this rack is a wrought-iron pinion
with four teeth (cut out of the solid) ; the spindle of pinion passes up through
the centre of plumber-block cover, and a brass wheel is keyed on itb as shown
at B. In gear with this wheel is an endless screw, and the spindle of it is led
up to a convenient part of the deck. The person to disconnect the paddle is
stationed at the end of the screw-spindle, and drives it round until the paddle-
crank is drawn out of the crank-pin. An index-point is fixed on to the top
of the brass wheel, and another is fixed to the plumber-block cover, and the
disconnexion is complete when the two index -points are together ; but these
points and the recess in the side of the paddle-crank are more for the purpose
of safely forming a connexion while the intermediate shaft is revolving.

Suppose one of the paddles to be disconnected, the two index-points would
then be together, and the person to connect the paddle is looking to the points
while he turns the screw-spindle till the points are run over about two inches
from each other, the paddle-crank has thus been moved so as to come three-
eighths of an inch (which is the depth of recess inside of paddle-crank) in
contact with the pin ; so that, the pin coming round, drops into the recess
and strikes against the opposite side of the hole. The man at the end of the
spindle, on seeing this, quickly turns the screw-spindle until the two points
are right opposite each other. The connexion is then complete, and the iron
palls, P, are made to fall into the recess inside of top brass. The connexion
continues till the palls are lifted out and the brass wheel moved back the
half-turn ; the top brass and paddle-shaft has then been moved five inches
out, and the other palls are made to fall in so as to maintain the discon-
nexion.

Art. XIV.— RELATIVE MERITS OF WOOD AND IRON
STEAMERS.

This is a subject upon which we can no longer refrain from saying some-
thing, though we fear we are hardly prepared to say all that will probably be
expected of us. The question, however, has now become of such pressing im-
portance, that we can no longer urge our own imperfect preparation as a reason
for further delay, but must prepare to deliver ourselves of what we have to say,
whatever be its quality. We shall, therefore, here set down a few of the
more prominent considerations which have suggested themselves to us by the
way of an instalment ; and shall add, on some future occasion, any further
remarks which appear to us as important.

The advantages of iron, as a material for river steamers, we consider to
have been already demonstrated ; and the present inquiry will, therefore, be
restricted to the question of the eligibility, or otherwise, of iron, as the ma-
terial of large sea-going steamers. This inquiry, though one upon which we
have long purposed to enter, has been more immediately pressed upon our
attention, at the present time, by the announcement that the Peninsular and
Oriental Steam Company purposes to build a large iron vessel of 1500 tons,
or thereby, for maintaining the communication between Suez and Calcutta.
The general question is obviously involved in the expediency, or otherwise,
of this particular measure ; and our remarks will have reference chiefly to this
measure, though, of course, applicable universally.

Of the objections brought against iron vessels, there are three only which
appear to us to have any plausibility. These are, 1st, the corrosion of the
iron in salt-water ; 2nd, the accumulation of sea-weed and barnacles on the
bottom ; and, 3rd, the tendency of the iron to become brittle. These objec-
tions, it must be premised, are to a great extent hypothetical ; for they can-
not be shown to have, in any case, proceeded to a very injurious extent ; and
one of them, at least, is certainly imaginary. Nevertheless, in a work of
such magnitude and expense, as this vessel will be, the existence of a doubt
is of itself a reasonable objection ; and, to justify the fabrication of such a
work of iron, it must be shown not only that the charges against that mate-
rial are unproved, but that they are fictitious.

We begin, then, with the offence of corrosion : and here we must admit
that there is some reason for the charge, provided the iron be unpainted. But
no one thinks of launching an iron vessel without first painting her ; and,
with an occasional coat of paint, there is no corrosion discoverable. While
writing this we have received a letter from Messrs. Todd and M'Gregor, of
Glasgow, in reply to some inquiries of ours upon this very point. They say,
*' We are taking the boilers out of the ' Royal George,' after running four
years and a half, to replace them with new ones ; and we find the vessel as
free from decay as when she was launched. We have found red lead to be
the best kind of paint, when well put on ; and the time it will last is not
ascertained."

We should not be disposed, however, to trust altogether to paint, as an
antidote to corrosion, in so remote and inaccesible a situation as the Indian
seas. The vessel, in ascending or descending the Ganges, might at times
touch the bottom, and rub off the paint in some places ; and, in the parts
thus left unprotected, corrosion would certainly begin. If it were possible
or convenient to dock the vessel at the end of every voyage, to examine or
paint the bottom afresh, any such accidental removal of a part of the paint
could not be productive of much mischief. But we suppose this could not
be done ; and even if it could, the inconvenience would be an objection : so
that it appears necessary to make such provision, that corrosion wiJl not take
place even if the paint be rubbed off. With this view, the plates of the
bottom should, we think, be zinked within and without. If the paint were
rubbed off, the zinc would still preserve the iron ; and if both paint and zinc
were rubbed off the outside, the iron would still be shielded from corrosion,
by the galvanic influence of the zinc inside — the bilge-water being sufficient,
or capable of being made sufficient, to complete the galvanic circuit.

To carry out this idea, it would merely be necessary to build the ship with
zinked plates instead of unzinked plates — not to zinc the hull after it has
been completed. It would not be necessary to zinc the rivets, as their prox-
imity to the zinked surface would be an effectual protection. Jeffrey's
Marine Glue is, we believe, preferable to paint, for coating the bottom ; and
by mixing this substance with arsenic, previous to its application, the ad-
hesion of weeds and barnacles will be effectually prevented. In fact, an
arsenical paint of any kind is an effectual remedy against these adhesions —
the arsenic being destructive of both animal and vegetable life.

We have now, then, disposed of two out of the three objections against
iron ships, and the last may be treated still more summarily, as experience
shows it to be a mere fabrication. There are innumerable iron boats and
barges on the various canals throughout the country, some of which have
been in use for twenty years, and no symptom of brittleness is discoverable in
them, though full of cruel bruises, in consequence of large stones, pigs of iron,
and other similarly unceremonious materials, having been forcibly thrown into
their holds ; or, to take a steamer as the experimentum cruris, we have the
Aaron Manby, built in 1822, sometimes running in salt water and sometimes
in fresh, and now full of dinges from the rough usage to which she has been
exposed in the Seine. This vessel has never shown any symptom of brittle-
ness ; and we might adduce numerous other instances as verifications of the
same general result. It would be idle, however, to waste more time in
fencing with a phantom ; and we have not a single well-authenticated case to
show that the brittleness. imputed to iron vessels has any real existence.

We have spent so much time in considering the objections to iron steamers
— among which we have not enumerated falsification of the compass, as every
one knows that defect to have been completely overcome — that we have very
little room left to speak of their recommendations. Nor, indeed, is it neces-
sary that we should say much upon this subject, as they are, for the most
part, abundantly conspicuous. We may, however, here repeat what has been
often asserted and never denied, that iron ships are more buoyant than wooden
ones — have a greater internal capacity — and are less subject to danger from
collision,, fire, or lightning, the electric fluid being conducted by the iron into
the water. In tropical climates, too, they are more cleanly and more salu-
brious ; and, in the event of the vessel striking a rock, the injury will pro-
bably be less than in a wooden vessel. If, however, a hole should be made
in the bottom, the water-tight bulkheads will prevent the vessel from foun-
dering ; and although these bulkheads may certainly be applied in wooden
vessels, it is in iron vessels in which they may be introduced with the greatest
ease and efficacy. The subjoined cut represents the injury done to the " Phle-
getbon," during the war in China, by striking upon a rock. It is the opinion
of the persons on board the vessel, that a wooden steamer in such a situation
would have gone to pieces ; but the vessel steamed into port after the acci-
dent had occurred, the sternmost compartment only having been filled with
water.

One fault of many of the iron steamers which have been heretofore con-
structed is, that they are too weak. The accompanying is a rough sketch of
part of the starboard side of the H. C. iron steamer "Nemesis," seen from
the interior, showing where she broke down in doubling the Cape of Good
Hope, and the means taken to repair her on the Coast of Africa. Both sides
are alike.

»2

20

Steam-Boat Boilers.

[January,

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A, top stringer ; B, middle do. ; C, lower do. ; D, after paddle-beam ;
E E, line showing extent of crack ; dotted lines round the above, showing
extent of new plating ; F F, end of coal-box ; G G, part of coal-box ; H H,
part of engine-room ; I I I, showing the spaces between the angle-irons filled
up with wood ; K, end section of stringers ; L L, deck angle iron ; large dots
on stringers, showing the points of the (|in.) bolts which secured them to the
ship's side. The " Pluto" met with a similar accident.

The want of strength thus made manifest in this vessel is a very serious
fault, and it is one, we believe, which attaches to iron vessels very extensively.
The " Nemesis" was built by Mr. Laird, one of the most experienced iron
ship-builders in the kingdom, and his production may, we think, fairly be
taken as a specimen of the average practice. It is obvious, however, that the
error is one that is easily corrected ; but its correction is of the utmost im-
portance, and, in the case of a large vessel, deficient strength would be fatal.

From the tenor of these remarks, we believe our readers will have little
difficulty in guessing to which kind of steamer we incline. The iron, indeed,
has a thousand claims to our suffrages, while the wood has very few ; and in
future ages, when wooden vessels will have ceased to hold .any existence but
in the page of the historian, mankind will begin to wonder at their own
temerity in having trusted their lives in such fragile and precarious structures
as wooden ships will then appear to them to be. In that history the Directors
of the Peninsular Company, through whose enterprize and penetration the
first grand step in the supercession of wooden vessels is to be effected, must
hold an honourable place, for the merit is by no means insignificant, of having
taken so bold a step and wrought out so majestic an improvement without
shaking the public confidence, or raising a doubt of the success.

Art. XV.— GRAY'S EPISTLES TO THE ENGINEERS OF THE
UNIVERSE.— No. I.
Beloved, — I hereby begin to give you my promised instructions in the whole
art and science of steam, for you must know that I am very anxious that the
working-men should understand such subjects well, and that they can do if
they like. There is no difficulty whatever in the matter ; for, to tell you the
truth, these philosopher folk ken far less than they pretend, and it is easy
for any man to be upsides with them if he has only common sense. It is
them that make things appear wise, and learned, and diffeequelt, when there
is no mystery or hardness about them.

The first thing of which I have to speak is of the nature of heat, and this
subject is, in a small degree, kittle, the fact being that nobody knows much
about the thing. Some of the philosophers say that heat is merely motion,
and others say that it is a material substance ; but as they have not settled
the point among themselves, it is not to be expected that we should trouble
ourselves with it. Whatever heat be, however, there are three modifications
of it to which it is necessary to attend, and these are sensible heat, latent heat,
and specific heat. Sensible heat is that heat which is observable by the ther-
mometer ; and there is a certain quantity of heat in the air, even in the most
frosty day, for there is no day so cold in this country as it is sometimes in
Russia ; and Russia, again, is not so cold as the north-pole. There, is there-
fore, a certain degree of heat in everything — in things that feel cold, as well
as in things that feel hot ; and the heat thus resident in bodies, and the fluc-
tuations of which can be discovered by the thermometer or by the senses, is
termed sensible heat.

Latent heat, again, is heat that is not discoverable by the thermometer.
If you put a pan of water on the fire it will boil in, say five minutes, and the
thermometer will stand at 212 degrees ; but however long you may let it
boil, it will not get hotter than this, and all the heat which the water con-
tinues to receive from the fire after the boiling has commenced is spent in
the production of steam. This steam, however, is not hotter than the water ;
so that if you boil a thermometer ever so long, or keep it ever so long in the
steam, the quicksilver will not rise beyond 212 ; and, on account of its thus
hiding itself, this heat is called latent. The term is, however, a bad one, for
the obvious explanation is, that heat is capable of producing two distinct
effects, — one, the elevation of temperature ; and the other, the augmentation
of volume, — and these effects are equivalent and convertible' into one another.
There is no more propriety, therefore, in saying that heat is latent when it
does not elevate the temperature of any body, than in saying it is latent when
it does not enlarge the volume. In either case it produces its full effect, and
that is all we can expect.

The latent heat of steam is said to be 1000 degrees, which means, that it
would take 1000 times more heat to raise a pound of water into steam, than
to raise it one degree in temperature ; or, what is the same thing, the heat
required to raise lib. of water into steam, would raise lOOOlbs. of water one
degree. From this it will be seen, that it requires about 5£ times as much
heat to raise any given weight of water into steam, as would raise the same
weight of water from the freezing to the boiling point. The freezing point is
32 degrees, and the boiling point 212 ; so that the difference or number of
degrees through which the temperature has to be raised between the freezing
and boiling points is 180, and 180 multiplied by 5| is 990, or 1000 nearly.

Specific heat means the quantity of heat contained by one body at a given
temperature as compared with the quantity contained by another body at the
same temperature. It no more follows that a pound of different substances
at the same temperature should contain the same quantity of heat, than that
a cubic inch of every substance should be of the same weight. Some bodies
are more easily made hot than others ; and those which are most easily made
hot are said to be of the least specific heat, because at the same temperature
there is the least heat in them. Thus, a pound of quicksilver is more easily
raised to the temperature of 212 than a pound of water, not because the
quicksilver is a better conductor of heat, but because it takes less heat than
the water to raise it through the same range of temperature. The specific
heats of a vast number of bodies have been ascertained and arranged in tables
just in the same way as their specific gravities.

Some of you are perhaps not aware, and I may therefore here tell you, that
all bodies in nature are supposed to be composed of atoms just like shot, but
millions of times smaller probably than the smallest animalcula. The relative
weights of these atoms have been ascertained, and they ai-e printed in tables.
Now it appears very probable, from various considerations, that every atom,
whether heavy or light, requires the same quantity of heat to raise it through
the same range of temperature, and, if this be so, the specific heats of bodies
must be inversely as their atomic weights, for there are more atoms in a given
weight when the weight of each is small. The experiments, however, which
have been made to test this doctrine have not confirmed it, but they are ob-
viously vitiated by the fallacy of confounding the specific heat with the latent
heat. This is a fault the philosophers very often commit. Thus, in esti-
mating the specific heat of a piece of iron, they proceed by heating the iron
to a certain temperature and plunging it in water, the rise in the temperature
of the water being taken as an index of the specific heat. This method would
be correct enough provided iron did not expand by heat ; but it does expand,
and, during the expansion, absorbs a certain quantity of latent heat, which,
being given out again in its contraction, vitiates the result, and makes the
heat shown by the water partly specific and partly latent. With the adjust,
ment of this error, it appears probable that the specific heats of all bodies
would be found to be inversely as their atomic weights.

I think I have now said enough on the subject of heat, and I dare say yon
will think so too, for it is all dry enough. My next will be about steam, and
that will be more practical and takey.

Believe me, beloved, yours egregiously,

ALEX. GRAY.

Art. XVI.— STEAM-BOAT BOILERS.

We give, in the present Number, drawings of the boilers of the " British
Queen" and " Great Western", and also a drawing of the boilers now being
put on board the " Infernal" by Messrs. Miller and Co. These drawings
tell their own story so effectually, that we need not trouble our readers with
many remarks of ours. There are four boilers in each of the vessels we have
mentioned ; and the diameters of the cylinders of the several vessels are as
follow : —

" Great Western " . . . 73 inches.
" British Queen" . . . 77-g- „
" Infernal" . . . . 68 ,,
These dimensions, taken in conjunction with the sizes of the boilers, will
give the relative efficacy of each kind of construction.

The kind of tubular boiler adopted for the " Infernal," is fast coming into
use, and promises to be productive of the most important benefits to steam
navigation. Tubular boilers and direct-action engines, will, we are per-
suaded, be now employed universally : indeed, this innovation is indispen-
sable to make steam-boats pay ; for, filled up as they have been heretofore
with machinery, their profitable employment is hopeless.

We do not know whether it will be considered altogether fair to make
public these plans, which, we believe, are hoarded up as mighty secrets. If
we thought it was not fair, we would not do it ; but, we confess, the unfair-
ness appears to us to lie in attempting to shut out the public from the results
of that experience which the course of events will invariably bring. If any
man makes an invention or improvement, we are the last in the world who
would attempt to deprive him, either directly or indirectly, of the advantages
it ought to bring : but the law of patents prescribes the method by which
that advantage is to be secured ; and in all cases where this security is not
availed of, the presumption certainly is, either that the inventor does not
wish to monopolize the advantage, or that there is no invention in the case.
With those who place their strength in secrets we have little sympathy ; and
we really think they ought, by this time, to be sensible how very little secu-
rity lies in any of their precautions. For our own parts, we know that there
is no plan which we could not get, if we only thought it worth our while to
take the trouble ; and we suppose other people find it much the same. The

1844.]

Stray Leaves from the Magical Reporter.

21

very affectation of secrecy, indeed, is sure to excite unusual attention ; and,
in these days of Daguerreotype eyes, to rouse curiosity is to make public.

It must not be supposed, from what we have here said, that we would
suborn any one to betray the trust reposed in him, by making public things
he was commanded to conceal. That would be an act to which exception
might fairly be taken, and which we would be the last to defend : but we
have no difficulty in obtaining a knowledge of any plan, without a breach of
trust on the part of any one to whom trust has been committed ; and the
publication of such information is, we think, no more unfair than if it related
to a peak of the Himalaya, or the " musical harmonies" of St. Peter's, at Rome.

Art. XVII.— STRAY LEAVES FROM THE MAGICAL REPORTER.

1. Something about Coals.
Gray. I tell you, ye're nae judge o' coal : ye dinna ken the Llangennech
frae the Graigola.

O'Donohue. No judge? Is it no judge, you said? By the powthers,
there 's no better judge from this to the Bog of Allen — yoursilf included.

Gray. Weel, weel, I canna stop claverin' here — so, gude mornin'.

O'Donohue. Hark ! Hick ! Hear me now — jist take a look at thim.
Now thim won't do. Thim prodiMtes the red, roaring, hot, scorching, burn-
ing, blazing flame, that will destroy the existence of the durability of your
boilers — fracture your furnaces, and contaminate your furnace-bars.

Gray. They 're gayen sulphury.

O'Donohue. Yis, they 're not the sort for producing the warm, kindly,
genial, ginirating flame, that will circumnavigate the concavity of your flues
to ginirate in the solidity of your cylinder the miraculous power of steam, to
propil you along at the extraordinary and Jehu velocity of tin, or tin and a
half, with only fifteen of consumpt.

Gray. Hoo muckle is the Jehu velocity ?

O'Donohue. How much ? Why, with the livity of the liveret.

Gray. Noo, there 's the " Bentinck," div you think you could mak' her
gang at the Jehu ?

O'Donohue. And why not? The " Bentinck's " a top marker, in spite
of her two horns of smoke. Yis, I 'm tould, on good authority, that she 's
the most beautifulest perfection of novelty and grandeur on the wide Atlantic
world of says.

******

2. Steam-boat Owners and Steam-boat Makers.

Montgomery. There appears to be great need of some definition of the
respective functions of the owners and makers of steam vessels. Some owners,
in getting a steam vessel mended or made, leave every thing to the engineer
and carpenter ; and others, nothing : some will not be content, unless every
nail and rivet be specified ; and others will trust all upon the name and honour
of the makers. Now, both of these courses, surely, cannot be right ; and so
unsettled a practice is productive of much inconvenience. It would be highly
desirable that some general understanding should be come to on the subject.

Sir Jonah. It would : and here, as in most other cases, the safe course
seems to lie between the two extremes. It is a dangerous thing, in my opi-
nion, for an owner to have every detail minutely specified, where the thing to
be produced is in a state of transition, as is the case in the steam machinery
of the present day. Such a procedure takes away from the producer all in-
terest and all responsibility, and is fatal to the progress of improvement.

Montgomery. The plan might answer well enough in the construction
of collier-brigs.

Sir Jonah. Yes, or in any case where the product has been perfected by
long and matured experience, and a quantity has to be produced of the same
sort of thing ; but in all other cases it appears to be the best plan to specify
only the general heads, and leave the details to be worked out by the skill
and ingenuity of the producer.

Montgomery. The contrary practice probably arises out of the dread
of being cheated.

Sir Jonah. No doubt ; for some steam-boat owners look upon engineers
and carpenters as if they were so many Wantley's dragons ; and conceive
that they would be devoured alive, if left in the power of an appetite so vora-
cious. Now this view is, in my opinion, a very false one. Engineers and
ship-builders, at least all the respectable ones of them, are content with a fair
profit ; the best proof of which is, that none of them, in the present day at
least, make large or rapid fortunes ; and it is absurd to suppose that a man
will work without any profit at all.

Montgomery. It is impossible that any specification can be sufficiently
stringent to be an absolute barrier to imposition.

Sir Jonah. Just so ; and what is the consequence of getting work under-
taken at prices which will not remunerate the producer ? If the producer be
a man of name and honour, he will finish his work well, and lose by it ; but
will undertake no more on the same terms : and if he be less scrupulous, or,
it may be, more necessitous, he will slight the work, to save himself from
loss ; a thing that no specification can prevent him from doing, in numerous
particulars. The consequence is, that the owner either gets his work badly
done, or he is obliged to change about from one person to another, so as to
entrap some new adventurer into a cheap contract. He thus acquires a bad
name, and the fraud of the producer is transferred to himself.

Montgomery. But would you leave every thing in the hands of the
engineers and builders ?

Sir Jonah. No, I would not do that ; nor would I trust any one further
than will suffice to avert the injury consequent on their not being trusted at
all. Where a number of vessels are to be made of the same power, I would
make it a condition, that each engineer should not altogether follow his own
plan, but that all the engines should be alike, so that the parts of one should
fit the other. But it must be obvious, that a specification such as this is
rather an exponent of the owner's wishes, than a guarantee against any bad-
ness in the product. I would also, in a ship, specify all the main scantlings,
and modes of fastening, but would forbear entering into a host of details, the
specification of which takes away from the builder all pride and interest in
the work, and in which no binding can ever bind.

Montgomery. So far your views have proceeded on the assumption that
owners and makers are equally well-informed as to the mode in which work
should be done.

Sir Jonah. Yes, but this is by no means the case. A man whose whole
life has been spent in a particular pursuit, and who is daily adding to his
experience by the new results which come under his notice, is much more
likely to know what is best, than an amateur, who has had no such training,
and whose attention to such subjects is merely incidental.

3. Influence of the Fine Arts.

Sir Jonah. The vice of the present age is utility ; not that utility, how-
ever, which regards man as a composite being, but that which treats him as
a mere piece of animated clay.

Montgomery. And this debasing spirit is aggravated by the influences
of science.

Sir Jonah. It is. I look upon the pursuit of science, by itself, and for
what it can give, as full of danger, when extending over so large a proportion
of the population. The test of every thing now is, whether it will make
money ; and the intellect alone is cultivated, while the heart is neglected.
Now, it is only by means of the fine arts that we can counteract the wither-
ing influences of science. They address themselves to the soul, and prevent
mankind from forgetting that they have one — an oblivion which, at the pre-
sent moment, is imminent.

Montgomery. The cultivation of the taste exercises a salutary influence
upon the smaller moralities.

Sir Jonah. Taste is bound to morality by a thousand ties. Taste, in-
deed, is the morality of little things ; and it is the smaller vices which make
up the profligacy of a people. Nor is there much use in declaiming against
the grosser vices that afflict mankind ; for every one is sensible of their im-
propriety ; and whoever commits them, makes up his mind to the hazard.
But the lesser evils spring from affectation, false views, and false taste ; and
we can only extirpate these epidemics by stripping away their imaginary
attractions. It is apparently for this purpose that the sense and power of
ridicule was implanted in our nature ; and we have only to show how absurd
and contemptible the reprobated practices are, to ensure their immediate re-
linquishment. It is idle to appeal to a man's conscience respecting things
which are practised by every one around him, and which he has been led to
regard as marks of spirit and refinement.

Montgomery. We can only hope to touch such breasts through the
medium of selfishness or pride —

Sir Jonah. And will at once dissipate the enchantment, by showing that
the practices, held to be marks of distinction, interfere with man's best inte-
rests, and are despised and laughed at by the most illustrious persons in
society.

Montgomery. So that a perseverance in them would be a symptom of
bad taste. Good taste in the fine artsNnaturally produces good taste in other
things — disenthrals the mind from affectation, and brings it back to the
purity and loveliness of nature.

Art. XVIIL— SHIPS BUILT AND BEING BUILT FOR THE
ROYAL NAVY ACCORDING TO THE DESIGNS OF VARIOUS
MODERN CONSTRUCTORS.
There are many works in the ship- building department of our naval estab-
lishments which possess considerable interest. So great has been the desire
of the heads of the public service to introduce improved classes of ships into
the navy, that encouragement has been given to several individuals to produce
plans from which, in some cases, ships have already been built, and, in others,
ships are now in the course of being built. Of the ships now being built, the
one of greatest magnitude is the " Royal Albert," at the Royal Dock-yard,
Woolwich. She is a first-rate ship-of-the-line, of 120 guns, of larger dimen-
sions than any ship in the British navy, being about 15ft. longer and from 5
to 6ft. broader than those of the " Caledonia" class, and superior to the
" Queen" in length. The following are the principal dimensions of these
ships : —

"Caledonia." "Queen." " Royal Albert."
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.

Length on gun-deck . . 205 0 205 0 220 0

Breadth extreme .... 54 8§ 60 0 60 6

Burthen in tons . . 2602 3099 —

The " Caledonia" was designed by Sir William Rule, formerly Surveyor of
the Navy. Her original breadth was 53ft. 6in., which, in 1828, was increased

22

The Societies.

[January,

by throwing the frame out while she was in dock undergoing repair. The
"Queen" is the design of the present surveyor; and the " Royal Albert"
that of Mr. Lang, the master-shipwright of Woolwich Dock-yard. Ships of
80 guns, similar to the " Vanguard," are in progress of building, of the same
class as the '' Canopus," a French model, considered the finest class of ships-
of-the-line in the navy.

" Canopus." " Vanguard."

ft. in. ft. in.

Length of gun-deck . . 194 6 190 0

Breadth extreme . . , 52 2£ 56 9

Burthen in tons . , 2279 2589

There is at Woolwich the " Boscawen," of 70 guns, nearly ready for
launching, from the same model as the " Cumberland," built some time since
at Chatham. These ships are, we presume, to take the place of the old 74 or
76-gun ships. Their dimensions are as follow : — -

76-gun ship. " Boscawen."

ft. in. ft. in.

Length on the gun-deck .,1820 1800

Breadth extreme .... 49 0 54 0

Burthen in tons . . . 1925 no. 2212 no.

A frigate of 50 guns is in an advanced stage of building at Chatham, and
one of the same class at Portsmouth, of which the plans are furnished by the
master-shipwrights of the respective yards. The " Vernon" is the only ori-
ginal design for a frigate of this class in the service. The others which com-
pose this class of frigates are razees of ships of 74 guns. Several frigates of
36 guns are on the stocks similar to the " Pique," and of the same class as
the " Inconstant" and *' Castor." The " Castor" was the first ship of this
class, designed by the late Sir Robert Seppings, Surveyor of the Navy. The
" Inconstant" was built from a drawing furnished by the late Admiral Hayes ;
and the " Pique" by the present Surveyor of the Navy.
The principal dimensions of these ships are : —

" Castor." " Inconstant." '-' Pique."
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.

Length on gun-deck . . 159 0 160 6 160 0

Breadth extreme ... 43 0 45 5 48 8

Burthen in tons . 1283 1422 1622

There is the " Amphion" on the stocks at Woolwich, similar to the
" Castor."

The " Inconstant" is considered the finest frigate of this class ; and the
" Castor" was said to have the superiority over the " Pique," after several
trials. The " Thetis/' of this class, is in progress at Devonport Dock -yard.
She was constructed by Messrs. Chatfield, Cruize, and Read, members of the
School of Naval Architecture.

Frigates of this class are intended to take the place of the old 46 and 42-
gun frigates, whose dimensions are : —

46 guns. 42 guns,

ft. in. ft. in.

Length of gun-deck . . 151 9 145 0

Breadth extreme ... 39 11 38 2

Burthen in tons . . 1073 943

The next class of frigates is that of 26 guns, the first of which was designed
by the late Surveyor of the Navy, intended to supersede the old frigates of
28 guns. There are some of this class now on the stocks, on the plan of
the present Surveyor, with increased dimensions, which are for the three

PlflSSPS *

" Andromache." " Vestal." Old 28.

ft. in. ft. in, ft. in.

Length on the gun-deck . . 130 0 130 0 113 6

Breadth extreme .... 35 6 40 6 316

Burthen — 913 499

The " Eurydice," a frigate of this class, designed by the Hon. Admiral
Eliot, has recently been launched and commissioned at Portsmouth. On trial
at sea she was found to possess good qualities.

Many classes of brigs and corvettes are to be found in the list from 3 guns
to 24 guns each. Among them is the " Frolic," of 16 guns, built at Ports-
mouth, from a drawing by Capt. Hendry. She was tried with the " Nautilus,"
one of the old brigs of 10 guns, and she was considered a failure. Also the
" Modeste," of 16 guns, by the Hon. Admiral Eliot. She is similar in form
under water to the " Modeste," French design.

A new class of brigs of 12 guns is to be introduced into the navy, for com-
manders, to take the place of the old brigs of 10 guns. There are six of
these brigs being built from designs by different constructors: — the " Dar-
ing," by Mr. White, the builder of the " Waterwitch ;" " Espiegle," by the
members of the School of Naval Architecture ; " Kingfisher," by the Sur-
veyor of the Navy ; and " Murine," by the Master-Shipwright of Chatham
Yard. When launched, which they are intended to be early in the spring,
they will be commissioned, and form an experimental squadron. The result
of the trials of sailing-qualities of these brigs is looked forward to with much
interest, from the circumstances of their being of the same class, having the
same number of men, the same armament, masts, and yards, and area of sails
the same, and, consequently, the same load-displacement as nearly as pos-
sible. This class of brigs will, we have no doubt, be a great improvement to
the class of brigs in general, and we hope to give a more detailed account of
them at some future time.

Art. XIX.— PROMISCUOUS NOTES ON STEAJMUMACHINERY.

Horses' Power. — It says little for the Institution of Civil Engineers, we
think, that it suffers the uncertainty, as to what a nominal horse power is, to
be perpetuated. The nominal horse power is a commercial unit by which en-
gines are bought and sold, and its amount is not to be fixed by science, but by
authority. There should be some law, indeed, prescribing what a horse power
shall be, just as there is a law which prescribes the amount of a ton burthen
in a ship. At present each engineer has a measure of his Qwnj though, in-
deed, the measures, even of the same maker, are not at all times uniform.
The Institution of Civil Engineers should prescribe some standard of horse
power, and then persons getting engines made would be able to agree at a
certain rate per horse power, according to the Institution's standard.

We may here give some of Mr. Watt's rules for determining horses' power.
His practice, however, does not agree with the practice, or rather practices,
of the present day ; yet it would be hard, we believe, to discover a better, and
we should be very glad to see it revived.

If d be the diameter of the cylinder, and v the velocity in feet per minute,

then, - - = the number of horses' power.

5640 ■

The velocity is, of course, known when we have the length of the stroke
and the number of strokes per minute, and these are found as follows. Let
s be the length of the stroke in feet, and n the number of strokes in the
minute, then s2 n3 = 250,000. Now, if we fix upon any particular length of
stroke, 5ft. for example, the number of strokes per minute will evidently be

3/ 250,000 3, —
*« ' — "2 — = /s/ 10,000 = something less than 22.

These rules put in words are as follows. To find the number of horses'
power of an engine : Subtract 1 from the diameter of the cylinder in inches -,
square the number thus obtained, multiply by the velocity of the piston in
feet per minute, and divide by 5640 ; the quotient is the number of horses'
power according to Mr. Watt.

To find the requisite number of strokes per minute, the length of the stroke
being given : Divide 250,000 by the square of the stroke in feet, and extract
the cube root of the quotient.

To find the proper length of the stroke, the number of strokes being given :
Divide 250,000 by the cube of the number of strokes per minute, and extract
the square root of the quotient.

Art. XX.^THE SOCIETIES.
Society of Arts. — At the meeting of the Society on the 13th of December, a
paper on the Daguerreotype, by M. Claudet, was read, particularly noticing a pro-
cess, invented by M. Fizeau, of etching the picture so as to take impressions of it
on paper. M. Fizeau first^ discovered the means of fixing the mercurial shading on
the plate, which was essential to any attempt at engraving. The plan by which he
attains the latter object, is, to dissolve, by the electrotype process, those parts of the
picture which consist of pure silver, stopping the lighter parts, and again biting in
the shadows, until the etching is completed. Some of the impressions exhibited
from plates thus etched are as distinct and beautiful as the original Daguerreotype,

though there is at present much uncertaint)' attending the process. On the 20th

of December, Dr. Roth's automaton calculator was exhibited and explained. We
saw one of these curious instruments about two years age, when the inventor had
just perfected it, though he had not then the means of manufacturing them for
general use. The effects are wonderful, though the means by which they are pro-
duced are hidden from sight, and are rather complicated. A difficult sum in mul-
tiplication or addition is worked out as soon as stated, and the answer is sure to be
correct, — that is, so long as the machine keeps in proper order. — —Two fire-
escapes were exhibited, the invention of Mr. Taylor : neither of them, however,
appeared to be generally applicable for the purpose.

Geographical Society.— On Monday, the 8th inst., the Secretary of the Society
read an account of the island of Hong Kong, by Mr. M. Johnaon. This island, it ap-
pears, is small, being only from four to five miles wide : it is traversed by a range
of hills from 500 to 1000 feet high, chiefly granitic; the soil is decomposed gra-
nite. There is abundance of good water at all times of the year. There are about
1500 mows of land (of 1000 square yards each) under cultivation, chiefly rice. A
quantity offish is also cured at the village of Chik-Choo, The animals are deer,
armadillo ; land tortoise ; and snakes, not known to he venomous. The fruit and
vegetable productions are, mangos, lichees, lougans, oranges, pears, rice, sweet pota-
toes, yams, and a small quantity of flax. The climate is not essentially different
from that of Macao. The most prevalent diseases are intermittent fevers; and
dysentery is common throughout the year, particularly after the sudden changes of
weather. The natives suffer from this complaint as well as Europeans. The
paper being concluded, a very interesting discussion ensued, on the asserted un-
healthiness of the island, and the probability of this disadvantage being confined to
particular spots; and much curious information on climate generally, and on the
anomalies exhibited by malaria in different parts of the world, was communicated
by the several speakers; among whom were the President, Messrs, W. R. Hamil-
ton, Warburton, Wheelwright, Dr. Thomson, Mr. Cumming, Mr. Gowan, Mr.

Bell, the Secretary, &c. -A paper, by Lieut. Christopher, Indian Navy, on that

gentleman's explorations in North Eastern Africa, where he discovered a new and
important river, was begun, but the lateness of the hour precluded its termination.

Microscopical Society. — A paper was read before this Society, on the 20th of
December, by Mr. Ross, on the appearance of the mercury on a Daguerreotype
plate when examined through a microscope with a power of 200. The surface on.
those parts of the plate where the light has acted is observed to be covered with a

1844]

Inventions of the Month.

23

series of minute dots or globules arranged in an hexagonal form, 'A communi-
cation was read relative to some microscopic parasites discovered in dogs. These
parasites were discovered in the pustules of dogs suffering with the mange ; and it
is supposed that the discovery of the existence of these parasites may throw some
light on the cause of that distemper. The animalcules are so numerous, that
thirty or forty of them are frequently seen in a single drop of pus.

Chemical Society.— rln a recent meeting of this Society, some observations on
fermentation were read by Mr. J. N. Frieze, who has proved experimentally, and
on a large scale, the advantage of fermenting malt worts in closed tuns. He
caused the gas arising from the fermenting liquor to pass through water, and he
thus procured, from the fermentation of 350 barrels of wort, five piuts of alcohol,
of the specific gravity 0 825 ; he also obtained from the gas 210 grains of ammonia.
Several advantages are found to attend the fermentation of malt liquor in closed
vessels, independently of any saving of alcohol that may be effected.

London Institution. — We noticed in our December Number a course of lectures
then being delivered at this Institution by Mr. Grove, on the relation of physical
forces to each other. The lectures are completed ; and, in the course of them, he
undertook to prove that motion, light, heat, electricity, magnetism, and chemical
affinity, are but modifications of the same force, any one of which being given the
others may be deduced from it. "With regard to all the forces named, excepting
motion, the close relationship existing between them has been proved some time
since ; and it was known that any one being given as the initial force, it might be
made to excite any and all the rest. With regard to motion, however, the doctrine
announced by Mr. Grove is new; and we conceive it will scarcely bear examina-
tion. It is true that, granting motion to be an initial force, it will excite heat,
light, electricity, and magnetism ; directly and indirectly it will modify chemical
affinity ; but it seems to have been overlooked that motion is an effect, and is not
itself an original cause. Motion is not a force; it is but the effect of force ex-
erted on ponderable or imponderable matter. The whole foundation, therefore, on
which this new theory rests appears to be removed by this consideration.

French Academy of Sciences. — A new comet has engaged the attention of the
French Academy. Its discovery was announced by M. Faye on the 27th of No-
vember, and he has had the honour of giving his name to the erratic body, which
is invisible to the naked eye. M. Faye maintains, for the honour of his name,
that the comet was never seen by any one before ; but more recent observations by
other astronomers render it probable that it is a known comet, come at a time

when not expected, as these iuminous nothings often will. Specimens have been

received from Chili of a small animal called the Coipo, which was supposed to have
been fabulous. The peculiarity of this creature is, that its breasts are on its back.

=A specimen of an improved musket-barrel was exhibited at the sitting on the

5th of December. The name of the inventor is M. L. Bernard, and the merits of
his invention are, the combination of strength with lightness, A barrel weighing less
than two pounds had been loaded and fired with two ounces of powder, and 281
grammes (nine ounces) of shot ; and in one instance it was charged with 55
grammes of powder, and 300 of shot, without bursting. Some curious experi-
ments, by M. Baudrimont, on the process of incubation, were announced on the
26ih. He ascertained that eggs, during incubation, absorb oxygen, and part with
water and carbonic acid ; and the slow combustion of hydrogen and carbon by this
process, it is supposed, imparts a greater degree of temperature to the embryo
chicken than the mere warmth of the hen could supply.

Art. XXI.— INVENTIONS OF THE MONTH.

Atmospheric Hydrometer. — A very ingenious and, for some purposes, a very
useful method of ascertaining the specific gravities of fluids, has been contrived by
Dr. Jeffreys, and was recently shown by him to the Polytechnic Society of Liver-
pool. This hydrometer consists of two accurately graduated tubes, open at the
bottom, and connected together at the top by a smaller tube, which has a branch
from it that may be attached to an exhausting syringe. The two graduated tubes
are fixed exactly parallel to each other, and the two open ends, when the instru-
ment is used, are placed in vessels containing the fluids whose specific gravities are
required to be ascertained. When the tubes are partially exhausted, the fluids are
forced into them by the pressure of the atmosphere ; and the relative heights to
which they ascend are indices of their comparative specific gravities. If, for exam-
ple, one vessel contained water and the other mercury, the liquid metal, being
nearly fourteen times heavier than water, would be forced up but half an inch,
when the water in the other tube would be seven inches above the external level.
Sir James Murray, we observe, has done the same thing in Dublin.

Improvements in Photography. — Mr. Henry Fox Talbot, who disputes with
M, Daguerre the honour of being the first inventor of drawing by light in a camera
obscura, has recently taken out fresh letters patent for further improvements in his
process. There are eight distinct improvements which he now claims to have made,
though some of them are scarcely distinguishable from the processes before known
and practised. The object of his first improvement is to whiten the lights of a
calotype picture, which have usually a yellowish tint, by immersing the paper in a
bath of hyposulphite of soda ; and he afterwards proposes to give transparency and
permanence to the picture by causing melted wax to enter the pores of the paper,
and then placing a white or coloured paper behind the transparency. Another im-
provement of the art is a mode of obtaining enlarged copies of Daguerrotype or
calotype pictures, by throwing a magnified image of them on a sheet of calotype
paper. These are the only parts of the invention worth notice; some of the other
" improvements" refer to methods of printing and " publishing" by photography ;
but as they present no advantages over existing systems of typography and of pub-
lication, and would he attended with infinitely more waste of time and money,
they are scarcely worth monopolizing.

Ornamental Tiles. — Great improvements have of late been made in the manu-
facture of tiles, to enable them to compete with slates; one of the most recent of

which improvements is a plan for giving them more ornamental forms, and subse-
quently colouring them. The plan, invented by a workman named Funge, in the
employ of Mr. Francis, of Vauxhall, consists in making the external surface stri-
ated, and the under part pannelled, so as greatly to diminish the weight, and to
give more finish to their appearance. He then colours the tiles by burning them a
second time, muffled in coke or coal, either with or without chalk, excluding the
atmospheric air ; by which process the tiles are changed throughout their substance
to a greyish colour. If any other colour be wanted, they are subsequently stained
by being dipped in any of the sulphurets ; this, however, renders the tiles more
expensive.

Electroplating by Thermo-electricity. — The electrical force generated by heat has
been recently applied for the purposes of electro-metallurgy, and the application
has been secured by patent ; but whether it is likely to prove more economical
than voltaic electricity, or whether the force can be regulated with sufficient accu-
racy to the work to be performed, we have at present no means of judging. The
plan adopted is to combine a number of bars of German silver and of iron, each
bar being one foot long, one inch wide, and one-eighth of an inch thick. These
bars are soldered together alternately, and placed in an upright position in a square
box. The lower ends rest in a sand-bath heated nearly to redness, whilst the
upper ends are kept cool by a stream of cold water. Two wires connected with the
extreme ends of the series conduct the electricity thus excited to the vessels con-
taining the articles to be plated ; and a series of one hundred of such bars of
German silver and of iron are stated to produce a sufficient amount of electricity
for general purposes.

Application of Animal Power on Railways. — A new mode of applying animal
power to locomotion on railways has been contrived, by means of which the horse
may be able to rival in speed the fastest steam locomotive ; and for this purpose
the heaviest dray-horse will answer better than the swiftest racer. The means by
which this apparent enigma is solved are these : the horse, or horses, is or are
placed within a large drum having projections on its inner circumference, whereon
the animal may gain a purchase for its feet. To the axle of the drum is fixed a
large cog-wheel working into a smaller one, connected with the axle of the carriage
wheels which run on the rails ; thus one turn of the drum may be made to give
any number of rotations to the driving-wheels. The horse goes on like a squirrel
in its cage, the action of its gravitation, as it takes an ascending step each time,
being the cause of rotation and of onward motion to the carriage. This application
of animal power is similar to that of the tread-mill, which in many prisons is
turned to good account ; and horses are thus sometimes employed in turning ma-
chinery where there is not space for a walk, though it is a mode of employing their
power not adopted by choice. The invention, as applied to railways, has a foreign
origin ; and though we have not much faith in its efficacy, as compared with steam,
we have a curiosity to see the experiment tried on an English railway.

Prevention of Incrustation. — It has been known for some time, that vegetable
matter introduced into a steam boiler prevents the incrustation which proves so
great an annoyance and so much damage. It appears, by recent experience, that
animal substances are still more efficacious. The plan recommended is to put
some refuse animal substance, such as a damaged sheep-skin, into the boiler, and
the depositions from the water are thus prevented from adhering to the sides. We
are not aware that the cause of this phenomenon has been satisfactorily explained.

Art. XXII.— ANALYSIS OF BOOKS,

REVIEW OF THE PERIODICALS.

The London Journal, and Repertory of Arts, Sciences, and Manufactures.
No. CCXLV.
The Repertory of Patent Inventions. No. XIII.
We cannot but think that our recent remarks on the antiquated inventions
described in these periodicals, dedicated to the publication of specifications of recent
patents, has produced some good effect. In the Numbers before us there are few
specifications of older date than last year; and many of them have not been en-
rolled more than a few weeks. This is a great improvement on the records of old
inventions, to which, in a great measure, the fo.mer Numbers of these Repertories
were confined. There is still, however, ample room for further efforts, to render
these publications more worthy of the position they profess to occupy. The num-
ber of English patents sealed between the 24th of November and the 21st of De-
cember, 1843, was thirty-five ; which is about the average quantity. The number
of specifications of patents, in the Repertories, are fifteen in one, and sixteen in the
other.

The London Polytechnic Magazine and Journal of Science, Literature, and the
Fine Arts, No, I.- — This periodical has risen from the ashes of the defunct Poly-
technic Journal, and the first number has a look of promise. It contains several
original articles connected with science and the aits, reviews of works, and miscel-
laneous information, and is altogether of a very superior character to its prototype
in the days of its decline. The articles are, nevertheless, by no means first-rate.
The commencing article is on " The Infiltration Theory of Glacier Motion," by
Dr. Sutherland, of Liverpool ; and though we must do him the justice to admit
that he does not write such absolute nonsense as many learned Doctors whose in-
tellects appear to be frozen by their glacier speculations, and who are willing to
attribute the whole system of the universe to glacial action, the sense he does write
is of rather too common an order to be suitable for the van of a new publication.
That the ice should be melted in warm weather, that the water should run from it
when melted, and that the glaciers, as they become loosened by heat, should slide
down the declivities on which they are situated, seems to require little explanation
to those who know anything of the phenomena of gravitation and of the effects of
heat. But the glacierists cannot allow the effect to be produced by such ordinary
causes. It seems they have deemed it necessary to consider solid ice as a " semi-

24

Review of the Periodicals.

[January,

fluid," that has a motion among its particles waich causes its descent in the manner
of fluids ; and then come the knotty questions, whether the immediate cause of the
motion of the glaciers be infiltration of the melted water through the porous sub-
stance of the ice, or gravitation, or dilatation ? Dr. Sutherland advocates the former
theory, whilst the common-sense theory, that the motion is due to gravitation, has
Saussure for its supporter. We imagine that the chilling influence of the subject
must produce a stagnation of intellect in all those who talk or write about it, other-
wise we should not have had such an abundant crop of glacier absurdities. The
doctor's brain must have been semi-frozen, we fear, when he considered it necessary
to record, as an "important fact," deduced from a series of experiments, that the
quantity of water melted from ice " depends on the temperature of the atmosphere ;"
and that the quantity of water " depends entirely on the amount of liquefaction."
We are also gravely informed that Mr. Hopkins ascertained, after many experi-
ments, " that ice will slowly descend an inclined plane during the progress of melt-
ing." It is strange that philosophers should waste so much time and paper in
proving things that nobody disbelieves.

In an article on " The Ventilation of Mines," by Dr. Jamieson, it is suggested
that the best mode of freeing deep mines from carburetted-hydrogen gas would be
to take advantage of its inferior specific gravity, and to give it vent by upright
shafts. The writer, however, seems to be ignorant of the cause of the explosion of
carburetted-hydrogen gas, for he asserts, we need hardly say most erroneously,
" that it is the confinement of the gas only which causes it to explode with de-
structive violence when fired ; that it will not explode with violence when free or
unconfined any more than loose gunpowder, which, ignited, flashes without violent
concussion or loud detonation." Dr. Jamieson seems to imagine that a mine ex-
plodes on the same principle as a steam-boiler, whereas the effort exerted is the
same whether the gas is confined or free.

The Nautical Magazine and Naval Clironicle. — This number has a continuation
of an article by Mr. Snow Harris, " On the Damage which has occurred to the
British Navy by Lightning." The facts are derived from official sources, and they
exhibit a long array of losses of property and of life at sea from the want of proper
conductors. It seems strange that, after Franklin's discovery of the identity of
lightning and electricity, and his simple plan of protecting buildings and ships, there
should be such backwardness in the adoption of a contrivance so admirably adapted
to save life and property at sea, where ships are peculiarly exposed to lightning.
So recently as 1834, we find one of the ships in the royal navy was struck by
lightning, and all her masts either destroyed or damaged. One-hundredth part of
the amount of damage done by lightning would have fitted all the navy with effi-
cient conductors. In all instances, as might have been anticipated, the masts were
first struck, and in several cases the sails were set on fire. The iron and copper-
sheathing in the body of the ships no doubt protected that part from damage, and
preveuted the explosion of the powder-magazines. In the case of the Africaine, 36,
■which was struck by lightning in August, 1803, it is stated that one seaman " was
cut in two by the discharge."

Dublin University Magazine, No. CXXXIII. — The only article in the present
number of this talented periodical which comes in our way to notice is " Mesmer-
ism, by Inys Herfner." The history of this science (delusion), which has of late
attracted much notice in this country, is sketched from its earliest days in a very
masterly manner, and by a firm believer in the efficacy of the mesmeric passes.
The discovery of animal-magnetism is not due to Mesmer, who was merely the
agent of bringing into notice, and in a different mode, in the middle of the last
century, the more ancient doctrines of his countryman Paracelsus, who attributed
to magnetic influence nearly as much power as the modern professors of the art.
The writer has truly a manly faith, and despises the squeamish scepticism of John
Bull in refusing to place implicit confidence in the wonders of mesmeric passes.
He goes the length of believing not only in a state of clairvoyance, in which the
patient is enabled to see without the organs of vision, but he places confidence also
in the sixth or last stage, of universal lucidity, wherein the universe is thrown open
to the inspection of the mesmerised subject, who is thus enabled to look into the
future, and to predicate events to come. It is admitted thai " mesmerism, after all,
cannot with any propriety be said to have as yet attained the rank of a science."
Its procedure, we are told, is not yet sure, and the principles on which its pheno-
mena depends are unknown. It rests altogether upon phenomena which are op-
posed to common experience and to what is called common sense. Pact3, indeed,
are " stubborn things;" but when we are called upon to believe that which, if be-
lieved, must discredit our senses, we cannot but question whether the assumed facts
may not be delusive. We do not by any means allege that there may not be
some foundation for the mesmeric doctrine, for there are many agencies in nature
as yet very little understood ; but in the face of such marvellous feats and such
frequent imposture our faith is not easily to be won : we have no ambition to be
caught by a juggle.

Tegg's Magazine, No. IX. — A prize-essay on " The Fallacies of History," hy
John Howden, B.A., is the prominent article of this number. The subject is well
chosen, and might have been made very instructive by pointing out some of the
most important recognised fallacies with their corrections. The article is, however,
merely a general treatise on the causes of fallacy in historians, for which ignorance,
prejudice, and a disregard of truth, are amply sufficient to account.

The Qardener's Magazine, concluded. — This periodical, which we dealt with
rather severely last month (being ignorant, at the time of writing, of the severe ill-
ness of Mr. Loudon), has now arrived at its termination with the death of its able
conductor. It contains a very interesting sketch of the life of Mr. Loudon, who
contributed more than any other man to improve public taste in landscape-garden-
ing, and in cottage, farm, and villa-architecture. His death was hastened by anxiety
attending the publication of his costly work the Arboretum B ritannicum. We are
informed in tho biographical sketch, that he continued his many arduous labours
under circumstances which most men would have considered sufficient to disable
them altogether. Even at the commencement of his literary career in 1803, a

severe attack of inflammatory rheumatism ended, after two years of suffering, in an
auchylozed knee and a contracted left arm. In 1820 his right arm was broken near
the shoulder, and was never properly united ; yet he continued to write with his
right hand till 1825, when the arm was broken a second time, and he was obliged
to have it amputated, though not before the thumb and two fingers of his left hand
had become useless. Under these afflicting circumstances he coutinued, and even
multiplied, his various undertakings, and at last died of disease of the lungs. We
regret to find that Mr. Loudon's circumstances have not been such as might have
been expected, chiefly in consequence of the great outlay required in bringing out
his many laborious works, and the length of time necessary to recover this expense.
We sincerely trust that some step may be taken by the numerous persons who have
profited by his instructions on behalf of his talented and exemplary widow — a mea-
sure to which we should be glad to lend all the aid we can.

The Artist and Amateur's Magazine, No. X. — We did Mr. Rippingille wrong
last month when we concluded that he had left the question of " beauty" so unsa
tisfactorily solved. The subject, it appears, was not concluded ; it is resumed in
this number, and we are now told that the preceding article only professed to exa-
mine the term beauty ; we now come to the thing. We before complained of the
roundabout way of arriving at'nothing, hut now we are presented in the first para-
graph with the object for which we seek : " What is the beautiful ; and in what does
the beauty of the creation at large consist? To reply in one word — Variety?"
Having thus most commendably come to the point at once, the reader may or may
not, as he pleases, accompany the writer over the sea of words with which he ex-
plains the term " variety ;" or he may skip at once to the end of the voyage, where
we find the following conclusions arrived at : " First, that the term Beautiful, in its
general use, is but figurative, and, of course, it may be applied, as it is, in every
possible way and to every possible subject. Second, the thing Beauty is said to
consist entirely in Variety. Third, that the beau ideal is a pure creation of art,
Fourth, that the appreciation of the beau ideal is Taste."

This, then, is the grand " Original Hypothesis," and, in reference to it, we have
only two remarks to make : first, that it is not new ; and second, that it is not
tenable. Mr. Rippingille's erudition must be small indeed if he does not know
that the doctrine of Beauty, being due to Variety, has been brought forward times
without number, and as often has the dogma been abandoned. There are some
kinds of beauty, no doubt, of which variety is an element ; but there are other
kinds in which variety does not exist ; and how can that be a cause which is absent
in some cases? To take an example : a colonnade may be a beautiful structure,
but wherein lies the variety of such a combination? The leading feature is same-
ness— the repetition of one thing. Yet this sameness does not destroy the emotion
of beauty ; and, indeed, variety would be less pleasing than sameness in this in-
stance. There are very few persons, we believe, who would prefer a colonnade of
which all the columns were different to one in which they were all the same.

We cannot close this notice without warning Mr. Rippingille of the fatal effect!

s

1

satisfied with vain braggadocia, and the predominant feeling produced hy Mr. Rip-
pingille's speculations must he, that, however good he may be at painting, he is very
bad at metaphysics. Such high keys are infinitely dangerous to a vulgar hand, and
when preceded by a high note of preparation, the ridicule of the failure is irre
sistible. Nor can the result in such a case be attributed, even by the most cha.
ritable spectator, to carelessness or inadvertence, for it is made plain to every one.
that a feat of strength was intended where weakness is now made manifest.

Simmonds's Colonial Magazine, Vol. I., No. I. — This is a new advocate and
expositor of the colonial interests of Great Britain, and the opening number pro-
mises well. It commences very appropriately with an enumeration and short de-
scription of all our colonies ; and no Englishman can look over the list and note
the extent of the lands and the numbers of inhabitants over which his country
exercises dominion, without a feeling of gratified national pride. A comparative
survey of the navies of the world follows in succession, from which the Englishman
aforesaid rises no less self-elated. A prize-treatise on the cultivation of the sugar-
cane, for which a premium of 100Z. was awarded by the Governor of Jamaica, ap-
pears first in the pages of this magazine. " Notes of a Residence in Van Dieman's
Land in 1842-3," by a late colonial police magistrate, exhibit some curious features
of life in that colony in its present condition ; and there are several other articles
likely to interest the general as well as the colonial reader ; but we cannot now do
more than advert to the nature of the contents of the new periodical, which will, we
doubt not, be very well received in the colonies as well as at home.

The. Philosophical Magazine, No. CLVI. — The article of most interest in this
number of the Philosophical, is a paper on Dr. Gardener's researches respecting the
influence of differently-coloured rays of light on plants. He has ascertained, by
numerous experiments, that the green colour of plants, or, as it is termed, the
chlorophyle, is produced by the more luminous rays of the solar spectrum, and that
the yellow, consequently, has the most effect in giving the green colour to the
leaves. This was proved by exposing young seedlings to the different rays of the
spectrum in an otherwise darkened room. The chemical rays of the spectrum, or
those of the indigo and violet, are the rays towards which plants bend. Thus we
learn, from the results of these experiments, that one portion of the rays of light
operate in giving colour to plants, and another portion of the same rays imparts
motion. An important consideration suggests itself, from the fact that the blue
rays are those towards which plants are attracted ; for we are thus led to perceive
that the colour of the atmosphere may serve an important use in regulating the
growth of plants upwards.

The Athenaeum. — Among the original contributions contained in the monthly
part of this periodical, the only ones of much consequence are a series of papers on
the internal decorations of houses; in which it is attempted to bring the principles
of art to bear on the painting and papering of our dwellings. The writer com
plains, and with much justice, of the monotony of colour and patterns which are
commonly observed ; and this monotony not only extends over the whole of the

;

1844.

Marvels of the Day.

25

same house, but similar colour9 and patterns are to be found in the houses of a
whole district, according to the prevalent fashion, without any regard to propriety.
He endeavours to establish some fixed principles as guides in the decoration of
rooms, so that it may no longer depend on the caprice of fashion ; and the rules as
laid down are generally unexceptionable. In the first place, the aspect of a
room should be considered. If it look towards the north, care should be taken to
avoid cold-looking colouring ; leaving the blues and such chilly hues for warm
southern aspects. Again, the tone of the colouring used should be regulated by
the quantity of light. When the light is strong, the tone of the colour may be
full; but when the room is not exposed to a strong light, the tone of the colour
should be correspondingly feeble. The ancients appeared to pay more attention to
these niceties in the decorations of their dwellings than is customary at the present
day, and adjusted the tone of colour to the quantity of light introduced. In some
instances, when a strong light was admitted from above, they even used black for
the colouring of their walls. Another matter to be observed in the colouring of a
room, is the proper adjustment of the tone of the colour to the different parts. It
is recommended, for instance, that the ceiling should always be of a lighter colour
than the walls, and that the ground or carpet should be darker than the walls. In
this respect custom generally accords with good taste, and good taste is in accord-
ance with the order of the tone of colouring in nature. The writer frequently re-
fers to, and makes copious use of Mr. Hay's work on the same subject, on which
there is much more to be said than those who have not thought about it might
conceive. Mr. Hay, for example, takes into consideration not merely the effect of
colouring in an empty room, but the colours and shades of colour that best set off
the living form ; regarding the wall as the background of a painting. In this
view, therefore, all gaudy colours should be avoided, or very sparingly used, as they
detract the eye from the principal objects in the living picture. Good taste protests
against imitations of all kinds, whether it be of marble, or flowers, or panelling, or
arches, or any of the numerous incongruous things which decorative painters de-
light to exercise their art upon, in all those situations in which the realities of
what is imitated would he misplaced.

The Literary Gazette. — In the very agreeable melange of science, literature, and
general information which the monthly part of the Literary Gazette contains, we
scarcely know what subjects to select as most worthy of notice. There seems, in-
deed, to be a greater variety of interesting matter, independently of reviews, col-
lected here than is usual even in this publication. We can only notice one or two
of the more prominent subjects. Correspondents in Egypt and in Asia Minor
furnish accounts of explorations and discoveries among the pyramids and tombs
near Lake Mccris, and in Nineveh, which seem to promise fresh food for learned
antiquaries to discuss and digest, if they can. The obelisk of the Faioum, for ex-
ample, which had been supposed to he the decoration of an Egyptian temple, is
now pronounced to have been merely the post of a sluice-gate for draining the lake
Moeris. On this point we can imagine a fierce war may be waged in defence of
the sacred character of the obelisk against those desecrators who would convert the
ruin of a temple into a gate-post. — Professor Brande's lectures on agricultural
chemistry are noticed very comprehensively. The inorganic constituents of the
soil which have hitherto received least notice were those to which attention was
particularly directed in these lectures, which were given at the Royal Institution at
the request of Lord Spencer, the President of the Agricultural Society. It is satis-
factory to find our leading agriculturalists taking means to encourage the applica-
tion of science to agriculture, and to render the natural produce of this country
more abundant. The Professor strongly discountenanced the notion which was
formerly entertained, and has been recently revived, — that vegetables have the
power of creation or formation. All the substances they contain must be supplied
to them, either by the soil or from the atmosphere; and this shows the necessity
of considering chemically the constituents of the soil in reference to its suitable-
ness for different crops. — Some curious particulars are given relative to bronze
sculpture, in reference to Mr. Wyatt's equestrian group of the Duke of Wellington.
The design, it is stated, reaches above 2b' feet in height, and will weigh little less
than 50 tons. This statue is said to be the largest ever executed in bronze. It is
cast from cannon taken in the battles won by the Duke. The metal that now
forms the colossal head, was once a French cannon that spoke on the field of
Waterloo.

Art. XXIV MARVELS OF THE DAY.

The " Iron Duke" — During the last month a fine iron steam ship called the
"Iron Duke," belonging to the City of Dublin Steam Navigation Company, has
been launched, from the yard of Mr. Thomas AVilson, of Liverpool. As no pre-
vious announcement bad been made of the intended event, very few persons were
present, and the fair lady who was to have christened this champion of the seas
was too late to perform her interesting function. Her duty was, however, under-
taken by a gentleman — an evil omen, we fear, for a bad christening is notoriously
unlucky, and who hut a lady can christen a ship ? The launch, however, notwith-
standing this maladventure, was a successful one ; and the vessel gave promise, when
in the water, of at least satisfying, as regards speed, the expectations that had been
raised.

The dimensions of the "Iron Duke" are thus stated : — Length, 180ft. ; breadth,
28ft; depth of hold, 17ft. ; by old measurement, 683 tons. Her engines are by
Messrs. Fawcett and Preston, and are of 350 horse-power. They are on the side-
lever principle, with 7ft. stroke, and wrought-iron framing. This we glean from
the newspaper accounts. Should we deem it necessary, after she has started, to add
any further remarks, we shall particularize the engines more carefully ; but in her
present state we have no means of judging from our own observation of their
quality and appearance.

Pelletan Light. — We have visited the exhibition of this marvel ; and the con-
clusion we have arrived at is that the thing will not do. To show why, it is only
necessary to explain the nature of the invention. The light, then, is produced as

follows : — A certain quantity of turpentine is put into a steam-boiler. The tur-
pentine, of course, floats on the surface of the water ; and the steam, in passing
through the turpentine, becomes so strongly impregnated therewith as to be made
inflammable. The luminiferous substance, therefore, is turpentine — a rather ex-
pensive material to begin with — and the pipes are all as hot as steam can make
them. There is some danger, we think, in these hot pipes traversing houses, as
well as some inconvenience in hot weather. Large quantities of steam must,
moreover, be continually passing into the apartment where the light is burning ;
and we need hardly say how oppressive this must he in a hot and crowded apart-
ment. We hear that it is in contemplation to light the House of Commons with
this high-pressure light; and we can fancy no expedient better calculated to induce
our senators to cut short their long-winded orations.

From our own Correspondent.
Calcutta. — As this is ray first epistle to you from India, it has struck me
that it would not be out of place, were I to give a short account of my Overland
journey, as far as it may be likely to interest the readers of the Artjzan. And
first, I may say a few words respecting the steamers " Oriental" and " Hindostan ;"
and while bearing testimony to the good internal arrangements and management
on board both boats, I think it right to remark, that I have heard some of my
fellow-voyagers utter many complaints, more especially regarding the accommodation
and provisions supplied in the latter vessel. The complainants were, however, of
that class of people termed "Old Indians;" and who, when grumbling at small
cabins, meagre attendance, and inferiority of provender, and comparing these in
their own minds with the luxurious style of living to which they had been accus-
tomed in India, forgot the very different circumstances in which they were now
placed. The steamer was on its return voyage — neither Suez nor Aden can supply
good provisions, and upwards of 100 people had to be victualled every day. I have
said thus much, for some of those who found most fault threatened to insert their
grievances in the public newspapers ; but I suspect that one great cause of discon-
tent was the absence of that servility on the part of the attendants to which these
nabobs had been accustomed — a cause which it would not answer to acknowledge.
They had to mingle promiscuously with the common herd of passengers ; and for
this simple reason, I venture to assert, that in almost every ship leaving or arriving
in India, having amongst their passengers, men who fancy themselves, and
who have been treated " as little kings" in their own spheres, there will prevail
discontent enough ; and it will only he after they have been levelled down by a few
years' residence in their native England, that they will see (as it appeared to
me and to by far the majority of those on board) that the general accommodations
and victualling on board the " Hindostan," are, all things considered, extremely
good, although I think that those of the " Oriental" are somewhat superior.
There are however various improvements which might he effected in both steamers,
chiefly as regards the ventilation of the cabins, which I think, might be rendered
more effectual by removing the bulkheads or solid partitions between the cabins, and
placing in their stead either Venetians or curtains. In the latter case, the support
could easily be made quite as strong as the present partitions are, so that there
would be as great a chance of their fetching away in the one case as in the other.
In single or family cabins, it might not be expedient to adopt either of the plans
just suggested, but in all the other cabins, I do not imagine that the adoption of
either scheme would detract from the small seclusion the cabins already possess.
Those in the " Hindostan" are perhaps rather too crowded ; but it would entail too
great an expense to make any considerable alteration in the present arrangement.
The "Oriental" appeared to me better ventilated than the "Hindostan," from her
spar-deck having scarcely any obstruction from stem to stern ; while that of the
latter is almost blocked up. This inferior ventilation is greatly felt, more especially
in the passage down the Red Sea, where the thermometer stood in the cabins/or-
ward at 97° and 99° ! and where every gentle breeze that blew across us, seemed as
if it had just parted from the tail of a sirocco. The ventilation of the sailors'
berths appeared very good. Few cases of sickness occur among the crews of the
steamers, if I might except what occurred a short time ago, when a species of epi-
demic broke out in the " Hindostan," while she was anchored at Calcutta, which
proved fatal to many of the men. This I believe is attributed to her mooring so
close to the shore, her crew being thus exposed to the influence of the exhalations
which arise so copiously from the mud at low water. This could not well be
remedied ; as, if the " Hindostan" was moored in the centre of the river, she is
liable to drift from her moorings, as many vessels unfortunately do, and she would
also be inconveniently situated for receiving passengers, or the shipping of coals
and cargo. I believe that in the above-mentioned steamers, C. Wye Williams'
smoke-consuming apparatus is employed. In the " Oriental," it answers extremely
well, hardly any smoke is to be seen, excepting a little when the fires are charged ;
but in the " Hindostan," we were generally favoured with a broad black streak
floating overhead. It was said that this was chiefly owing to some slight want of
repair and cleaning of the machinery, if I should dignify by such a name, a few
holes bored to admit the air. I do not allow, however, this want of complete suc-
cess in the "Hindostan," to detract from the impression I have received that Wye
Williams' plan will, if properly looked after, prevent, if not entirely, at least in a
great degree, the intolerable nuisance of smoke. When talking about engineering,
I should be remiss in my duty to my worthy and esteemed friend Sandy Gray, if
I did not beg of you to inform him at the next meeting of " Our Club," that the
chief engineers, and indeed almost all employed in the steamers, are sensible, weeL
faar'd countrymen of his, who practise their laudable national extravagance to so
great an extent, that in the " Oriental," the expansion gear seldom remains idle ;
and in the " Hindostan," it is constantly at work. In the latter vessel, the stokers
are composed of a powerful race of men, from the north-eastern coast of Africa,
called Seedies, who can be most advantageously employed in all steamers in tropical
climates, from their being able to endure the heat, no less than from their willing-
ness to work — so that they accomplished perhaps twice as much as a European

26

Marvels of the Day.

could do, if similarly circumstanced. The " Hindostan" has, I believe, once used
the native coal of India (the Burdwan), but it was found, that to perform the same
duty, it required more than the English, (or I ought rather to say, not to rouse
Saunders,) than the Scotch coal. The proprietors of the coal-fields have, however,
only dug the first seam, so that the river steamers (which burn nothing else) need
not despair but that in course of time they may be enabled to fire with good coal.
There is a depot of this coal, at Point de Galle, belonging to the East India Com-
pany, and kept by them for the supply of any of their steamers that may huve
occasion to touch there, and (somewhat unfortunately for the reputation of the
native production) there is, adjoining to this depot, one of the Peninsular and
Oriental Company's coal, so that the great superiority of the one to the other is
very readily perceived.

The part of the Overland route which calls most loudly for amendment, is the
transit across Egypt, to which too little attention is at present paid. I am aware
that the management (with the exception of the requisite navigation on the Nile,)
is in the hands of the Egyptian Transit Company, at the head of which stands the
Pasha; and I can only regret that it is not altogether under the direciion of No.
5], St. Mary Axe. The accommodation and food are wretched; and indeed the
comfort of passengers seems not to have been thought of at all. I now speak chiefly
on behalf of the lady travellers, as I do not think that the " roughing" so materially
affects the male portion; because they expect in such an outlandish clime to be
treated after a somewhat primitive fashion ; but when ladies are especially recom-
mended to adopt the Overland route, and when, by a little better management, the
accommodations could be made, at least comfortable, it is but right that such
negligence should be publicly exposed, for I am sure that if the Peninsular and
Oriental Company were fully aware of it, they would endeavour to get the evils
remedied. If you will allow me to detail our trip from Alexandria to Suez, I
will be better able to explain what I have just advanced. On Sunday, the 17th
of September, the good ship " Oriental" anchored in the harbour of Alexandria,
ahout half-past one ; soon after which the passengers went ashore, leaving all their
luggage on board of the steamer, lying about in great confusion, and which the
Company undertake to forward to Suez, as they best can ; hut are not responsible
for any loss that may happen during, the transit, whether by negligence on the part
of their own servants, or otherwise. On receiving our passes at the Office of the
Transit Company, we were told to be at the canal, in readiness by 8 o'clock that
evening, with which direction we of course complied. But to our great surprise,
we found that there were not accommodation boats enough for the passengers, and
therefore we were kept waiting on the banks of the canal, where there was no
shelter whatever, until nearly 11 o'clock, when the long-expected boats arrived.
The steamer was not despatched for the requisite extra boats until half-an-hour or
so after we had reached the Canal ; and as it was known early in the afternoon how
many passengers there were, there was no excuse whatever for our long delay. At
last we were all stowed away into three accommodation boats, (some being placed
on the decks of the two small steamers that towed us.) The first-mentioned boats
are about the size of those of Pickford and Co.'s on the Regent's Canal, and had to
supply sitting room (it being out of the question to lie down, and there being
apparently no beds in Egypt) for upwards of 100 people, many of whom were forced
to mount to the top of the boats, and ensconce themselves amongst the luggage. This
added to any little danger that might have existed,'' as the boats, being almost flat-
bottomed and very narrow, were thus rendered " top-heavy ;" and the many twistings
which the Canal took, and to which we, of course, had to conform, led us to suppose
that we now stood a fair chance of making an ignominious exit in a dirty, muddy
canal, after having so nobly braved the " Bay of Biscay O !" and indeed, at our first
setting out, we grasped instinctively our seats to " hold on." We found next morn-
ing that a wash-hand basin was unknown amongst us, and as there was nothing
larger than a hand-jug, we hauled up a pailful of the canal water, and without soap,
&c, managed to make ourselves as comfortable as possible. We reached a large
village called Atfe, where nothing better than mud huts wa3 visible, about half-
past seven, and leaving the canal boats, we walked for a few hundred yards to the
banks of the Nile, where we embarked in two small steamers, the " Cairo" and
" Little Nile." It appeared to me, that by continuing the excavation of the Canal
for a very short distance, a lock might be advantageously placed so as to effect a
communication there between the Canal and the Nile; which would be produc-
tive of much benefit, but I question if of sufficient advantage to warrant the out-
lay. As far as the Indian traveller's transit is concerned, it would then not be
necessary to have a change of boats ; and boats of a more commodious description
might be adopted ; hut, indeed, the first advantage is almost rendered null, by the
Pasha having the entire navigation of the Canal ; and on the other hand, boats of a
much greater size could not be employed, owing to the many shallows in the river
Nile. The steamers are very small, but we were not huddled quite so close in
them as the accommodation-ooats ; as, for instance, I, for one, got room to lie on
the floor of the cabin. In the " Little Nile," there are a pair of oscillating en-
gines, by Penn of Greenwich, extremely neat and well-finished, and indeed, the
boat, as a whole, well deserves this character. The provisions were a little superior
to those we had on board the canal-boats; but still very bad ; and it was only by
dint of scrambling that one could procure a quantum sufficit. I dare say your
readers may have remarked, that I have made mention of many minor circum-
stances, that may almost appear unworthy of notice; but I suspect that such trivial
wants go greatly to determine whether the transit through Egypt is properly and
wisely conducted, or not; or, whether it is right that persons should be advised on
the score of comfort, to journey with their families by this route, when, for ex-
ample, the parties with whom I travelled, had not a night's rest, and never enjoyed
the luxury of a bed, from Alexandria to Suez. Many of my fellow voyagers
vowed, that on their return to England, they would not travel Overland ; and said
they preferred the comfort and quiet of a voyage round the Cape, to the comfort-
less hurry and buttle of a trip by Egypt. But while I am pointing out the many
inconveniences and want of good accommodation that exist in the latter route, I may

say, that for my own part, I never felt happier; and the roughs gave an agreeable enough
variety. Yet all persons are not of this way of thinking; and I see no reason
why those who pay so large a sum as is now demanded for their passages, (more
especially the \5l. for the land transit,) should be deprived of ordinary comforts,
which could, with little difficulty, be supplied. — But to return. I have mentioned
that on the morning of the 18th, we left the canal-boats ; and, on that of the 19th,
we had arrived at Boulac, (the port of Cairo,) when we left the steamers ; on
board of which we had as little convenience for washing, as we had had on board of
the canal tow-boats. It was a great misfortune that the Nile water was so muddy,
as we were thereby deprived of the luxury of a looking-glass, a thing of which we
stood much in need. From what I have said, you may be sure we were not very
sorry to leave the vessels; and hurrying up to the town of Cairo, I located my-
self at the Great Eastern Hotel, which we found to be pretty good. During my
short stay of twelve hours at Cairo, I went to visit the sultan's palace, and saw
also a mosque which he is building adjoining this residence ; from the slight glance
that I had at it, I may safely say, that the work would have done no discredit to an
English artizan. The architecture had nothing peculiar in it, excepting being in
the general style of the mosque. I believe there is no Englishman, or other
" kaffir," connected with the erection of this building. Mehemet Ali built it, I
understand, chiefly to receive his own remains; it stands on an eminence, from
which, I suppose, the old Pasha imagines his shade may look downward over " the
land of Egypt," to approve the tyranny and foster the civilization, which here form
a most marvellous imbroglio. Indeed, there is nothing more curious in this
curious land than the strange assortment of slavish submission, of abject misery,
and incipient civilization, that mingle without mixing, and present themselves in a
thousand fantastic forms.

We left Cairo, at about half-past six P.M. of the same day on which we
had arrived, in the usual vans drawn by four horses each ; there being, iu
our batch, four carriages. We had scarcely left the town, and were just entering
on the holders of the Desert, when one of the carriages came down with a terrific
smash ; hut, very fortunately, the six passengers escaped with a few slight cuts and
bruises. This accident was chiefly owing to the simple fact, that three of the
four horses (Arabs) that were harnessed in each van were unbroken! or what
comes to the same thing, had never been in harness before that morning; and
consequently, were fiery enough to endanger the safety of the Thames ! Undoubtedly
a great number of horses are required for the journey through the Desert, but
surely it is not indispensable to risk the travellers' lives by giving them such
hyenas. We were kept here waiting a couple of hours, until a fresh carriage had
arrived from Cairo, and off we again started, with an abundant intersprinkling of
kicking and plunging — with an occasional placing of a leig on the wrong side of a
trace ; all which circus-like feats lasted, until the horses were cooled, or rather heated
to such a temperature as to be incapable of further gymnastics, much to our amuse-
ment and satisfaction. I believe that a great number of the horses employed in
this transit die every week ; and at this 1 am not at all surprised, when I consider
the roads, heavy and rough, although in some parts almost like a good English
highway, and the constant gallop which for ten miles (the average distance between
the station-houses) the horses are kept at ; besides which, the grooms appear not to
take much pains with their department. Indeed, it was quite painful to see the
bad condition in which many of their horses were, especially at the latter stages of
the road. I know not whether it would be an improvement to change at every
five miles, but it certainly would be of great advantage to cause the horses to run
slower, and to keep them in better condition. The carriages too are badly con-
structed. I remember noticing some serious fault in the placing of the springs,
hut I now forget the particular defect. The jolting the " insides" experience in
them is frightful. The coachman appears sometimes to aim at running a wheel
over a large stone, and your head is then pitched into your neighbour's lap, or,
perhaps into some still more incommodious situation.

The provisions at the station-houses were excessively bad and scanty ; the beer,
and for which we paid extra, was the only respectable article that could be had.
I have heard only one objection urged to the evident good which would result from
the Oriental Company having the journey through Egypt under their own manage-
ment; and that is, that the travellers or their luggage would not be safe from the
wandering Bedouins. This is, I am afraid, but a weak argument, as I think the
Pasha would not deem it advisable to relax his measures of safety, when indirectly
interested in the result. But, perhaps, it would he best policy for the Pacha to
have always some hand in the transit, as besides this certainty for the security of
travellers, he would be in many other ways of great service, and would not be in-
clined to throw any obstacle in the way, and more ready to remove any that might
arise.

We reached Suez in the afternoon of the 20th, only to sec one of the most
miserable cities fancy can picture. It was fortunate that the van drew up
opposite to the hotel ; for we should otherwise have had some difficulty in dis-
covering it. The ladies complained much of the bad accommodation provided
here. Indeed the bed-rooms were one mass of cobwebs, and the beds were so frail,
as to require many supports. They wished to have slept in the " Hindostan,"
but were told that it could not be allowed ; although I afterwards learned that
one or two friends of the purser, or steward, passed the night on board. They
(the ladies) might certainly have been permitted either to have remained a night
longer at Cairo, where the accommodations were infinitely superior to those here,
or have been permitted to have gone on board the steamer, which they did not
do until the following morning. Our luggage came gradually dropping in, and we
were all most agreeably surprised to find it safe. And thus ended our Overland
journey, by our finally starting from Suez on the 22nd of Sept. I had intended to
have said something about the advantages derivable from the various ports we
touched at, in connexion with the first article in the second Number of the
Artizan, but I must now defer this till next month.

Mac.

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THE ARTIZAN.

No. XIV.— FEBRUARY 29th, 1844.

Art. I.— COLONIAL ECONOMY.

" The doctrine of demand and supply must and always will regulate human
actions ;"— the same doctrine, it may be conceded to us, does regulate all
inhuman and unchristian actions. We do not at all doubt the fact asserted
by the believers in Demand and Supply : — all we mean to assert is, that to
exalt mere demand and supply into a predominating and supereminent prin-
ciple, is the most miserable sort of religion. England has at present twenty
millions of gold that she does not know what to do with — she has also twenty
millions of acres, and twenty times twenty that she does not know what to do
with — and, in the southern half of this island alone, she is represented by
many millions of souls, the great majority of whom cannot find adequate
employment or sufficient food. Mr. Cottontwist employs a hundred men,
and pays them each twenty shillings a-week. He has no sufficient demand
to enable him to employ more. Poor Hundred-and-one calls upon him, and
offers to work for eighteen shillings : — if he can, so can all the rest ; and the
supply of labour increasing every day, Mr. Cottontwist finds that he can now
reduce his wages to nine, or eight, or seven shillings a-week, and yet extract
a good quantity of work.

Now, that something over and above demand and supply must step in to
regulate human actions, is evident from this, that if the employer will not
employ and remunerate all who are in want of employment, he must pay
them without employing them : and this he does in the shape of poor-rates
or charity, which we need not affirm to be something over and above demand
and supply. In a healthy and open field, demand and supply may be safely
left to operate ; but nature will not be content with the observance of one
law. The extension of the field of employment for capital and labour has not
gone on pari passu with the increase of capital and labour : and the result
fearfully demonstrates the close alliance and sensitive threads of sympathy
between the physical and moral worlds. The unnatural competition of trade
has induced a moral cannibalism : — the "respectable" rogue adulterates his
goods, and poisons his customers — and this adulteration, which was once a
matter of hundred-weights, is now a matter of tons ; the bolder and more
desperate spirits run the risk of the prison or the gallows by robbery more
overt — the only difference between the two being, that the former is a very
respectable man, and attends church three times on Sunday, with his " nu-
merous family," while the latter, with the poet sings,

" Let them cant about decorum
Who have characters to lose !"

That " this effect defective comes by cause " — that it is by the removal of the
cause alone that the effect is to be averted, will not, we believe, much longer
be denied, unless, indeed, over-competition shall have so increased the num-
ber of respectable or disrespectable rogues, that both the cause and the effect
will be left, by tacit consent, to find their level upon demand and supply
principles.

Let it not be supposed that we would have the artizan to despise political
economy ; or that we would argue with him that political economy is not
worthy of the name of a science. Far from this. But we do hold, that, in
the present constitution of society, the mechanical principles of political
economy cannot be safely left to themselves ; unless, indeed, in political
economy is to be included the doctrine of unrestrained commercial inter-
course and interchange, and a spice of that rather obsolete commodity —
Christianity.

In the wide sense of the term, Colonial must embrace, as a part, political
economy — the relations of land, labour, and capital must be first adjusted —
then let all other demand and supply adjust itself as it may. To open the
markets of the world to England, and to open the markets of England to the
world, is the aim and object of the more generous members of the League ;
to create new markets in all quarters of the wide English empire — to develop
the agricultural and mineral resources of Great Britain and Ireland, of Canada,
Australasia, the West Indies, Africa, and India, is the object of Colonial
Economy. These are not opposed to one another : they are one. The true
object of colonization is not to obtain possession of an island or of a conti-
nent ; but, practically to establish there new communities. Let France co-
lonize, if she will, and, as England has done with China, open the markets
she creates to the enterprise of all the world. What matters it that the
United States do not belong to Great Britain ; what benefits it that New
Zealand does belong to Great Britain ! Since we lost sovereign possession
of the United States, we have gained there a lasting and ever-improving

VOL. II.

market. Since we placed our tyrannical hand upon New Zealand, we have
repressed the energies, and destroyed the hopes of as enterprising a body of
heroic settlers as ever left the shores of England. Let u_s by all means increase
our intercourse with France, and with Belgium, and with Spain and Brazil ;
but let us not neglect to bring together, into profitable amalgamation, the
immense and inexhaustible elements of wealth we ourselves possess in our
millions cf able-bodied labourers, our tens of millions of capital or credit,
and our hundreds of millions of cultivable yet uncultivated acres.

But colonization has two claims upon our attention", irrespective altogether
of its relative intrinsic value, as compared with free trade. England is go-
verned by vested interests. — Vested robberies would, perhaps, i>C the juster
designation. We do not enter here into the consideration of what the mC"i-
ing of vested interests is. All we mean to say is, that the great majority of
the House of Commons, instead of representing the interests of the millions
of the great British family, represents some 200,000 gentlemen, living in the
country somewhere ; that these 200,000 individuals have, on the negative
side, no particular interest in opening further the markets of Oporto and Xeres
or Bordeaux, so as to reduce the price of port, or sherry, or claret, to a
vulgar standard ; while they have, or think they have, (and " there is nothing
good or bad but thinking makes it so,") a positive interest in preventing
competition in corn-growing, which is the profession by the profits of which
they live. In the same manner, an equally powerful class are, on the nega-
tive side, not at all interested in seeing every washerwoman in Great Britain
provided with sugar for her coffee, or coffee for her sugar ; but they have, or
think they have, a positive interest in preventing competition in sugar- grow-
ing. So on with minor individual class interests ; while, as regards the great
and giant interest, the Revenue, those several classes very wisely consider
that the distribution thereof is burden enough for them ; the contribution
thereto being most conveniently, as the Premier would say, levied upon the
necessities of the millions. That this is a true picture, we have no doubt
will scarcely be denied with a grave face by any one. Even the sleek place-
man himself will laugh in his sleeve when he asserts that it is quite the
contrary.

How then, we would ask, are we to expect free-trade under such circum-
stances ? The vested interests of Great Britain, (that is, of the 200,000
constituents referred to,) and of her representatives, being diametrically op-
posed to any such consummation, what chance is there, in these days, of a
Cromwell representing the people, sending away " that bauble," and walking
the whole House out of doors ? And is it not notorious that many speculate
on some such crisis as this ?

We would say that there are two points irrespective of the intrinsic merits
of foreign and colonial trade (for free trade is something common to a due
arrangement of both) which give colonization a claim on our particular at-
tention. The first of these is, that it does not stand in the way of any vested
interest ; and the second is, that the whole nation has a vested interest in it.
It is evident enough that the English land-owner, or the West Indian
sugar-grower, cannot be affected by the transference of capital to Australia
or Ireland, inasmuch as the growth of corn in Australia will only create a
new demand for Chinese tea and British manufactures, without hurting his
pockets ; while he, the English landlord, is for the most part the Irish land-
lord also, and cannot be materially benefited by neglecting the interests of the
sister island. But the whole British nation is immediately interested in
giving a value to its waste lands. To do so would be the means, over and
above the creation of new markets for industry, of the creation of a new and
exhaustless exchequer, which would enable the House of Landlords, without
detriment to themselves, to reduce taxation upon the necessaries of life.
Wherever anything like proper means have been taken to give a stimulus to
cultivative production and commerce in a new settlement, the interest of
money has in a short time risen from 5 to 10, and even 14 and 15, per cent.
Were the British Government to invest one million in intersecting a settle-
ment of one hundred thousand acres with roads — in the first outlay for re-
clamation, for seeds, and implements — in the erection of bridges, quays, and
landing-places — of snug farmeries — in educational and religious institutions —
a mechanics' institute — a market-place, &c, &c. — they might, on the unex-
ceptionable security of the lands so improved, demand and obtain with readi-
ness an interest of 10 per cent, on the outlay; which, even during the aggre-
gate lifetime of the occupants, would replace the capital invested, with a large
interest ; while, as certainly, a prosperous and industrious taxable community
would be formed. At present, what do we do ? We sell the land out and
out for some 30s. or 40.?. an acre — in patches, too, of a hundred acres, or

28

Colonial Economy.

[February,

three hundred acres, scattered over a settlement embracing as many square
miles. The means obtained are totally inadequate to insure concentration —
to insure, over such a wilderness, anything like due combination of labour.
We for ever, and for an inadequate price, sink our capital — the land ; and
induce the poor yeoman to sink therein his small capital, the savings of many
years of industry. Need we wonder at massacres, and discontent, and back-
ward progress ? England has no right to give away its land — its capital —
for ever, for a nominal price. The lands of England are its dowry — its ex-
chequer— the source, if well managed, of a continuous and inexhaustible
revenue for all the purposes of the state. It is an eternal disgrace to English
legislation, that it has left this mine of wealth neglected, or interfered only to
cause evil, and national loss and dishonour. Let us, from a few cases, glean
the principles on which land is now disposed of on what was intended to be a
sufficient price system — a system which should, by a self-acting process,
adjust the relations of land, labour, and capital.

" It is my duty frankly to avow (says the Governor of Van Diemen's
Land, vide the Colonial Commissioners' last Report, p. 12,) my decided
conviction that, for years to come, little revenue can possibly be expected to
accrue from the sale of lands. I declined last year bringing much land into
the market, because I found that, when compelled or induced to purchase,
the settlers did not do so out of their profits, or even out of their reserved
capital, but by means of money borrowed chiefly from non-resident capi-
talists, at a high rate of interest." profits. indp°^ ' wnere are healthy pro-
fits to arise in a settlement rt,nere 9*. an acre is the average price of land, to
be expended in rend^nng ^e settlement attractive to labour, and suitable for
the employing,. 0f capital ? But this, it appears, cannot be the reason ; for
sir Joh^ jfygmkiin adds, that since so little land is sold at 9*., what can we
Expect now that the price is to be raised to 20s. ? And yet he may be right
after all ; for if neither 9*. nor 20s. is anything but a nominal price, only
" sufficient" to indemnify rapacious officials, and totally insufficient to ren-
der any new settlement comfortable or habitable, it is better to give the lesser
price when we are " compelled or induced to purchase."

Two thousand four hundred and forty-eight persons went to Van Diemen's
Land in 1842. In the first six months of 1843 — how many ? Twenty-three
individuals. (Report, p. 13.) And these would have done wisely to have
staid at home. What were they to do when they got out ? Two thousand
four hundred persons are quite enough in a place where there is plenty of
good land at 9s. an acre — but not worth 9s., because worth nine times 9s., —
and with no capital or credit to give employment.

But the Western Australians think even 9s. an exorbitant price for land —
and, most worthy of Swan River, demand a reduction to 5s. " No funds
can accrue in young settlements at a higher price, and emigration is diverted
to older colonies." Not at all, say the Commissioners, very justly: the
reason why land will not sell in Western Australia, is not because the price
is too high, but because for a long time the price was nothing. But we shall
pass at once from these minor objections and counter-objections, and assert
plainly at once, that, until lands in new colonies are made worth 10/. an acre
at the least, and therefore, because worth 10/., disposed of for 10/., the ar-
gument about price is mere trifling. Let labour be employed adequately by
the British Government, or through its instrumentality, to colonize, to im-
prove, to survey, build, and construct, and render habitable the waste lands
of our colonies. Then, sell or let your land. But do not insult the poor
yeoman, by taking from him his small capital, and sending him out to
a land of strangers, or a desert, without a roof to cover him ; with none of
the conveniences, none of the comforts of home prepared for him — no suffi-
cient facilities for the exercise of his talents, or the employment of his small
balance of stock. Give this what name you please, it is a cruel deception
practised upon the ignorant — unwise as it is unworthy.

Before proceeding specifically to suggest such remedial means as appear to
us absolutely necessary to make colonization either popular or useful, let us
briefly consider the various panaceas propounded both in and out of Parlia-
ment for the present miserable state of things ; and also in what respects
these nostrums are likely to merge into a sound colonial system. The prin-
ciple which actuates our legislators (our representatives /) in search of a
remedy for social disorganization, is punishment — the punishment of prison
for guilt — of the workhouse for poverty. Although it is not discovered that
either guilt or poverty is much diminished in consequence, or that public
executions increase the moral dignity of the pickpockets who delight in
such specimens of the illegitimate drama, we do not by any means maintain
that punishment is not necessary. But the punishment we would advo-
cate is that of the wise old Haroun AlRaschid, who bowstrung his viziers and
gentlemen of the quarter-sessions, when he found the people getting turbu-
lent or dangerous. If the waters were poisoned, he did not go to the mouth
of the stream, but to the fountain-head : and it will be recollected that the
worthy Giaffir contrived, under such a system, to keep the machine pretty
regular in its working. If a sound system of home or distant colonization,
constraining immediate outlay, not only for physical but moral purposes,
would establish healthy fields for the employment of labour and capital,
punishments would be hardly necessary ; and the lawyer and the executioner
would be the only " interests" to claim compensation for loss of occupation.
The most fruitful sources of crime are poverty and ignorance ; and educa-
tion is a part of a true colonization : not the education of Factory Bills, nor
of that magnificent hierarchy which, in admirable irony, is sometimes called
the Poor Man's Church : not an education in the groans of the conventicle,
or the convulsions of the Ranter : but an education sound and liberal, which

regards the heart as well as the intellect, and inculcates the first of all
lessons — charity .

The millions exclaim for greater influence in the state ; and they are most
sagely answered by those who have refused to educate them, that they are
uneducated ! Apart from all this, must we not admit that the Christian and
generous, and self-sacrificing feeling, the economical management of the
national treasury, the absence of all party interests, the rapid discharge of
business, the freedom from tedious and pointless talk in the legislative cham-
bers, and the universal happiness and content of our free and glorious coun-
try, is an eternal argument for the continuance of the present blessed and
constitutional system of representation ! and that that brief and pointed
speaker, Sir Robert Peel, is quite correct when he attributes what little of
evil has crept in amongst the immaculate bishops, lords, and members, to
that odious and fearful encroachment, the Reform Bill !

Then we must not trade so much. The merchants of Liverpool, and
Manchester, and London, must hold weekly meetings, to determine what
quantity of goods they ought to manufacture or import ! and if it is found
that Mr. Cobden has manufactured too much, or Mr. Baring imported too
much, then poor Mr. Getting-on must stop his mills, or Tom Styles coun-
termand his small order for sugar and molasses. Ay, over-trading is a very
bad thing, no doubt ; only, who 's to stop ? Why, ^hat sort of a demand
and supply system is it that cannot regulate itself? Better stop the wheels
-JWether. But would it not be as well to give them oil, and ample room,
and verge enough in the wide world of human enterprise ?

Some say again, we must repeal the union with Ireland ; and that will do
some good on the other side of the channel. Surely not, says England —
that is, so say Punch and the Times — Ireland, without English supervision
and legislation, would rapidly become! poor, degraded, and helpless. Look
at the United States, how they have fallen into decay, since they lost our
holy and brotherly alliance ! No, no — send all the Catholics to Botany Bay,
or stop their mouths with a stipend ; and send a few lawyers and soldiers to
frighten O'Connell, and Ireland will continue as great and happy a nation
as for the last half millennium we have endeavoured, under Divine Pro-
vidence, to make her !

Extend the currency, says Mr. Attwood. By no means, says the Times
again. To extend the currency would only be to create rags. Is there,
then, no basis for an extended currency, but the bullion lying in the Bank of
England — called the National Bank, on the same praiseworthy and logical
principle upon which the Church of England is called the Poor Man's Church ?
Are the hundreds and thousands of millions of rich acres, at home and abroad,
left half cultivated or uncultivated by idle England, worth nothing? Must
we wait till the gold is coined, before we can exchange it for food or raiment?
Must we wait until the land is covered with houses and people, before we can
create the representative symbols to remunerate labour in the production of
food, in the construction of roads and bridges, and other means of certain
wealth ?

Whenever roads and bridges are constructed, they must be constructed at
the public expense ; and, as that expense has to be incurred if the country is
to be inhabited at all, it is surely the best way to make the land of value, by
the accomplishment of such works in the first instance. This, indeed, is but
to return to first principles. We would make use of and combine in new
settlements, in their due proportions, all those elements of wealth which we
know to be necessary for civilization and comfort in old countries, and which
produce disarrangement only by the excess of some one of them. It may be
a homely, but is nevertheless, we believe, a just illustration, that, to attempt
to colonise without duly arranging beforehand the due quantities of land, and
capital, and labour, is as preposterous as it would be for a baker to mix up,
without measure or approximate calculation, his yeast, and flour, and water,
and then wonder that the compound turned out to be very miserable bread.
And what has colonization yet done, or attempted to do, for the artizan ? In
penal settlements, no doubt, where the right honourable gaolers and their
staff are paid by the public at home, and in such places as Auckland, in New
Zealand, where every thing is set in motion and contingent upon official ex-
penditure, there is much appearance of prosperity ; and the handicraftsman
can for a while find work to do. But this fictitious prosperity must wither so
soon as public opinion, as sooner or later it must do, shall insist upon the
discontinuance of convict or official settlements ; and the artizan, after having
been enticed by false light to a distant land, will be left helpless and destitute.
The first requisite in national colonization is the supply of fixed capital by
the state, in the shape of those artificial arrangements which are absolutely
necessary to give scope and attraction to labour and enterprise. And, on the
very threshold of the inquiry, the question occurs, on what principle shall the
state recover its outlay, and what rights of property shall it guarantee to
those dealing with it ? It is obviously necessary, to secure the confidence of
the landlords it creates under itself, of the labourers and artizans employed,
the return of an adequate revenue ; and above all, a due adjustment of the
centrifugal and centripetal forces — dispersion and concentration.

To make these questions, as well as their answers, plain to our readers, we
shall take a particular case as the exponent of our views, and shall suppose
that it is intended to establish a settlement containing, besides lands requi-
site for roads and public works, and exclusive of land unfit for productive use,
100 square miles, or 64,000 acres. We will suppose that, to render these
lands available for the immediate occupation of capital, and skilled and un-
skilled labour, the following allocation of immediate expenditure or endow-
ment was requisite : —

1844.]

Colonial Economy.

29

Surveying, &c. .
Emigration . .
Clearing and inclosing
Dwellings

Loans to small capitalists
Roads and bridges, &c. .
Education . .
Sundries

30,000

. 100,000

200,000

. 100,000

100,000

. 100,000

100,000

. 50,000

£780,000

Now, first, how is this expenditure, presuming that not less will suffice
to give an effectual stimulus to enterprise, and to produce that degree of
comfort at the outset which prevents discontent, and also waste of capital, —
how is this expenditure to be recovered on a principle equitable to the state,
and to those engaging with it ? And, second, being satisfied as to the secu-
rity, how is it to be raised ? The proportions in which the prime value of the
lands might be adjusted may be represented by the annexed diagram and
table.

Plan for a Freehold Settlement, 100 square miles, or 64,000 acres.

Suburbs

91

Country

TOWN.

1 square mile, or

640 acres,
In 5,120 sections,
each l-8th of an acre, at
20/. per section, or 160/.
per acre,

102,400/.

SUBURBS.

8 square miles, or

5,120 acres,
In 640 sections, each
8 acres, at 160/. per
section, or 20/. per
acre,

102,400/.

COUNTRY.

91 square miles, or

57,600 acres,

In 3,600 sections, each

16 acres, at 160/. per

section, or 10/. per acre

576,000/.

GRAND TOTAL.

Town . . £102,400
Suburbs . 102,400

Country . 576,000

£780,000

If this amount can be recovered by means of " cash down," from capitalist
farmers, so much the better ; and, supposing that sufficient attraction is
afforded by the fixed capital and other aids and conveniences established by
the state, doubtless much of the value might thus be returned to indemnify
the nation for its disbursement. But small farmers, and other industrious small
capitalists, cannot, as experience has lamentably demonstrated, sink their capi-
tal in a new settlement, without detriment to themselves, if the price of the
land be adequate ; and without detriment to themselves and the whole colony,
if the price be inadequate. A yeoman is less justified in purchasing out and out
a three-hundred acre farm in New Zealand at six hundred pounds, than in
purchasing out and out a thirty-acre farm at home for the same sum. And if
the price be made adequate, and therefore such as to include the prelimi-
nary social arrangements which prevent the preliminary waste of capital, de-
lay, privation, and discontent, he is only some few degrees better able to risk
the outlay. In ten years he might pay it, or in twenty years, or by instal-
ments spread over his life-time; and so, with an ever-present stimulus, urge
on the work of production, and secure to himself a freehold possession, or to
his heirs a patrimony, and so obtain for himself and his children a fixity of
tenure by that only lawful conquest, — the conquest by labour.

Upon its outlay of 780,000/. the state, by annual instalments of ten per
cent, would soon repay itself, while it would only be asking, for available
and really valuable lands, a terminable rent of 16/. for town, 11. for sub-
urban, and 1/. for rural lands. In nine years, supposing all the parties en-

gaged for the purchase of grounds on such conditions, the whole 780,000/.
would be replaced without interest, and thereafter would accrue an ample
profit revenue. To extend the period for twenty years would, one with an-
other, secure the state lender, and the heirs of the holders, even against the
contingencies of death ; and the state might, in this manner, by insurance,
recover on the death of each tenant, within the twenty years, a return of the
proportionate investment. To say, that by introducing such an element into
the calculation, would be the most equitable and scientific of all tenures, can
hardly need proof in the estimation of the actuary ; and the additional care in
selection involved, as regards the physical health of the colonists, would
hardly be grudged by the insurance offices which would reap the benefit. The
moral argument in favour of such a modification of the principle of repay-
ment is, that it effectually protects the widow and the orphan against the
chance (which Providence puts in our hands the data to calculate) of the pre-
mature death of him on whose continued exertions their fate is otherwise
dependent. And if the security of the lands thus improved and rendered
available for the purpose of commerce and agriculture, be sufficient for the
certain return of the funds to be invested, and immediate facilities are af-
forded for procuring food, and other necessaries of life, the state has the
means in its own hands of creating such symbols or land debentures, of easily
circulating value, as will set all the machinery in motion, with the certainty
that these promises to pay, based upon the lands under course of improve-
ment, will be speedily redeemed by means of the annual instalments of the
occupants.

But we stickle not for these principles in this stage of matters, nor argue
for this creation of notes, to act in healthy competition with the mechanical
capitalist, nor for this annuity principle of redemption as against all others,
so as to induce a healthy competition with the mortgaged landlord at home ;
we insist but on three things ; and let the artizans of England but aid us in
this demand, and the boon will be obtained. First, let the state, which
has spent so many hundreds of thousands of millions in blood and useless
conquest, expend now, for the benefit of the miserable millions of this luxu-
rious nation, even a few millions in the peaceful and lawful conquest of the
soil. Second, let this expenditure be carefully watched, that it be not
jobbed : and, third, let the land become the property of the cultivators, after
having paid back, by instalments, the Government outlay.

And now, then, comes the momentous question, What course ought our
artizans to take, in order to relieve themselves of the privation which has so
long weighed upon them ? The evil obviously arises from scarcity of work —
for it is work men want, and not charity — and the remedy must lie either in
bringing work to our doors, or in going where there is work to do. It mat-
ters not to us what the hind of work is : whether it be in agriculture or in
manufacture, will signify little, provided it be remunerative ; and it is very
clear to us, that the only choice for the attainment of this object lies between
free trade and colonization. We agree with Mr. Cobden, in thinking that
if we had free trade, colonization would be superfluous ; for we should then
become the manufacturers for the world, and all our superabundant labour
would find a profitable employment in that line of industry. But how long
is the operative to wait for the realization of this golden promise ? How
long, with folded hands, is he to pine in penury, when he sees vast tracts of
the most fertile land lying waste in other quarters of the globe, which only
require the application of his labour to yield him a comfortable subsistence ?
If free trade can be obtained, it is well ; and our artizans are blind to their
own interests if they do not give their best efforts towards its realization : but
we would not wait for free trade too long ; and if it cannot be had without a
protracted warfare, the best way is for the whole of our productive classes to
emigrate en masse, and leave Britain to the aristocrats and literati.

Art. II.— COMPLETION OF THE SOUTH-EASTERN RAILWAY
TO DOVER.

The communication by railway between Liverpool and Dover is now com-
pleted ; and a passenger leaving the former port at six in the morning, may
arrive in the latter, a distance of nearly 300 miles, by seven o'clock the same
evening. It is when traversing in a few hours a long distance, which, within
the recollection of most of us, occupied the space of two and three days and
nights, that the great advantage of railway-travelling is perceived in its most
striking point of view. The completion of the South-eastern Railway to
Dover becomes of more apparent national importance than the termination
of most other similar undertakings, from the fact that Dover has for ages
been considered the chief port of communication with the Continent. On
the opening of the line from Folkestone to Dover, which took place on the
6th ult. with much ceremony, many of the French authorities from Calais
and Boulogne were present ; and the event seemed to be generally regarded
as one deeply affecting the intercourse and the interests of the two countries.
We propose, however, in a subsequent article, to consider the relative merits
of the competing communications with France by the three railways which are
now in operation from London to the English Channel : we shall, therefore,
confine our present observations more particularly to the engineering pecu-
liarities of the South-eastern Railway from Folkestone to Dover.

The range of bold chalk hills, by which Dover is surrounded, presented a

e 2

30

The Prussian Commercial League.

[February,

serious obstacle to railway engineering. Three lines were proposed; but it
was deemed most advisable to proceed, in the first place, to Folkestone, a
port about seven miles to the west of Dover, which lies just outside that
range of chalk-hills. The towns of Dover and Folkestone are nearly equi-
distant from London ; therefore, by taking that route, Dover has been placed
at a disadvantage of nearly seven miles ; whilst Folkestone, with a harbour no
more inconvenient than that of Dover, is a few miles nearer to Boulogne than
the latter town. The people of Dover consequently looked with much
jealousy at the railroad being taken to Folkestone in the first instance ; and
fears were entertained that that port would be the final terminus of the South-
eastern Railway. The formidable difficulties which interposed might well
induce such an apprehension ; and, for a long time, the further prosecution
of the works was stopped from the want of funds. Energy, skill, and enter-
prise, however, succeeded in overcoming all difficulties.

The railway having been extended to the sea, the most obvious means of
avoiding the hills was to carry it along the coast to Dover ; but the high per-
pendicular cliffs, the bases of which are washed by the sea at high- water,
presented an obstacle scarcely inferior to the hills themselves. The line
adopted by Mr. Cubitt, the engineer, combined the plans of making a road
under the face of the cliffs, where practicable, and of excavating and tunnel-
ing under them, where that mode seemed preferable. In the distance of
little more than six miles there are 4000 yards of tunnels — one mile along a
sea-wall of concrete sixty feet above high-water mark, with excavations of
formidable extent and fearful-looking acclivity. In making the tunnels, the
novel plan was adopted of forming horizontal galleries to the face of the cliff,
which is not more, on an average, than 400 feet distant; along which galleries
the excavated chalk was carried in tram-wagons, and discharged into the sea.
The Shakspeare Cliff tunnel also presents the peculiarity of being formed in
two divisions, like the tunnel under the Thames, one for the up-trains, the
other for the down-trains. These tunnels are separated by a mass of chalk
rock left between them, as a wall, 10ft. in thickness; in which wall there
are frequent communicating openings. The Shakspeare Cliff tunnels are also
peculiar, in having Gothic arches. The width of each is 12ft., and the height
to the springing of the arches is 19ft., the total height being 30ft. The ap-
pearance of the double tunnel is very curious. The. openings in the rock seem
like tall, narrow, Gothic portals. The object of this mode of construction
must have been, to diminish the difficulty of excavating, and to prevent the
loose chalk from slipping ; for, through the greater distance, the chalk is
soft, and it has been found requisite to brick the tunnels over the most part
of their length. Between the Shakspeare Cliff tunnel and the Dover station
the rails are laid over an immense wooden platform.

The excavations, we have said, are of a formidable character ; and there is
an embankment also over the valley at Folkestone, which is 100ft. high.
The works are, indeed, of a more stupendous character than are to be met
with on any other line ; and the precipitous cliffs, towering here and there to
a height of 300ft. on one side, with the sea breaking against the rocks on the
other, contribute to make the short distance from Folkestone to Dover the
most picturesque and interesting railway-pass that is to be found in the
kingdom.

Considering that the line is carried along the sea-coast, we are somewhat
at a loss to conceive why the engineer should have deemed it necessary to
make such extensive excavations and tunnelings through the rock, instead of
forming the whole road along the face of the cliff. It is probable, indeed,
that, had the science of blasting on a large scale been as well understood
before the works commenced, as it now is by the experience gained in the
course of carrying on these operations, a different course might have been
adopted. The debris of the great blasts at Abbott's and Shakspeare's Cliffs
now lie in masses stretching out to the sea, and suggest the idea, that, by
similar means, a secure road-way might have been constructed without ren-
dering it necessary to tunnel through the rocks. We must not conclude this
brief notice of so important and stupendous an undertaking, without men-
tioning, to the great honour of the engineer, that the cost of the works was
actually less than the estimate.

Art. III.— THE PRUSSIAN COMMERCIAL LEAGUE.

ITS HISTORY, OBJECT, AND TENDENCIES.

We have already shown, in treating of St. Etienne and its manufactures, that
England has little cause of alarm from French competition in manufacturing
industry ; for what has been stated on this head, as applicable to the peculiar
industry of St. Etienne, may be, for the most part, extended to that of France
at large. In the manufactures of silks, jewellery, and a few other articles,
France may, indeed, continue to take the lead of our own country ; but we
may as certainly remain fearless of French rivalry in the production of all
other kinds of goods, cottons included, notwithstanding the rise of Rouen,
Rheims, Lille, Tarare, Mulhausen, &c, as seats of cotton manufactures.
But, eastward, beyond the borders of France, the prospect is somewhat
altered. All along the Rhine, — at Elberfeldt, Bremen, Cologne, Wessel,
and in Rhenish Prussia generally, in the Baden territories, and in the northern
cantons of Switzerland, cotton-weaving, among other branches of industry,
has already attained such a degree of prosperity, as to threaten, at no very
distant date, to shut out most English cottons and other British goods from

a great part of central Europe ; unless the event be averted by the adoption,
on the part of the British Government, of a more liberal commercial system
than has (with a short interval) actuated the British councils during a long
period. Such a posture of affairs cannot be viewed without some anxiety ;
and as the Prussian Commercial League has clearly fostered the growth of
this rivalry of British manufacturing industry in Western Germany, a few
words, in this place, on the formation and objects of this Association may not
be unacceptable.

The Prussian Commercial League, or Union entitled, in Germany, the
Zoll-verein or Zoll-verbande (literally, "Toll-Union" or "Toll-Alliance"),
does not appear to have grown out of any more ancient compact, but is of
wholly recent origin, having arisen from the peculiar circumstances in which
the various states composing it have been placed with regard to each other.
That extensive region of the European continent comprised between the
Rhine and Meuse on the west, the Bohemian mountains and the Oder on the
east, the Alps on the south, and the North Sea and Baltic on the north, in
habited almost exclusively by people of Teutonic stock, and known, from the
times of antiquity to our own, by the name of Germans, has, from the earliest
historical period, presented the aspect of feudalism on the most extensive
scale. From a remote date it has been ever divided into a number of petty
independent sovereignties ; the more powerful of its sovereigns, or high
feudal chieftains, having, from the ninth to the end of the eighteenth century,
been accustomed to meet and elect the Emperor as their nominal head, but
who, however, had no power, except in certain cases, out of his own heredi-
tary dominions. (A similar system was transplanted by our Saxon ancestors
into Britain, and lasted during the Heptarchy.) At the outbreak of the
French Revolution, the German soil was divided between seven electoral
princes, thirty-six clerical and sixty-three secular nobles, and fifty-four free
imperial cities. Under the subsequent dominion of the French, the posses-
sions of the inferior princes were mediatized, or merged into the larger sove-
reignties. But, although Napoleon had, at one period, extended his rule
over nearly the entire of Germany, it never was consolidated by him into one
whole; and, on his fall, it became split up, once more, into a confederation
of mostly small sovereignties, each, as a general rule, unaccountable to the
rest in respect of its internal regulations. At the present moment, the coun-
try comprises the territories of thirty-four independent princes, and four free
cities ; which states had, till lately, little more than a community of race and
origin to bind their interests in one.

It may readily be supposed, that, in a country so constituted, different
usages, weights and measures, the separate fiscal legislation of the various
states, and a multitude of toll and custom houses, would interpose many
vexatious barriers to commerce, — inconveniences infinitely more felt at the
present than at any former period in the history of Europe, in consequence
of the spread of international communication in our day. At the period of
which we speak, and after the new order of things had been established, each
petty state was solicitous only to procure a revenue for itself, or to advance
its own industry, by highly taxing, or else wholly prohibiting, the products
of other states ; " and customs' officers, and lines of custom-houses, were
spread all over the country ! Instead of being reciprocal and dependent,
every thing was separate, independent, and hostile : the commodities admit-
ted into Hesse were prohibited in Baden ; and those prohibited in Wiirtem-
burg were admitted into Bavaria." (M* Culloch's Geoff. Diet., art. Germany.)
It is to Prussia that the merit is due, of having first struck at the root of this
selfish and impolitic system ; her measures having been prefaced by an equali-
zation of commercial duties in her own provinces, almost immediately after
Europe had acquired repose by the general peace. In 1818 and 1819, trea-
ties were negotiated between Prussia and the principalities of Schwartzburg
Sondershausen and Schwartzburg Rudolstadt — (territories closely adjacent to
the Prussian dominions) — to the end that there should be a perfect freedom
of commerce between Prussia and those principalities ; that the duties on
articles of trade between them should be identical; that these should be
charged on the frontier of the dominions of the contracting parties ; and that
each of the contracting states should participate in the returns of such duties,
in proportion to its population. All the treaties subsequently entered into
with other states composing the union have been based upon the same broad
principles, with reference to all kinds of merchandize except the following : —
I. salt, and playing-cards, which are state monopolies in Prussia ; II. articles
of native produce, paying different duties on consumption in the different
states ; and, III. patented articles, giving the patentees peculiar privileges in
certain states.

Since 1818, when the basis of the Union was laid, the latter has extended,
so that it now comprises more than four-fifths (numerically, — not in point of
extent) of the German states ! From 1819 to 1830, Hesse Darmstadt,
Lippe Detmold, and some smaller principalities, had adhered to the Prussian
League. Meanwhile, some of the principal states of Southern Germany, —
Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Hohenzollern Sigmaringen, and Hechingen, com-
bined in a similar association in 1824. In 1826, Anhalt, Kiithen and Dessau,
Hesse Homburg, some detached portions of the Mecklenburg dominions, &c,
joined the Prussian Union ; as, in 1831, Saxony, Hesse Cassel (Electoral
Hesse), the Saxon duchies (Weimar, Coburg, Meiningen, &c), and others,
did that of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg. In 1833, these two associated bodies
fused into one. Finally, in 1835, Baden joined the League, to which
Nassau and Frankfort have since adhered. Hanover, Mecklenburg Schwerin
and Strelitz, Oldenburg, Brunswick, Holstein, and the Hanse towns of
Liibeck, Bremen, and Hamburg, are no parties thereto. The whole of the

1844.]

The Prussian Commercial League.

31

territories comprised in the Zoll-verein extend over an area of about 175,000
square miles, having little short of thirty millions of inhabitants. Throughout
the whole country, from Aix-la-Chapelle, on the border of the Netherlands,
to Tilsit, on the confines of Russia, and from Stettin and Dantzic on the
Baltic, southward to Bohemia and Switzerland, there is nothing to interrupt
freedom of commerce. An assembly of representatives from the combined
states meets annually at one of the cities within its limits, for all business
relative to the League which may come before it. The duties are received
into a common treasury, and are apportioned to each state relatively to its
population. The new system has greatly simplified the collection of the
duties, while materially reducing its cost in consequence ; and has caused
nany thousands of individuals, previously employed as custom-house officers,
to be engaged, instead, in productive industry.

It was at first contemplated that the duties on merchandize imported into
the territories of the League should amount to no more than from 10 to 15
per cent, on its value. But this intention has been greatly departed from in
practice, and a general duty of about 1*. 6d. per cwt. was long ago imposed
on most kinds of goods. The tendency of this measure is, of course, to shut
out low priced, and favour the introduction of dearer, foreign goods, — in
other words, to benefit the few at the expense of the many. Thus, the richest
muslin and the coarsest calico pay the same amount per cwt. ; and, under
the influence of such a state of things, the duty on cotton goods varies from
3^ to 120 per cent. ! Moreover, the duties on woollens, 41. 10s. ; on hard-
wares, 8^. 5*. ; on linens, from 33s. to 3/. 6s. ; and on silks, 16/. 10s. per
vat. ; for the most part greatly exceed the 10 per cent, originally set up as a
standard ; though the duty on silk above stated is the lightest levied, amount-
ing to only about 3s. per lb. However, in spite of all such impediments,
the [increase in the productive and commercial activity of the countries
composing the League, has been striking, since its establishment. In 1832,
the import of raw cotton* into those states amounted to 117,911 cwts. ; in
1836, it had risen to 187,858 cwts. of cotton yarn ; 172,110 cwts. were im-
ported in 1832; and 321,940 cwts. in 1837. The export and transit of
cotton yarn in the same territories decreased almost progressively within the
same period — showing, that the cotton manufactures of the League had been
increasing enormously in extent and activity. In fact, " the whole of the
League imported a smaller quantity of foreign manufactured cotton in 1836,
than Prussia alone had imported in 1832!" — {Boiuring's Report.) And
the export of cotton manufactures from Prussia, which in 1829-31 amounted
to 18,422 cwts. ; exceeding the import by only 6,272 cwts., — in 1837 reached
75,193 cwts., and exceeded the import by 62,003 cwts. The sheep's wool
imported in 1832 amounted to 99,411 cwts. ; in 1837 to 194,640 cwts. : the
import of woollen yarn increased, during the same period, from 2,236 to
3,702 cwts. ; and the export of manufactured woollens, from 48,773 to
68,767 cwts. The import and export of silk goods of all kinds have in-
creased, and the silk trade in the Union has experienced so notable an aug-
mentation, that the silk-looms in the Prussian states, which in 1831 num-
bered 8,956, according to an official report, had in 1834 increased to 12,044.
The import of indigo, which in 1831 amounted to 11,536 cwts., in 1837
reached 24,095 cwts. The export of common earthenware, in 1832, 50,887
cwts., was, in 1836, 108,885 cwts. ; and that of porcelain rose within the
same period from 1256 to 4411 cwts.; while its import diminished at the
same time from 2858 to 1156 cwts. In 1832, about 1,300,000 tons of coal
were, estimated to be raised in the Prussian states annually ; the quantity
raised in 1837 was stated officially, by the celebrated Humboldt {Bowring's
Report, p. 227), to be equal to 2,080,000 English tons. Ex his disce omnes.
The import of raw materials in the Prussian Commercial Union has marched,
pari passu, with the export of manufactured goods. A table given by Die-
terici, shows, that, during the three years from 1833 to 1835 inclusive, " on
foreign articles of consumption not coming into competition with German
articles, the increase was as 54 to 46 ; in foreign articles of consumption
competing with German articles, the decrease was as 24 to 29 ; in half-manu-
factured articles, serving for further labour, the increase was only from 9-161
to 9-520 ; while, in wholly manufactured articles, the decrease was from 13
to 10." {Statist. Uebersicht der Deutsch. Zollverb., p. 127 ; see also Bow-
ring's Report on the Prussian Commercial Union, p. 8, et passim.) Since
the publication of Dr. Bowring's Report, in 1840, no detailed account of the
progress of the Union has appeared ; but we gather from the Statistical
Tables issued by the Board of Trade in the past year (1843), that the
import of cotton wool from Great Britain alone into Prussia and the rest of
Germany,! amounted to 107,000 cwts. ; and that of English cotton-twist to
340,086 cwts. We need not specify other articles.

Doubtless, Germany at large has profited, and will continue to profit, by
the Zoll-verein. She is realizing Esop's fable of the bundle of sticks — too
strong to be broken when united. An anonymous writer has correctly enough
remarked, " The history of the Hanse-towns is one of the most remarkable
examples of the extension of trade, and the progress of opulence, under the

* It may be here remarked, that raw materials are admitted into the Union
cither duty free, or at a very low rate of duty. Thus, raw cotton, wool, coals, pig-
iron, ores, raw hides and skins, common pottery and furniture, rags, manure, warden
produce, wood, turf, &c, &c, pay no duties whatever.

t N.B. Austria, which forms no part of the League, is comprised here under the
head of Germany; but the proportion of cotton-wool and twist sent thither from
England, is comparatively unimportant.

guidance of intelligent merchants acting upon the sound principles of political
economy, and seeking the extension of their intercourse by the removal of
fiscal restrictions." {London and Westminster Review, 1840.) The com-
mercial Unions of Germany promise to succeed to all the influence formerly
exercised by the Hanse-towns ; and so much the more, in that they exist in
a more advanced and improving age, and as the removal of the restrictions
on commerce that they may be able to effect, may be the more extensive.

Of all the countries belonging to the Prussian Commercial Union, Saxony,
though one of the latest to join it, is that which has benefited by it most.
" In 1830 there were, in the kingdom of Saxony, 86 spinning establishments,
having 361,202 spindles, and employing 5380 adults, and 2443 children. In
1837 there were 124 spinning establishments, with 490,325 spindles ; being
an increase of 35f per cent. . . . The number of stocking- frames in Saxony
was estimated at 12,000 in 1831, and at 20,000 in 1836." {Bowring's Report,
p. 35.) Mr. M'Culloch observes, that the progress of the Saxon cloth ma-
nufactures, in the three years, from 1834 to 1837, according to an official
report, had been greater than during the thirty years preceding ! ( Geog.
Diet., art. Saxony, ii. 644.) In Bavaria and Wiirteinburg the benefits have
been less obvious, though, perhaps, not less real ; but in Baden and Hesse
Darmstadt, a very decided increase of national prosperity has attended their
adherence to the Prussian Union. In Baden this is signalized by the fact,
that, whereas, in 1829, there were in that Grand-duchy only 161 weaving
factories, with 2756 workmen, and a registered capital of 1,777,055 florins,
at the end of 1837 there were 294 factories, employing 9281 hands, and with
a capital of 2,488,352 florins. {Ibid. i. 268.) The increase of the Baden
manufactures, and those of adjacent states, has temporarily injured the com-
merce of some of the northern Swiss cantons ; and Schaffhausen, in parti-
cular, would fain have joined the Zoll-verein, but for the veto of the other
cantons of Switzerland on the measure. Of all the states of the League,
Frankfort-on-the-Maine is that whose interests have suffered most by its
establishment. Frankfort has always depended greatly on her fairs, which
have been some of the largest in Germany, but which, like the others, — those
of Leipsic, for instance, — have been greatly diminished in importance by the
existence of the Prussian Union. It was, indeed, the impending danger to
the importance of her fairs that ultimately urged Frankfort into a junction
with her neighbours. While she held out, an attempt was made to establish
a rival fair at Offenbach, a town in the territory of Hesse Darmstadt, on the
Maine, only about five miles distant from Frankfort. The experiment
proved, in a short time, so successful, that, to obviate the rise of a horribly
formidable rival, Frankfort sent in her adherence to the Union, sorely against
her will.

The other Hanse-towns, — Liibeck, Bremen, and Hamburgh, — could gain
nothing by joining the Prussian Commercial League, but would doubtless
lose much of their consequence and prosperity ; since, bating the drawback
of the Sound-dues levied by Denmark at the entrance of the Baltic, the
Prussian ports on that sea (Stettin, Dantzic, Memel, &c.) would share with
them the importance they formerly monopolized. But these Hanse-towns
have, in fact, already united with Hanover, Brunswick, Oldenburg, and the
Mecklenburg duchies, into a league known as the North-Western German
Union; and which, greatly to the advantage of its commerce, charges a much
lower rate of duty on merchandize than is charged in the Prussian Union.
Thus, in the latter (according to an article in the British and Foreign Review
for 1841, professing to be based on exact, unpublished information), cotton
stuffs paid (in 1841) a duty of 50 dollars per cwt. ; twist-lace, 55 dollars per
cwt. ; fine woollen goods, 30 dollars per cwt. ; and half-silken wares, a duty
of 110 dollars per cwt. ; while, in the North-Western Union, all these goods
paid only 12 dollars 12 groschen ; the highest rate of duty levied! Cotton-
twist, in the former Union, paid 14 dollars per cwt. ; in the latter, only
6 dollars 6 gr. per cwt. ; — forged iron, in the former, 6 dollars ; in the latter,
only 2 dollars 2 gr. per cwt. ; — and paper-hangings, in the former, 10 dol-
lars ; and, in the latter, no more than 4 dollars 4 gr. per cwt. Indeed, the
great stumbling-block of the Prussian League has been the high rate of
custom-house duties imposed. Nor do the eyes of its statesmen appear to be
yet opened to the impolicy of continuing these ; but the contrary. By the
new tariff, published at Frankfort early in November last, as the result of the
deliberations of the past year, the duties on unbleached cotton-yarn, silk
fabrics, leather gloves, French brandy, woollen stuffs, printed cottons, em-
broidery, &c, are all raised in different degrees ; and those on gold and silver
articles, jewellery, perfumery, artificial flowers, &c, to 100 dollars per cwt. !

Prussia herself has been more or less a loser by the high rate of duties
adopted in her Commercial Union ; and which, as we have before said, are
much higher than she at first contemplated. But she has been obliged to
consult the convenience of the other confederated states. She has latterly,
we imagine, found it necessary to restrain somewhat the demands of these ;
for, at the meetings of the Zoll-verein during the past year (1843), some
dissatisfaction was given vent to by one or two of the minor states, and a
proposition to make some alteration in the duties paid on foreign iron was
negatived, as we learn, by Prussia. If, however, Prussia have not gained by
the League that full measure of commercial advantage which might have
been expected, she is amply compensated by the political ascendancy which
she has established for herself in the territories of the League. It would be
idle to shut our eyes to the probable political consequences of the Prussian
Zoll-verein. In the words of Dr. Bowring, " they certainly were not lost
sight of by its founders. . . . The Commercial League is, in fact, the sub-
stantial representation of a sentiment, widely, if not universally, spread in

32

The Communication between London and Paris.

[February,

Germany — that of national unity. . . . The general feeling in Germany
towards the Zoll-verein is, that it is the first step towards what is called the
Germanization of the people. . . . The Zoll-verein has brought the senti-
ment of German nationality out of the regions of hope and fancy into those
of positive and material interests. ... It has become a foundation on which
future legislation, representing the common interests of the German people,
may undoubtedly be hereafter raised ; and, if well-directed in its future ope-
ration, it will represent the fusion of German interests in one great alliance."
(Report, pp. 1 — 7.) Thus, what the conqueror and the statesman, for a
decade of centuries, failed to achieve, bids fair at last to be accomplished by
the peaceful arm of commerce. For, surveying the present aspect of Europe,
the course of events, and the end to which they seem hurrying, it demands
no great exercise of the imagination to anticipate a period when all Germany
(not excepting the German dominions of Austria) may be fused in one, under
Prussian rule ; while Austria, pushed from her original seat, may occupy a
station further down the Danube. Russia may, indeed, extend her rule over
the southern Sclavonic nations, and incorporate Wallachia and Bulgaria into
her empire ; while Italy, freed from Austrian despotism, may, perhaps, like
Germany, form one great and undivided whole.

Turning, however, from such anticipations, which may never be realized, —
at any rate there is no prospect of their being so speedily, — it remains to in-
quire what influence (if any) the Prussian Commercial League may exert on
the commercial prosperity of our own country. One of the main tendencies
of the League in Germany has been, to bolster up manufacturing at the ex-
pense of agricultural industry. This has been injurious to the best interests
of the people ; for Germany, taken at large, is much more an agricultural
than a manufacturing country; and the League has consequently forced
capital and industry into unnatural channels. Were foreign markets, and
especially that of England, steadily accessible to the German agriculturist,
there is no doubt that the flow of capital towards manufactures would be
checked. But while we habitually shut our ports against the great staples
of German production — corn, timber and wool — it is not to be expected that
the production of home manufactures will continue to be cherished in the
territories of the League. If our interests be compromised, and the demand
for our fabrics diminished, we have only to thank ourselves. The endeavour
to check the growth of German manufactures by prohibiting the export of
British machinery, is about as futile as the attempt to shut out the sea with
a rope of sand, or to hide the sun with a blanket ; unless we could also pre-
vent the emigration to Germany of British artizans, many of whom are at this
instant employed in Saxony, and along the Rhine, in constructing and super-
intending machinery for the production of woven fabrics, twist, &c. Thus
our very prohibitions have only had the effect of injuring ourselves, by trans-
ferring to the Continent the trade in machinery, of which we might have re-
tained the monopoly. But on opening our ports at a moderate and steady
rate of duty to the staples of Germany and Poland, we should lay the axe at
once to the root of the system which tends to exclude British manufactures
from a large part of Germany. The attention of Prussia, which has naturally
a paramount influence in the Zoll-verein, would be immediately diverted
towards the advantage of lowering the custom-duties of the Union, so as to
benefit her own transit trade, and revive the commerce of her ports on the
Baltic, which has been decreasing since the establishment of the League.
Holland, a manufacturing country of no mean rank, has consulted her best
interests, by entering, with the states of the Prussian Union, into a special
treaty, calculated to secure their mutual advantage : and Great Britain would
also consult her interest, by adopting a plan as well characterised by extended
philanthropy, as compatible with the principles of the soundest commercial
policy.

Art. IV.— THE COMMUNICATION BETWEEN LONDON AND

PARIS.

As the three railways from London to different parts of the English Channel
are now completed and in operation, and as each one professes to be the high-
way to Paris, it is desirable that their competing claims should be impartially
examined, and that the advantages and disadvantages, present and prospec-
tive, of each line, should be pointed out. We are induced to do this at the
present time, partly from the circumstance noticed in a previous article, of
the completion of the South-Eastern railway ; and more especially from our
attention having been drawn to the subject by an intelligent and able corre-
spondent, who compares the respective advantages of the three routes in de-
tail. Our correspondent appears, however, to be a zealous partizan of the
Brighton Railway ; and though we entertain no doubt of the accuracy of his
facts, we much question the correctness of his calculations and inferences.
Folkestone or Dover, Shoreham, and Southampton, are the competing
ports ; and we cannot place the comparative advantages of each, as regards
distance, time, and expense, in a clearer point of view, than by quoting our
correspondent's statement, and by referring to the accompanying map of the
respective routes : —

" The distance via Southampton stands thus : — Vauxhall per railway to South-
ampton, 77 miles; railway station to Royal Pier, and tlience by sea to Havre-de-
Grace, 1 '22 miles ; Havre to Rouen, 57 miles ; and to Paris per railway, 85 miles :
total distance, 341 miles. The time occupied is as follows: — Railway to South-
ampton, (average,) 3li. 15m. ; railway Btation to t be pier, and delay in removing
baggage, 45m. ; passage to Havre, l'2h, ; thence to Rouen per diligence, 8h. ; and

Paris per railway, 4h. : total time, 28h. The fare is made up of the annexed
items: — Railway to Southampton, \l.; steamer to Havre, 11, Is. ; diligence to
Rouen, 12s. ; and railway to Paris, 13s. : total charge, 31. 6s.

" The length by the South-Eastern route : — London-bridge to Folkestone, 82
miles; Folkestone to Boulogne, 27m. ; Boulogne to Abbeville and Amiens, 74m. ;
and thence to Paris, 82m. : total distance, 265 miles. Time occupied: — London to
Folkestone, (average,) 3h. 1 5m. ; thence to the harbour, and loading baggage,
45m. ; to Boulogne, 3h. ; from thence to Paris, 22h. : total, 29h. The fares : —
London per railway to Folkestone, 17s.; to Boulogne, 8s. ; and thence to Paris,
1/. 16s. ; or total charge, SI. Is. By way of Dover the distance is increased by 26
miles, the time by 3 hours, and the fare by 4s.

" The distance by the way of Brighton Railway and Shoreham Harbour: — London
Bridge by railway to Shoreham Harbour, 55 miles ; Shoreham Harbour to Dieppe,
83m. ; Dieppe to Rouen, 35m. ; Rouen by railway to Paris, 85m. : total distance,
258 miles ; (or, if Havre-de-Grace be taken as the French port, the distance is in-
creased by 34 miles.) Time of travel at present is : — Railway to Shoreham, 2h.
15m.; removing baggage, &c, 45m.; voyage to Dieppe, 8h. ; tlierjce to Rouen,
and loss of time at Customs, 5h. ; and from thence to Paris per railway, 4h. ; or
total time, 20 hours. The fare is made up as follows :— London to Shoreham,
(average,) 14s. 6d. ; per steamer to Dieppe, 1/. ; to Rouen, 7s. 6d. ; and railway to
Paris, 13s. ; being a total charge of 21. 15s."

It appears, therefore, from the foregoing statement, that the route by
Shoreham and Dieppe is seven miles nearer than by Folkestone ; and that it
is eighty-three miles nearer than by Southampton ; and that the time saved
by the Shoreham route is eight or nine hours. But in this calculation of the
time occupied, it is asserted that the railway trains, the steam packets, the
diligence, and the Rouen railway trains, all start without any delay. This
assumption is, nevertheless, so far from correct at present, that our corre-
spondent admits the " actual fact" to be, that passengers are two days on
their journey between London and Paris, instead of only twenty hours. But
he proposes a remedy for this delay ; and by means of better arrangements in
the starting of the trains ; by making a short branch railway at Brighton, to
avoid delay in getting on to the Shoreham line ; by making a landing pier at
Shoreham, where passengers may embark at all states of the tide ; by having
powerful and fast steamers, under the control of the railway company ; by short-
ening the examination at the custom-houses; and, finally, by making a French
diligence travel at the rate of ten to twelve miles an hour from Dieppe to
Rouen ; — by this combination of means it is proposed to complete the journey
from London to Paris in fifteen hours. A reference to the map will show the
nature of the improvements our correspondent suggests should be made at
the Brighton station and at Shoreham ; and as he is well acquainted with the
locality, and is a skilful engineer, we have little doubt those suggestions might
be made available with great advantage. When, however, he proposes to urge
a French diligence along French roads at the rate of twelve miles an hour, we
are inclined to suspect he has seen neither the means of conveyance, nor the
road over which it has to travel.

We have given, in brief, the main part of the suggestions of our corre-
spondent, which deserve the serious consideration of the Brighton Railway
Company. There seems not to be much doubt, that, by making proper ar-
rangements, the distance might be accomplished with regularity within twenty
hours, even without waiting for the additional facility of a railway to Dieppe
or to Havre; and if this were accomplished, the Brighton Railroad would, for
some time to come, be the great highway to Paris. But this conclusion in
favour of the route vid Shoreham has reference only to the present want of
railway communication in France. If the contemplated railway from Paris to
Boulogne be completed, the route from Folkestone to that port would offer many
advantages with which the Shoreham route would find it difficult to compete.
The superiority which the route by Shoreham at present possesses, arises from
the greater part of the distance being performed by steam locomotion. There
are, for instance, 140 miles travelled by railway, 83 by steam-boats, and only
35 miles by common road conveyance. In the Folkestone route there are 82miles
by railway, 27 by steam-packet, and 156 by the road. But were a railroad to
be constructed from Paris to Boulogne, and a railway from Dieppe to Rouen,
the comparative advantages would be greatly in favour of the route by Folke-
stone. The distance is only seven miles longer than that by Dieppe, whilst
the steam-packet travelling— there the slowest part of the journey — would be
as 83 miles to 27 against Dieppe. Supposing the French railways to be com-
pleted, the distance from London to Paris vid Boulogne might be performed
in eleven hours, without reckoning detentions at custom-houses ; and the Shore-
ham route would occupy fifteen hours. The certainty of railway travelling
compared with steam-packets, and the dislike of most persons to a longer sea-
voyage, would give the Boulogne route far superior attractions. The com-
munication by Shoreham has, however, at present, much greater capabilities
than any other route in fine weather ; and were the directors of the Brighton
Railway to take advantage of their favourable position, by adopting effectual
measures for insuring regularity and expedition, and to lower the fares
throughout, they would establish that route as the highway to Paris, at least
till the French railways are constructed ; and even then they might offer
powerful competition during summer to the quicker communication by Bou-
logne.

We have said little respecting the route by Southampton, because the geo-
graphical disadvantages are so great that it has little chance of competing
eventually with either of the other routes, supposing that the railway compa-
nies connected with them are not altogether inert, and neglectful of their own
interests, as well as of those of the public. It must be admitted, however,

1844-.]

Leipsic and its Fairs.

33

that the South-Western Railway Company are at present the most active ;
and unless the Brighton Company become more energetic than they have been,
the route from Southampton to Havre will be established as the cheaper and
quicker, notwithstanding the disadvantage of greater distance.

Art. V.— LEIPSIC AND ITS FAIRS :

WITH NOTICES OF THE FAIR OF NIJNII NOVGOROD, AND THE BOOK-TRADE
OF GERMANY.

Leipsic, as all our readers know, is a flourishing city in the east of Germany.
It stands on the banks of the White-Elster, a tributary of the Saale, and
belongs to the kingdom of Saxony ; from the capital of which (Dresden) it is
about sixty miles distant, in a westerly direction. It had, in 1837, a sta-
tionary population of 47,514 inhabitants (Beryhaus), a number greatly aug-
mented by the influx of visitors at different periods of the year. It has a
university, which, in 1840, was attended by nearly 1000 students; several
handsome churches, squares, and public buildings ; a variety of public insti-
tutions commensurate with its size and importance, as might be expected in
a city of its antiquity ; besides numerous good hotels, &c. The interior of
Leipsic presents much to interest the lovers of the picturesque. With its
architectural beauties, and other physical peculiarities, we have, however,
little to do : these will be found treated of in detail in Strang's Germany in
1831 ; Spencer's Germany and the Germans in 1834 — 36 ; the works of
several other modern tourists ; and last, though far from least, the excellent
Handbook for Northern Germany, of Mr. Murray. Our business, at pre-
sent, is solely with the commercial relations between Leipsic and the rest
of the world.

Leipsic has manufactures of silk goods, stockings, hats, leather, oil-cloth,
wax-lights, starch, soap, sealing-wax, metallic articles, liqueurs, and many
other kinds of merchandize, the long enumeration of which seems to prove
that it is famous for none in particular. There are also silk-dyeing and wool-
spinning factories, and a good many printing establishments, in the city. A
large wool-market is held at Leipsic, in May. But the greater proportion
of the commerce enjoyed by this city is conducted at its fairs, of which there
are three annually — one at the opening of the year, one at Easter, and one
at Michaelmas. The Michaelmas fair is the chief for merchandise in general,
and is attended sometimes by 10,000 strangers — sellers or purchasers. Mr.
Spencer, who visited Leipsic at this time, says, " the whole appearance of the
town was unique. The streets, markets, and promenades, were crowded not
only with the natives of every part of Europe, but even with those of Asia,
Africa, and America. Every house, yard, and porch was converted into a
bazaar, for the display of merchandise : — cottons, woollens, and silks of all
shades, and from every loom in Europe, were streaming like flags from the
windows of the lofty houses ; and although the Prussian tariff was in full
force, yet I was informed by a merchant that the market was inundated with
smuggled English manufactures."

The mention of the Prussian tariff* gives occasion to us to observe, that the
prosperity of Leipsic is at present closely dependent on the existence of the
Prussian Commercial Union, to which we have directed attention in another
part of the present Number of the Artizan. The Leipsic fairs, like those
held in other parts of the Continent, owing to the increased facilities of com-
munication, in modern times, by canals, railroads, and other means of inter-
nal conveyance, had already declined considerably as to the importance which
formerly belonged to them ; and it was feared by many connected with
Leipsic, that the German Customs' Union, when organized, would still fur-
ther deteriorate their prospects. But exactly the contrary turned out to be
the case. The Commercial League, by extending international communi-
cation in Germany, furnished Leipsic with the means of compensating for the
gradual falling off" in its commerce with foreign countries. A complete re-
vulsion in the views of the worthy Leipziyers followed ; and those who at
first anticipated nothing but speedy destruction to their fairs, from the Cus-
toms' Union, now look to the latter as the mainstay and bulwark of their
prosperity. Whether it really be a permanent bulwark, or whether the
establishment of the " League" will prove only a temporary stimulus and
retardation of progressive decay, is an alternative which time alone can
determine. At any rate, the business transacted at the Leipsic fairs had been
progressively on the increase for some years previously to 1839. We pos-
sess a valuable report on the Michaelmas fair of that year, in an appendix to
Dr. Bowring's Report on the Prussian Commercial Union ; and as we have
since seen no such detailed account referrible to later years, we shall give an
abstract of the Report in question in the following statements : —

" At the Michaelmas fail's of 1839, the foreign purchasers of most impor-
tance were Greek merchants of Moldavia and Wallachia. About 7000 cwts.
of manufactured goods were declared for those principalities in the custom-
house registers, chiefly German broad-cloths, ordinary English and German
cotton goods, and French silks. From Russia few merchants attended, and
those were almost exclusively from Odessa and the southern provinces. The
severe police regulations in Northern Russia, as to the granting of passports,
constitute what is next to a prohibition to merchants to leave that country,
even if strictly for commercial purposes. Few buyers, also, come from the
Austrian dominions, except Galicia ; from which province, as well as from
Prussian Poland, and Cracow, many Jews frequent the Leipsic fairs, and, in

spite of every obstacle, smuggle manufactured goods of all kinds across the
Russian frontiers. Switzerland is principally supplied with German and
other foreign goods from Frankfort-on-the-Maine ; Italy with the same, by
way of Trieste or Leghorn, and other ports. The trade with the United
States is mostly effected by commission ; and from France and England not
many visitors attended the fair in question, (which they resort to principally
for Russian produce). If, however, the attendance of foreign buyers at the
Michaelmas fair of 1839 was perceptibly less than on previous occasions, the
number of German purchasers was much greater than usual : the fair was
considered to have been one of the best for many years ; and, as proving how
intimately the state of finance and commerce in Great Britain affects that of
other parts of the globe, it may be remarked, that one of the principal causes
of the activity of the inland trade on that occasion is stated to have been the
previous larye exportation of corn to Enyland, which had supplied some parts
of Germany with no insiynificant sums of money.

" Of the goods brought to the Leipsic fairs, the broad-cloths of Prussia and
Saxony are among the most important; from 90,000 to 100,000 pieces is
only a medium quantity sold. Fancy fabrics for trowsers, especially from
the Rhenish provinces ; winter coatings, made in Brandenburg, and which
cost to the purchaser about 20 per cent, less than English fabrics of the same
description ; flannels, and Saxony merinos, meet with a ready sale. Of
English woollens there was a considerable stock at the fair of 1839 ; and
figured crapes were wholly cleared off, without satisfying the demand.
German cottons, which have long been successfully competing with the
British in the German markets, were so rapidly cleared off, that one house in
Berlin sold off and renewed its entire stock in the space of a fortnight !
British printed calicoes, however, at low prices, still form an important item
in the account, being bought by the Moldavian and Wallachian merchants
and the Polish Jews. The plain silks of Berlin, which now rival those of
France and Switzerland ; figured silks from Crefeld and Elberfeld (Rhenish
Prussia) ; French figured silks for Russia, and shot-silks for the Turkish
principalities and Germany ; the ribbons of St. Etienne ; linens of Silesia ;
lace and embroidery of Saxony ; wooden clocks, and other wooden articles,
made extensively in the mountain and forest districts of Germany ; the
jewellery, &c, of Berlin, which now, to a formidable extent, rival the French;
Dresden china, and Bohemian glass, are among the principal articles of
traffic. Of Russian produce, there were, at the Michaelmas fair of 1839,
about 18,000 cwts. of hides of leather; 2500 cwts. of isinglass; about
5,000,000 quills (as estimated) ; besides furs and peltry, feathers, horse-hair,
&c. ; for some of which goods there was a less rapid sale than usual." —
(Bowriny's Report on the Prussian Commercial Union. Appendix, pp.
259—265.)

Doubtless more Russian dealers would attend the Leipsic fairs, but that
Russia has a large fair of her own at Nijnii Novgorod, which yields in
importance to none in our hemisphere ; having been for ages the great
mart of eastern Europe and northern Asia. Nijnii Novgorod is the
capital of the government of the same name near the centre of European
Russia. It stands on the Wolga, where it is joined by the Oka, one of
its chief tributaries. It had, a few years since, a permanent population
of 25,000 inhabitants. It stands partly on a hill crowned by a citadel,
and partly on the low ground along the banks of the rivers. The lower
city consists of wooden houses ; but a bridge of boats leads across the
Oka to some very noble bazaars built of stone, and roofed with iron, and
intended expressly for the merchandise brought to the great annual fair,
which lasts throughout July and a part of August. The bazaars are in-
closed on three sides by navigable canals, and on the fourth is the Oka ;
so that there is every facility for the delivery and shipment of goods.
" Nijnii Novgorod has various manufactures, but it owes its great importance
almost entirely to its commerce. It is the grand entrepflt for the trade of the
interior of the empire, and has, in fact, a greater command of internal navi-
gation than any other city of the old world. Besides the corn, cattle, and
other products of the surrounding country, the Kama, the principal affluent
of the Wolga, conveys to Nijnii the salt of Perm ; the gold, silver, copper,
and other metallic treasures of the Ural mountains ; the furs, &c, of Siberia ;
and even the teas of China. The silks, shawls, and other merchandise of
central Asia; and the fish, caviar, &c, of Southern Russia, come up the
river from Astrakhan ; while the manufactured goods of England and Western
Europe, the wines of France, the cotton of America, and the sugar of Brazil,
are conveyed from St. Petersburg and Archangel ; with both of which, as
well as Moscow, Nijnii is connected by navigable rivers and canals. These
advantages, joined to a situation in a fertile country in the centre of the
monarchy, were so highly appreciated by Peter the Great, that it is said he
at one time intended to have made Nijnii the capital of his empire ; and it
is, perhaps, to be regretted that he did not carry this project into effect." —
(M'Culloch's Geoyraphical Dictionary, II., 408.)

The value of the produce exposed for sale at the fair of Nijnii Novgorod,
in 1839, was estimated at 160,597,000 .roubles, (or francs — a sum equal to
6,423,800/. sterling*) — of which amount, Russian home produce stood for
122,557,000 roubles; manufactured goods from the rest of Europe, and
colonial produce, 15,035,000 roubles; and the produce of China, Tartary,
and other parts of Asia, 23,005,000 roubles. The total value of the mer-
chandise in 1832, amounted to no more than 123,200,000 roubles ; and, in

* An incredible sum ; but it is so stated by Mr. M'Culloch ou the authorities
of Schnitzler, Possart, &c.

34

The Monthly Record of Architecture and the Arts.

[February,

1827, to only 105,000,000 roubles. In 1830, it is reported (by Possart)
that there were sent to the fair silk goods valued at 8,500,000 roubles;
cotton stuffs and yarn, worth 19,000,000 roubles; hides, to 3,000,000
roubles; dried fish, to 1,600,000 roubles; furs and peltry, to 8,000,000
roubles ; and woollen goods to the value of 2,700,000 roubles ; with
2,000,000 pounds of iron ; 32,368 chests of tea; &c, &c. The concourse
of strangers at the fair of Nijnii Novgorod is truly immense : it is said to
increase, at the lowest estimate, by from 150,000 to 200,000 individuals.
" Here are seen dealers from India, China, Bokhara, Persia, Circassia, Ar-
menia, and Turkey ; and from Italy, Poland, Germany, France, England,
and even America." (M'Culloch's Geog. Diet.) This detail is made, we
presume, on the authority of Schnitzler and Possart, who have given the latest
connected account of the Russian empire, and its different provinces in Europe.
But we must confess that the latter portion of the enumeration above made
seems to us rather calculated to throw discredit upon some of the previous
statements of these writers. While no American merchants attend the fairs
of the more accessible city of Leipsic, we can scarcely credit that " brother
Jonathan " should meet with the subjects of the Celestial Empire in a region
so remote from the homes of both ; nor do we believe that French or English
traders can be otherwise than very few and far between at these assemblages.
In fact, the exaggerations which notoriously attach to statements set forth by
authority in Russia, amply warrant us in suspecting, as we have before inti-
mated (see note), the correctness of some of those which we have been
obliged to receive in the absence of better ; though there is still no doubt
that Nijnii Novgorod is unrivalled in the North-east, as regards its trade. '

Reverting, however, to Leipsic, there is no hyperbole in the assertion that
its fairs are attended by traders from distant countries of Asia, as Georgia,
Armenia, and even Persia : in late years some merchants have been seen from
these countries, at Leipsic in preference, who used formerly to resort to
Nijnii Novgorod. One very prominent circumstance, with respect to Leipsic,
remains to be noticed : it is the great emporium of the book-trade in Ger-
many. The vast number of books annually published in that country is a matter
of general notoriety ; it has been even estimated at greater than the entire
number published in all Europe besides ! To speculate on the causes of this
would be foreign to the objects of our journal ; but the fact is obvious, that
the Germans of the present day are essentially a book-making people. In
the Handbuch fur Kaufleute, in 1835, it was estimated that forty millions
of sheets of letter-press are printed yearly at Leipsic ; and in the Appendix
to Dr. Bowring's Report, it is actually carried up (we believe too highly) to
the enormous amount of seventy millions of sheets per annum ! The Easter
fair is that at which the book-trade is most conspicuous ; and all the literati
between the Rhine and the Vistula are labouring most indefatigably for
months before, to get ready their new lucubrations by that period. As many
as six hundred booksellers sometimes meet at this fair to settle their yearly
accounts with each other, and with their agents : for almost every publishing-
house in Germany has an agent in Leipsic, with whom books remain for a
twelvemonth and a day after their publication, when what are unsold are
returned by the agent to the publisher, under the name of " crabs." Of the
abundance of this species of shell-fish the publishers most woefully com-
plain ; for it would seem that the profits of the bookselling business in Ger-
many are by no means commensurate with its extent. But there seems to
be equally a mania for publishing as for writing in that country,- — a frightful
epidemic, which has the fatal and remarkable tendency of producing another
and notoriously incurable epidemic — the furor scribendi. The literary deluge
which set in immediately after the general peace, in 1814, is advancing with
alarming velocity. Instead of 2000 books published yearly at Leipsic, as
soon after this epoch, there are now 8000. And if the multiplication of books
go on as it has done within the last few years, a period will certainly arrive,
when, in the words of a witty writer on the subject, " the authors in Ger-
many will be more numerous than the readers."

Art. VI.— THE MONTHLY RECORD OF ARCHITECTURE AND
THE ARTS.

1. We are anxious to draw the attention of the profession to the villa archi-
tecture usually found in the neighbourhood of the metropolis and of large
towns, and therefore take the earliest opportunity of making a few remarks
on the subject. It is quite unnecessary for us to mention any particular ex-
amples of the styles usually adopted, for that would be invidious ; but it is
scarcely too much to say, that they are all distinguished by great pretension,
and an utter want of taste. We are not of the number of those who, having
adopted some particular style of architecture, can find no beauty that is not
to be referred to its rules. The free exercise of the imagination, the play of
fancy, the adaptation of all rules to the wants of society, and fitness, whether
dependent on situation, aspect, or any other cause, we not only admit, but
urge continually, as the foundation of. all architectural excellence. It is not
because the suburban architects have attempted to exercise their powers of
invention, nor because they have disregarded all the rules by which they pre-
tend, in cities, to be regulated, that we complain of the indescribable masses
of brick and compo with which the suburbs of all the increasing towns in this
country are disfigured. It is, on the other hand, because the architects
of the day pretend to obtain novelty by adopting the forms of ancient
styles, with a disregard of all their rules ; and are too bold in their invasions,

too timid or too barren in their inventions. That architecture, as an art of
invention, is in a more depressed and degraded state in this country than it
has ever been, is as true as that it is in a condition of great superiority as an
art of imitation. All that can be done with columns and pilasters, entabla-
tures and architraves, has been done : every effort has been made to adapt
the architecture of a sunny and gorgeous land to the chilly and irregular cli-
mates on the verge of the frigid zone. These adaptations certainly prove that
the British architects of the nineteenth century have not been wanting in
either taste or skill ; but the very ground on which they rest their claims to
reputation, is a source of disgrace, inasmuch as, in their highest endeavours,
they merely imitate. What would be our estimate of the judgment and
genius of a Northern artist, who painted his native landscape with an Indian
sky, and jungle foliage ? The very same that our estimate must be of the
British architect who transfers Grecian temples and Roman porticoes from
the bright skies of the Mediterranean to the cold and foggy atmosphere of
London and its environs. Go where you will among the " country-houses
of the metropolis," and there you find pediments and pilasters, porches and
porticoes, in almost every front — all exotic, with the exception of a few illegi-
timate and puerile imitations of the ecclesiastical architecture of the middle
ages. We do not know a single example, within five miles of St. Paul's, of a
genuine originality in villa architecture. Grecian, Roman, Gothic, Sara-
cenic, and Italian architecture, we can find ; and, among them, specimens
of great beauty, though they are but few ! It is not so in other European
countries. In France there are many modest, unpretending structures, dis-
tinguished by a purity of taste and fertility of invention in the architectural
ordonnance and internal decoration, to which the British public are strangers ;
and we have no hope of any great independence of thought, or originality of
design, until a marked improvement is made in the character of the suburban
architecture. This is, in the present day, the proper site for the efforts of the
man of genius. The public buildings which are raised in our towns, are few
in number, and for the most part are, to the architect, gifts of friendship, and
not the rewards of merit — and, it must be added, a friendship which has few,
if any, claims upon the exertion of the artist. In every private structure the
architect is bound by personal and powerful motives to exert his skill and
taste, and particularly in buildings designed for residence. To them we must
therefore look, as the index of the state of architecture as an art ; and, until
a great improvement has been almost universally made in them, we can have
but little hope for the revival of original design. The chains forged by pre-
cedent and superstition hang heavily upon the energies of the men who are
most worthy of esteem as men of taste and genius ; and, until these are
broken, no rational hope of a revival of architecture can be entertained. That
revival, whenever it does come, must begin in the architecture of suburban
villas.

2. The building now erecting for the Honourable Society of Lincoln's
Inn, intended as a hall and library, requires from us a few remarks, as a
modern structure, if for no other reason. It is not an unfavourable specimen
of the capability of the modern architect to copy the works of former ages ;
but, when this has been said, it is impossible to say more in its praise. It
is, as a design, made up of parts of different buildings erected in the sixteenth
century, many of which are so well known to the public, as well as to the
profession, that no man can look for a minute at the perspective view without
being able to trace each individual part to its original. The public taste will
not be offended by it, considered as a whole ; but it is beneath criticism — not
for its faults, but for its gross plagiarisms. The architect obtained the
northern front from Westminster ; but where did he find an authority for
copying ? Lawyers are fond of precedents, and place more dependence upon
what has been done, than the reason why. Mr. Hardwick thoroughly appre-
ciates this legal quality ; and, like his employers, has turned to books for ex-
amples, and not to his own internal resources. When will our architects
learn that it is more honourable to make designs of their own, if even inferior
to what has been done in hackneyed styles before, than to copy elevations
with which every body is familiar ?

3. The Royal Exchange pleases no one ; and the nearer it approaches to
completion, the nearer it comes to the level of universal contempt. The most
interesting fact we know about it is, that the clock has been fixed, and the
minute-hand has pointed to the nine, though even the aldermen declare that
the Muses should not be invited to loiter within its walls ; but the ?iour-hand
pointed to two ; which, by the same authorities, we are informed, stands for
Mr. Lambert Jones and Mr. Tite. A more heavy, ungainly structure was never
reared in the City of London than this Royal Exchange ; and its history will
go down to posterity as some excuse for the architects of the age. The ar-
chitect has made very free with the details of the Farnesian Palace, but he
has used them without taste or skill. The sculpture of the building is vulgar
beyond all epithet. The capitals of the pilasters more resemble full-blown
cabbages than any other plant we have had the good fortune to see ; and to
this standard all the other parts have been assimilated. The design, how-
ever, was made, as the architect himself has insinuated, to sustain the cha-
racter of the Bank, and the shops in Cornhill, with the benevolent object
of preventing the necessity of their being re-erected. This object, however,
is likely to be defeated, laudable as it was ; for it is predicted by competent
authorities, that it will now be necessary to re-construct them, as they are in
better taste than the Exchange itself I

4. A new cathedral is about to be erected in Berlin. The designs have
been prepared by M. Stieler, and the expense has been estimated at 38,000,000
francs. It will perhaps be thought unnecessary to iiquire the style. After

1844.]

The Monthly Record of Engineering and Practical Science.

35

all that has been said and done by Mr. Pugin and the Camden Society, what
can it be but Gothic ? To be anything else, according to these authorities,
it cannot be Christian. But, alas ! they have fulminated and dogmatised in
vain ; their denunciations and persuasions have been alike neglected, if they
have been heard. Tell it not at Cambridge ; whisper it not to Mr. Pugin ;
but the truth is, that the Italian has been chosen. Some of our architectural
critics will be greatly scandalized with this, and talk of the sad spectacle
of decaying art, and the frightful influence of German philosophy on the re-
ligious feelings of the people. A cathedral in the Italian style ! they will
exclaim with holy awe : as well might a Turk build one in Saracenic ! We
are certainly of the same opinion. There would be great fitness, every way,
in his so doing. Germany is not the country, we confess, in which we should
have expected a cathedral in the Italian ; but there are countries in which it
would be far more appropriate than York, Beverley, or Lincoln Minster.
There is no necessary connexion between Gothic and Christian public worship,
beyond national and local associations, which may give an equal propriety to
other styles of architecture.

5. The character of our street architecture in London has been much
improved during the last three or four years ; and we believe that in many
of the large provincial towns the same advance in this department of the art
has been observed. During the last year, some private and public buildings
of great beauty, and exhibiting great taste and invention, have been erected
in different parts of the metropolis. That house in Fleet-street, now occupied
by the Free-traders, is an example, and is extremely creditable to the archi-
tect. In Doncaster, Manchester, and other towns, we could mention in-
stances of the same advance ; for here and there the attention is attracted by
designs, which are not only novel, but exhibit a degree of freedom and energy
of thought to which we have been for many years strangers. There is not
much difficulty in accounting for this very pleasing improvement. It is the
offspring of the spirit of competition and mercantile enterprise, combined
with the better education of the people. Plate-glass windows are found to be
not all that is required to attract public attention — elegance is now more
pleasing than glitter and glare. The architect being impressed with the ne-
cessity of exerting his powers of design for the benefit of his employer, and
feeling himself unshackled by formal rules and ancient styles, trusts his own
powers, and proves, almost to his own amaze, that the spirit of art, though
long slumbering among the architects of Britain, is not dead.

• 6. A statue of our Gracious Queen, said to be " magnificent," from the
chisel of Mr. Steele, has been recently fixed on the portico of the Royal In-
stitution Buildings, at Edinburgh. Her Majesty is represented in a sitting
posture, in her robes of state, and a simple coronet encircles her brow. The
bust is said to be very like her Majesty, and the remainder of the figure to be
no less like the Britannia on her Majesty's coin. We speak at present only
from report ; but, when we visit the northern capital, it shall not be for-
gotten, and we will give our readers the benefit of our criticisms.

7. The burgesses of Folkestone have determined to perpetuate in stone
all their great folk, and will begin with Dr. Harvey, the celebrated discoverer
of the circulation of the blood, a native of this place, to whom a monument
is to be raised by subscription. It is a fact not generally known, that the
first London tinman was also a native of Folkestone ; and when it is consi-
dered that he has been the means of saving as many lives as most men, there
is no very self-evident reason why he should not also have a monument : for
science is nothing without an application. If Dr. Harvey discovered the cir-
culation of the blood, the tinman prevented its being poisoned and stagnated ;
and there have been few greater boons to society than the general introduction
of tinned plates for the manufacture of culinary articles in the place of copper.
The inhabitants of Folkestone are determined to make the most of the unex-
pected benefits which have been conferred on them by the South-eastern
Railway ; and we believe that, at no very distant period, this town will be
one of the most important on the coast of Kent. We are therefore gratified
to find that they are not so elated by the prospect of their prosperity, as to
forget one who did honour to their town when almost unknown, except to a
few summer visitors, who submitted to personal or domestic inconvenience,
to enjoy the beauties of nature ; and that they are not insensible of the ne-
cessity of supporting, by art, the favourable impression already made upon
the public mind by the natural beauties of their locality, and the facility
of access with the French coast and British metropolis.

8. In France sculpture seems to be on the advance. A statue of Moliere
has been recently erected in Paris. Subscriptions are being raised for a mo-
nument to the memory of the poet, Casimir Delavigne, at Havre, which is to
be erected on the Quai de la Barre, opposite to the house in which he was
born. A committee has also been formed at Paris, consisting of members
of the Institute, and other eminent persons, to superintend the erection of a
monument to M. Mathieu de Dornbasle, an eminent promoter of agriculture,
and the founder of the model farm at Roville.

9. From the French papers, it appears that the government intends to
surround the tomb of Napoleon with a kind of mosaic pavement, on which is
to be represented some of the most important events in the life of the idolized
hero. The work is entrusted to M. Henri de Triqueti, a sculptor of great
eminence, who has already distinguished himself by the production of some
of the most beautiful works of the age. The pavement is to be about eight
feet wide, and to completely surround the tomb ; and, when finished, will
probably be one of the most attractive works of art in the French capital.
The French artists have long taken the lead in every species of decoration,
and have a just claim to be considered not only the best draftsmen of the age,

VOL. II.

but also the most imaginative. Their architecture frequently wants solidity,
but they study fitness more than ourselves, and are less trammelled by rules
and precedents. Their excellency is derived from the free scope they give to
their imagination, and the boldness with which they adapt the practice of
former ages to their own purposes. The idea of a mosaic pictured pavement
is not new — several are still to be seen in Italy ; but the most celebrated is
that in the Duomo of Sienna, executed, about the year 1540, by Beccafumi.
Still there is a novelty in the application ; and we have formed an erroneous
opinion of the state of the arts in the French capital, and of the capabilities
of the sculptor to whom this work has been entrusted, if it be not found su-
perior to all others in elegance of design, and the richness and harmony
of colouring. But, although we thus speak of the works of our neighbours
and friends, we are not unconscious of what our artists can do. The exhi-
bition of the Cartoons has proved that if they had the courage, or, perhaps,
more properly, the energy, to lead the public taste of their own country, they
would not so frequently be urged to follow the progress of art on the Conti-
nent, which they so often surpass, to their own surprise as well as that of the
public, upon the first determined effort.

Art. VII.— THE MONTHLY RECORD OF ENGINEERING AND
PRACTICAL SCIENCE.

1 . During the last two or three years there has been a great diminution of
employment for the engineers, and all the trades dependent on their labour ;
but those connected with the manufacture of iron have been especially de-
pressed. All this has been produced by some political conditions, which it is.
neither our business nor desire to discuss. There seems, however, to be now
a good prospect of increased opportunities for the continued exertions of the
men of science ; and should this be realised, trade will, to a great degree, be
relieved from its depression, and the artizan obtain a more constant and a
more remunerative market for his labour. There is a strong evidence of this
in the general aspect of society, which seems to be recovering its elasticity
after a long and painful prostration ; but the best evidence of the fact is to be
found in the long list of applications to Parliament for bills for the commence-
ment of new public works. It is, however, to the proposed new lines of rail-
way that we especially refer. The spirit of competition is no longer confined
to the longer lines, which have made such great demands upon the efforts of
British science and constructive skill, but embraces the comparatively unim-
portant extensions, and the short ways intended to connect neighbouring towns.
Men who have earned great reputation in their profession, and have obtained
public confidence, are now competing for the construction of lines of a few
miles in length. Hence it will be evident, that although, from the number of
applications for bills, we may fairly conclude that there is a desire to continue
and complete the establishment of a railway communication over the country,
the engagements of engineers are not sufficiently numerous or important to
allow them to neglect those smaller employments about which they would for-
merly have been by no means solicitous.

To talk of opposition to the extension of the railway system, in the present
day, would be perfectly ridiculous ; but it is scarcely to be doubted that, if
its real influence upon the mass of society had been perceived, many of our
present legislators would have opposed its introduction. But the confidence
placed in the knowledge, integrity, and good sense of the British public, has
not, and, we believe, will not, be abused. There is no man, even if there be
one left of the school, which taught that the proper way to govern the people
was to keep them in ignorance, who would think it necessary to fortify Lon-
don before erecting a railway terminus, if all that has been done had to be
begun, with all the advantages of the present experience. It is in contempla-
tion, we see, to introduce some legislative restrictions relative to railways ;
and we trust their effect may be to shield the less opulent part of the commu-
nity from the oppressions of railway directories. The power possessed by
these bodies is an improper one to delegate to any persons who have so little
interest in the public weal, and whose opulence extinguishes the sympathies
which would incite, one man to feel for the sufferings of another. The supe-
rior comforts which this mode of transit presents have been purposely sacri-
ficed, in order to drive the poor man into the expensive carriages ; and while
the former modes of conveyance have been driven by the railways from the
road, the new means of conveyance provided are either so expensive as to be
beyond his means, or attended with so many discomforts as to be beyond any
one's endurance. It is not the fact that the discomfort is no greater of tra-
velling in an open railway wagon than on the top of a stage-coach. In cold
weather the velocity with which a railway train passes through the air makes
the cold well nigh intolerable, and the red hot cinders proceeding from the
chimney, and alighting in the open wagons, are both destructive of the pas-
sengers' clothes and dangerous. There is no more expense to a railway com-
pany in drawing a close carriage than an open one ; and we certainly think
that open carriages ought to be prohibited, and that a sufficiency of the cheaper
carriages should be attached to every train to secure accommodation for the
humbler classes. If this be not done, the establishment of rival lines will
become indispensable, and the introduction of wooden rails and the atmo-
spheric plan of propulsion, makes it probable that these new lines will very
soon work the ruin of the old ones, as they will do the same duty at far less
expense.

2. The publication of a report on the South-Eastern Railway from Folke-
stone to Dover, by Major-General Pasley, addressed to the Board of Trade,

36

The Monthly Record of Engineering and Practical Science.

[February,

has attracted our attention ; and we are induced, from the love of truth, and
our anxiety for the public safety, to make a few remarks thereon. This gen-
tleman, who is distinguished by a sound practical and theoretical acquaintance
with his profession, and who has earned respect by writing, in a clear style,
and with accuracy, many elementary works, has, as it appears to us, -viewed
with too partial an eye the works of the South-eastern Railway. The success
of the blasting near the Dover terminus, the employment of Lieut. Hutchin-
son, and the compliment paid to General Pasley, a veteran in explosions, in
the request for his opinion upon the arrangements that were adopted, have
seemingly, to a certain extent, clouded his judgment, generally clear,^ and
always upright, and compelled us, in justice to the public, to record an opinion
opposed to that he has delivered. In one respect we perfectly agree with
General Pasley : we think with him, that Mr. Cubitt and his assistants are
entitled to the highest praise for the creditable manner in which, for the most
part, they have performed their works, and for the ingenuity of the resources
by which they have overcome the unprecedented difficulties of the undertak-
ing. It is upon the probable durability of some parts of the work that we
join issue.

General Pasley states, in his Report, dated 1st of February, that having
examined the chalk-cliffs above the railway with the greatest attention, to
discover the unsound parts of the chalk, if any, he is of opinion that there is
not the slightest ground to apprehend that this portion of the railway may at
some future period be overwhelmed by falls of chalk. About a fortnight
before the delivery of General Pasley's report, we had an opportunity of ex-
amining this portion of the South-eastern Railway ; and we have arrived at
a very different conclusion. The Inspector-general says, that the unsound
parts of the chalk may be observed by cracks on the surface. He would,
perhaps, have been nearer the truth, if he had used the future tense ; — that
they will be, we admit ; that the unsound parts can be determined by the
cracks now visible in the cliffs, we doubt. Every man who has worked in a
chalk-pit knows that he frequently obtains a fall when there are no percep-
tible fissures, and especially after blasting. When a few winters have passed,
and especially if they should be severe, the fall of water, attended with frost,
will produce a change, the limits of which cannot now be predicted. This is
the more convincing, as there are alarming cracks in some parts of the chalk-
cliffs between Dover and Folkestone. The danger may not be immediate —
years may pass without accident, perhaps without a fall, — but that the works
are in danger from this cause, we have no hesitation in stating. On the
night of Tuesday, the 23rd of January, there was a fall of chalk on the sea
side of the railway. If this should continue and extend, — and against this
result there is no natural nor artificial impediment, — the thickness of chalk
between the sea and the tunnels will be diminished, and the tunnels them-
selves may be endangered. General Pasley may have seen much public
work, and may be an excellent authority upon the construction ; but he rea-
sons too positively, we consider, upon the action of the sea. A long expe-
rience of the power of this terrific mechanical agent has taught us to speak
of it in more modest terms. We are not sure that the massy concrete sea-
wall, and the substantial counterforts, the strong timber viaduct, and the
" sufficient height above high-water," will protect the works from injury
from the sea ; nor are we so certain as the Inspector, that the tides will have
no tendency to wash away the beach " in those small portions of the coast."
If Mr. Cubitt can be excused for taking the railway to Dover, — and this may
be done for many reasons, — it must be allowed that he has availed himself of
all the resources of engineering science ; and we delight to add our tribute
of praise to the acclamations which have rewarded his success. But it is at
the same time our duty to state, that we consider the South-eastern Railway
between Folkestone and Dover to be encompassed with dangers which threaten
a more speedy injury, if not destruction, than will fall to the lot of most other
lines. Time must be the judge between us ; and it is our earnest wish that
we may be found false prophets ; for those most interested in the success of
the work cannot be more anxious for its permanence than ourselves.

3. Since the year 1804 there have been occasional attempts to obtain a
better supply of good fresh-water in the vicinity of Calcutta, by boring
through the Delta of the Ganges. None of these attempts have been suc-
cessful; but the last, which was commenced in April, 1836, and abandoned
in 1840, revealed many facts illustrative of the structure of the Delta, which
are equally interesting to the geologist and the hydraulic engineer. The
borings were carried on to the depth of 480 feet. The first ten feet consisted
of fresh alluvial soil, and beneath it was a bed of close, adhesive, blue clay,
which, at the depth of thirty or forty feet, was found to contain a large quan-
tity of peat, and decaying fragments of trees, some of which were identified
with the common Soondri of the Sunderbunds, and others strongly resembled
the Braedelia. These vegetable remains are supposed to be the relics of an
ancient forest, which formerly flourished on the spot where the Delta is now
formed. Beneath this bed of clay and peat, a series of strata, consisting of
clays, sandstones, conglomerates, and other substances, were found ; but, at
the depth of 382 feet, there was another bed of dark clay, containing a very
large quantity of decayed wood, and, in the lower portions, coal. A thick
bed of gravel, consisting of fragments of primitive rock, succeeded ; and in
this the boring ceased at a depth of 481 feet. It would therefore appear that
there have been, where the Delta of the Ganges is now formed, two extensive
forests, which have successively, though after the lapse of ages, been de-
stroyed and submerged : and, between these two periods, there were, pro-
bably, no violent efforts of nature, but all was accomplished by the slow and
almost imperceptible operations of ordinary agents. The same causes are

still in existence, and are here, and in all places where water is flowing,
slowly introducing new conditions, and changing the relative positions of land
and water.

4. Of all the great public works in this country, none have been so prolific,
nor so profitable to the engineer, as the drainage of the great level of the
Fens. Although one of the most uninteresting districts in England to the
lover of the picturesque, it is one of the most instructive to the engineer.
For hundreds of years men have been there contending against the floods,
and guiding into suitable channels the waters that so long possessed an almost
unlimited control over the district. In this, as in all great questions, there
has been such a difference of opinion, that one might imagine the various re-
porters had been destitute of any general principle to guide their decisions.
This was certainly the case with some of those whose plans have been adopted ;
but the numerous failures should, in the present day, prevent the repetition
of the errors that have been committed. But, with all the advantages of e: •
perience, there is as little unanimity now as at any former period. An appli-
cation is about to be made to Parliament, with a view of adopting a scheme
of drainage proposed by Mr. Walker, in opposition to plans proposed by
other engineers. This measure is greatly objected to by a large number of
proprietors in the Fens, because it will involve a serious local taxation ; and by
almost the whole body of engineers, as a clumsy, unscientific mode of drain-
age, and one calculated, in the present case, to cause infinite mischief. One
or two remarks may, under these circumstances, be useful to those of our
readers who take an interest in this important branch of engineering.

Mr. Walker's opinion is, that " the very best" means of improving the
drainage of the middle levels, having regard to navigation, is, to entirely
separate the navigation from the drainage. He therefore proposes to drain
the whole of the middle level by a new straight drain, to be formed at such a
level that it may run under such of the present rivers and drains as are navi-
gable ; " these rivers and drains being carried over and across the new drain
in cast-iron aqueducts, for the purposes of navigation, and the supply of fresh
water for the land and cattle." The proposed drain is intended to discharge
its waters at Lynn, through the Eau-Brink Cut. The other terminus is to
the west of Whittlesea Mere, near Caldecot Farm. The whole length of the
drain, measured in a straight line, is 31 miles ; and the cost is calculated at
360,000?.

This scheme, which appears to us contrary to all engineering principles and
practice, will be referred to a committee of the House of Commons during
the present session, with all the advantages of his name and interest. The
most energetic and determined opposition, however, will meet him there ; and
the evidence on both sides must necessarily be of a most interesting character.
It is one of those inquiries which should, at the present time, be entered into
with an anxiety to bring before the world great jjrinciples : for, however situ-
ations may differ, and render necessary a difference in the plans to be adopted
for the accomplishment of the same end, there can be no deviation from
scientific principles without failure. There are several men in the profession
who are thoroughly acquainted with this subject, and whose evidence between
the parties would be invaluable, but who will not, in all probability, be called
before the committee, being, comparatively, unknown to the world. This is
greatly to be regretted ; for the question to be decided affects 144,000 acres
in the middle level, and about 45,000 acres of high land.

5. There is a question of even greater importance than Mr. Walker's plan
for the middle level. We mean, a general system of agricultural drainage,
and sewerage of towns. The Report of the Poor Law Commissioners on the
Health of Towns, induced the hope that something would have been done
during the present session, to introduce a measure calculated to meet the
pressing wants of the country. This hope, we fear, may not be realised.
The Commission has been pursuing another subject — burials in towns ; and,
as this is one more calculated to come into the office of the Poor-law Com-
missioners, it is probable that it will be pressed upon the Houses of Parlia-
ment, in preference to the measures before anticipated. It is not our duty
to interfere with this subject any further than it may involve the interests of
artizans ; but, as the recommendations of the Commissioners will seriously
affect them, if carried out and enforced as law, we think it our duty to draw
their attention to the Supplementary Report on the Health of Towns. The
propriety of forming cemeteries without the boundaries of towns, we fully
admit ; for burial-places in the midst of the habitations of the living, must be
seriously prejudicial to the public health. But that the Poor-law Commis-
sioners, or any other constituted body of men, should be able, by their agents,
to enter our abodes, upon the heels of death, and remove to their dead-houses
the bodies of our wives or children, is a requisition so repulsive to all the best
feelings of human nature, that the mere mention of a demand for such powers
must excite the strongest aversion and opposition. This is not the only ob-
jectional thing in the Report; but we shall not at present enter further upon
the subject, but again refer to the question first mentioned — the drainage
of lands, and the sewerage of towns.

As it is impossible to separate the true interests of the agricultural and
manufacturing populations, neither can the great question of the drainage of
lands be considered apart from that of the sewerage of towns. They are essen-
tially united, and mutually assist in the accomplishment of one object — the
benefit of society. This is a proposition easily proved. More water falls
upon the surface of our cultivated lands than is necessary for the growth of
vegetation ; and the surplus, if allowed to remain stagnant, is the source of in-
jury and destruction. Nature has, to a certain extent, provided against this
evil ; but the paths which she forms for the discharge and escape of the sur-

1844.]

Remarks on Cuttings, Embankments, and other Earthworks.

37

plus water must be kept open by man. If this be done, the rain-water will
accumulate in the several channels and drains, and, instead of flowing over
the surface, stealing the fertility of the soil, and producing a moist, unhealthy
atmosphere, it will take a rapid course towards the rivers, which, being pre-
pared, by the art of man, to receive the additional body of water, will be
much improved for the purposes of navigation. Hence, then, it will appear
that the surface-waters, which, in the present imperfect drainage of the coun-
try, are producing incalculable mischief, would, under an improved and perfect
system, greatly assist the cultivation of the ground, benefit the public health,
and advance internal navigation. These are the important results that would
follow the adoption of this measure alone ; but the sewerage of towns is a not
less desirable or necessary work ; and if combined with a system of drainage,
would be much more effectual than it could otherwise be. The solid impuri-
ties of the sewerage would be most valuable as manure for cultivated land ; and,
in many instances, the water flowing through the land, drains might be ac-
cumulated, to give an occasional scope to the sewers, or to have a continued
flow through them when the solid matter is in greater proportion than the
fluid.

6. The attention of engineers has been recently drawn to the very impor-
tant question of a direct communication with Ireland. All parties seem to be
now agreed, that this distressed and unhappy country has some claim upon
the exertions of England ; and whatever other measures it may be necessary
to adopt, her communication with the metropolis must be facilitated, and
some public improvements be made in the country itself. The first question
to which the Government directed its attention, was, to determine the most
suitable harbour. The three sites suggested by those who best knew the
coast, were, Holyhead, Orme's Head, and Porth-dynllaen. Gentlemen, se-
lected by the Admiralty, were sent to examine and report upon their several
capabilities. Their opinions were in favour of the former ; and their judg-
ment was supported by the engineers in the pay of Government. But the
professional men, who have directed their attention to this subject, are not
equally agreed ; for many engineers are convinced that Porth-dynllaen pos-
sesses advantages over Holyhead ; and that, by adopting it, not only a more
convenient harbour would be obtained, but an immense sum of money be
saved. This question will probably be revived before a Committee of the
House of Commons. An Act of incorporation, however, is sought for by a
company, to form a railway, connecting the harbour of Holyhead with the
Chester and Crewe line. Several lines of railway were projected, but Mr.
Robert Stephenson appears to have been most successful in his efforts to
form a public company ; in which he has probably been much assisted by the
Report of Mr. Walker, who was appointed to give an opinion upon the ad-
vantages of the several projected lines. It is not our intention to give, at
present, any opinion upon Mr. Stephenson's line, as it would require a de-
tailed statement of the physical features of the locality, and an examination
of the injuries it will inflict, as well as the benefits it may bestow, not to in-
dividuals, but to the public. Still we may warn the public, and, through
them, the House of Commons, against a too confiding belief in the propriety
of this line, or in the propriety of its adoption. There is no part of the
kingdom that is not, or ought not to be, interested in this projected rapid
communication with Ireland. It is not a measure affecting the interests of a
locality ; but one upon which the trade of a large, important, would to God
we could say improving ! portion of the British empire, greatly depends ; and
a cautious and even prolonged inquiry will be expected by the public from
the Committee of the House of Commons.

Art. VIII.— REMARKS ON CUTTINGS, EMBANKMENTS, AND
OTHER EARTHWORKS.

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE OOLITIC DISTRICT CONTINUED, WITH
REFERENCE TO THE SUBJECT OF LAYING OUT LINES OF EARTHWORK,

In the country around Oxford, four distinct members of the oolite formation
are developed ; namely, the Kimmeridge clay, the Heddington oolite, the
Oxford clay, and the forest series of freestones and marble, classed under the
general name of the great oolite.

KIMMERIDGE CLAY.

The mineralogical characters of the Kimmeridge clay have been already
noticed. West of Oxford this clay forms a low, flat belt of country about
a mile in width, extending by Abingdon, Shrivenham, Wootton Basset, and
Calne, and following the outline of the lower green-sand throughout the
whole of its irregular course, in Wiltshire and part of Dorsetshire. This
clay appears to correspond to the oak-tree clay of the Wealden formation.

Its peculiar hollow configuration, with reference to the green-sand, which
it underlies, and to the more indurated calcareous rocks on which it rests,
will readily suggest the idea of a very extensive watery action, in which the
Kimmeridge clay has been scooped or hollowed out to a much greater extent
than either of those between which it is interposed. The following sketch
represents an ordinary section across a part of the green-sand and oolitic
district, showing the surface-figure of the interposed Kimmeridge clay.

a, Heddington oolite.

b, Kimmeridge clay.

c, Lower green-sand.

The long, unbroken, water-worn level of this clay is plentifully intersected
by small rivers and streams, some of which flow over it, longitudinally, for
many miles ; while others cross it transversely, in order to gain a quicker
junction with the Thames, which carries off all the water in this part of the
country. Where its direction is at all suitable, the Kimmeridge clay affords
highly favourable levels for railways and canals. These may be traced as far
as the direction tuits along the central valley, and may thence rise, by a gra-
dual sideling ascent, up to the more elevated district of the green-sand for-
mation. The Wilts and Berks Canal, and the Great Western Railway, are
laid out on this principle. For about twelve miles their course through the
Kimmeridge clay is nearly identical, and they each rise on to the green-sand
at a very easy rate of inclination.

DISTRICT OF THE HEDDINGTON OOLITE.

The Heddington oolite, otherwise called the Coral-rag, is a calcareous grit,
which has been extensively used for many of the colleges, halls, and ecclesi-
astical buildings of Oxford, which are now in such a deplorable state of dila-
pidation, as to prove very clearly the utter unfitness of this stone for ordinary
building purposes. The quarries of Heddington are about a mile and a half
east of Oxford ; but the district of country which yields an imperfect oolite
similar to that of Heddington, extends more than forty miles to the west of
Oxford. The towns of Abingdon, Farringdon, Highworth, Wootton Basset,
and Calne, are situate either upon this part of the oolitic formation, or on
the borders of it. The average breadth of the district west of Oxford is
nearly four miles ; but beyond Highworth it becomes much narrower, and
can scarcely be traced beyond Calne, in Wiltshire. This district has a regular
and gradual ascent from the minor valley of the Kimmeridge clay up to its
summit or escarpment, which flanks the broader and more important valley
of the Oxford clay, through which the Isis pursues the greater part of its
winding course. Between Oxford and Highworth the district of the Hed-
dington oolite may be considered as an almost uniformly sloping plane, de-
clining from north to south, and throwing off innumerable small rivulets as
tributaries to the river which drains the valley of the Kimmeridge clay. The
crest, or northern boundary of this sloping plane being composed of dry,
absorbent, sandy, and calcareous strata, a considerable proportion of the
water which falls in rain and snow, sinks into the earth, and is discharged by
springs near the head of every little valley which has been scooped out in a
direction transverse to the main vale of the Kimmeridge clay. Near High-
worth, the small river Cole, fed by a great many insignificant streams from
the lower chalk north of Marlborough Downs, breaks through the crest of the
Heddington oolite, and flows by Coleshill into the Isis at Lechlade. About
half way between Highworth and Wootton Basset another small river, named
the Key, intersects the oolite in a similar manner, and joins the Isis below
Cricklade. The North Wilts Canal, extending from the Wilts and Berks
Canal near Swindon, to the Thames and Severn Canal near Cricklade, has
been formed in the valley of the Key. The Cheltenham and Great Western
Railway, for several miles of its course, runs parallel to this North Wilts
Canal, and passes through the same opening in the escarpment of the Hed-
dington oolite.

MINERALOGICAL CHARACTER OF THE HEDDINGTON OOLITE.

The upper beds of this division are the most distinctly oolitic ; and the
ova which they contain are commonly larger than in the Portland or any
other variety of oolite. The coralline beds, from which the whole mass be-
tween the Kimmeridge and Oxford clays has sometimes been termed the
coral-rag, occupy the middle place between the calcareous freestone beds
which immediately underlie the Kimmeridge clay and the more siliceous beds
which rest on the Oxford clay.

The upper beds of this division are very extensively used for common
building purposes. They are far inferior, however, to the Portland oolite,
and to the building-stones procured from the lower oolite, which is never
more than a few miles distant. The employment of Heddington oolite for
many of the buildings in Oxford has been already alluded to, and an acknow-
ledgment of its defective character has now been forced upon every one who
is acquainted with the dilapidated condition of those buildings wherever the
Heddington oolite has been used. The contrast in the state of preservation

f 2

38

Naval Architecture.

[February,

presented by those parts where other oolites have been employed, is,
indeed, so great, that no one can hesitate to pronounce the Heddington
oolite a most unfit material for the construction of any large or ornamental
edifice. The whole tract of country between Oxford and Swindon is
covered with quarries, from which the Heddington oolite is procured, for
house building, rubble, walling, and other common purposes. The beds of
coral- rag are seldom suitable for any kind of building, being too loose and
rubbly to work into blocks of any reasonable size. They form a bad road
material, but, for want of a better, are extensively used for this purpose, and
also for burning into lime. The beds below the coral-rag consist principally
of yellow sand, containing about two of quartz to one of calcareous matter,
and traversed by irregular beds of sandstone ; which latter are also highly
calcareous.

The steep outline of this part of the oolite has been traced by the towns
of Farringdon, Highworth, and Wootton Basset ; and if we proceed in a
northerly direction from any of these places, we come almost immediately to
a formation of a very opposite character from the dry, stony strata of the
Heddington oolite ; namely, to that of the Oxford clay, which occupies the
flat, broad valley of the Isis. Looking to its position beneath the steep oolite
escarpment, the Oxford clay may be termed a repetition of the Kimmeridge
clay, which occupies the same relative position beneath the crest of the green-
sand. It is true that the valley of the Oxford clay is wider ; the formation
altogether is more extensive ; and its thickness greater than that of the Kim-
meridge clay : but, apart from the disproportionate extent of the two forma-
tions, a remarkable similarity obtains between them. Each formation is
interposed between strata of the same kind, and the valley of each is bounded
on one side by a steep escarpment, and on the other by a sloping plane ; so that
the hydrographical system of each is consequently very similar. Each has the
same kind of river winding through it in a longitudinal direction, and the
same succession of transverse streams flowing off the sloping plane which
bounds it on the north side.

The Thames and Severn Canal, which runs parallel to the Isis for the
greater part of its course, is principally traced through the basin of the Ox-
ford clay ; and its levels have been laid out with great judgment, presenting
many fine examples of the advantage of departing, in some cases, from a
straight direction in search of sidelong ground, which either saves cutting or
embanking, prolongs an advantageous level, or affords supplies of water,
which might possibly not be obtainable in any more rectilinear direction.

The North Wilts Canal enters the Oxford clay near the village of Purton,
and, crossing the Isis near Cricklade, forms a junction with the Thames and
Severn, as already mentioned.

The Cheltenham and Great Western Railway, which runs parallel for some
miles to the North Wilts Canal, also enters the Oxford clay at Purton ; and
skirting Perry-hill, and crossing Bradon Forest, proceeds across the clay dis-
trict in a north-westerly direction till it falls into the line of the Thames and
Severn Canal, passing through the ridge of the great oolite close to the famous
Sapperton Tunnel, by means of which the canal penetrates this difficult
summit

West of Oxford, the northern boundary of the Oxford clay is nearly defined
by the towns of Bampton, Lechlade, and Cricklade. About six miles west
of the latter place is the source of the Isis, which flows entirely through this
clay as far as Oxford, where its name is exchanged for that of the Thames.
The principal transverse valleys which drain into the Isis are those of the Ci-
rencester river, the Colne, the Windrush, and the Evenlode ; all of which
flow off the lias shale through the escarpment of the great oolite, and across
the Oxford clay district into its principal river, the Isis. The general direc-
tion of these transverse valleys is rather favourable to a communication which
may in future be effected between Cheltenham and Oxford. An advan-
tageous line of railway might be traced, for instance, from the lias on to the
great oolite through the gap of the Colne river, and should then follow an
almost easterly direction till it falls into the valley of the Windrush, passing
by the towns of Northleach, Burford, and Witney, to Oxford.

The average width of the Oxford clay district, between Oxford and Crick-
lade, is about five miles. A little west of Cricklade the direction of the for-
mation makes a great bend to the south ; and its western boundary may then
be traced, in a southerly direction, by Malmsbury, Chippenham, Melksham,
and Trowbridge. In this part of the district flows the important river Avon,
which has its sources in the country about Malmsbury, on the south side of
the ridge which separates its tributaries from those of the Isis. The river
Avon flows over the Oxford clay from Malmsbury to Melksham, where it
turns off to the west, towards Bradford and Bath. It receives in its course
a great number of minor transverse streams ; and carries off the water from
the extensive highland district which drains into the basin of the Oxford
clay.

The Great Western Railway, and the Wilts and Berks Canal, both enter the
clay district near the village of Lyneham, about five miles north of Calne.
The railway proceeds, in a south-westerly course, to Christian Malford, where
it falls into the valley of the Avon ; and, crossing this river between Chris-
tian Malford and Chippenham, leaves the Oxford clay at the latter place.

The canal, pursuing a more southerly direction, passes over a much greater
extent of the clay district. It approaches very close to the villages of Kella-
way and Pewsham, and the town of Melksham, and is connected by branches
with Chippenham and Calne. About two miles south of Melksham this
canal terminates in the Kennet and Avon Canal, which enters the Oxford
clay near Trowbridge, and passes across it in an easterly direction. The

clay district, south of Melksham, rises gradually to the south, and throws
down several tributaries of the Avon. One of these tributaries passes through
a narrow gorge at Frome, which has been adopted for the line of a proposed
canal, to connect the Bristol coal-field with the agricultural districts, and
channel ports of Dorsetshire and Hants. The line of this canal follows
the course of the Oxford clay for about thirteen miles south of Frome, when
it diverges to the west, along the valley of the river Cale, which it crosses at
Sturminster ; and again entering the Oxford clay, passes obliquely across it
for a length of about three miles, to Gains Cross, where it falls into the navi-
gation part of the river Stour, which flows out at Christchurch Bay, on the
west side of the Isle of Wight. This canal has never been executed, but the
line of country through which it was traced would be found highly favourable
for a communication by railway to connect the great cities of Bristol, Bath,
and the adjacent mineral districts of Somersetshire, with the ports of Poole,
Christchurch, and the anchorages of the Isle of Wight, passing, in its course,
close to the populous places of Bradford, Trowbridge, Frome, Wincaunton,
Stalbridge, Sturminster, Blandford, Wimborne, &c. ;| and intersecting the
rich agricultural districts of the Vale of Blackmore and the Trough of Poole.
The average breadth of country occupied by the Oxford clay, between Chip-
penham and Frome, does not exceed two miles ; while between Frome and
Wincanton its breadth contracts to little more than a mile. A little north,
of Wincanton, the principal feeders of the Cale and the Stour rise off the
clay, which sweeps in a great curve round the eastern verge of Gillingham
Forest, its western boundary ranging by Stour, Provost, and Sturminster,
towards the Vale of Blackmore, where it expands to a width of nearly six
miles, and occupies the whole of the low fiat which flanks the north downs of
Dorsetshire. The greatest width of clay district is in the Vale of Blackmore,
in a north-westerly direction from Ibberton on the greensand to Lydhinch,
on the northern limit of the clay. West of this line the formation gradually
contracts in width, its northern boundary ranging by Holwell and Yetmin-
ster, about six miles beyond which place the Oxford clay disappears.

MINERALOGICAL CHARACTER OF THE OXFORD CLAY.

This division of the oolite formation consists of a remarkably thick mass of
clays, shales, and bituminous schists.

Even in the upper part of the mass, where the clay is most decidedly
marked, its lamination is so general that induration only appears wanting to
convert it into shale or slate. Beds of soft grey slate are found alternating
even with the upper part of the clay ; and these, in descending order, become
more bituminous, and more mixed with pyrites (sulphuret of iron). Some of
the lower beds of laminated bituminous schist are so highly inflammable as to
be worth burning for economical uses ; but their thickness being seldom more
than two or three feet, and their depth from the surface usually very consi-
derable, they have never been found worth the expense of working. In the
numerous canal cuttings made through this clay, the lumps of bituminous
shale thrown aside by the workmen have been found to harden, and to present
an appearance very like some varieties of real coal ; and it is not by any means
uncommon to witness a great contention amongst the workmen for the pri-
vilege of being allowed to take hence these lumps so much like coal, in order
to use them for fuel.

The resemblance between real coal and the bituminous body of this clay
has given rise to many absurd and fruitless trials, in which a vast deal of
money has been wasted in sinking for coal on the line of the Oxford clay.
These unprofitable projects — although sometimes encouraged, no doubt, by
some knave, who is practising on the credulity of the landowner or capitalist —
are frequently the result of a clumsy and ignorant attempt to identify the mine-
ralogical character of this clay, and its subordinate strata, with the chunck and
bind of the true coal formation. Of course these attempts would be exploded, and
their useless tendency exhibited, by a more general and extended acquaintance
with geology and the relative position of formations and masses of strata. In
recent excavations the colour of the Oxford clay is a decided blue ; but in old
embankments, and surfaces which have been long exposed to the weather, its
colour is rather brown than otherwise. It contains very little arenaceous mat-
ter, but all its strata are sufficiently calcareous to effervesce briskly with acids,
a test which distinguishes it not less than the absence of sand in the partings
from the deposits above the chalk, which have been described in former papers
under the name of the London and plastic clays.

The Oxford clay resembles the lias, the London clay, and others, in afford-
ing calcareous geodes and flattened spheroidal masses of septaria or cement
stone, an argillo-calcareous substance, which is now so well-known as scarcely
to require description.

Art. IX.— NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.

Method of applying the Rules to calculate the Areas of the Vertical and
Horizontal Sections, and from them to obtain the Displacement.

The draughts of ships are commonly made to the scale of a quarter of an
inch to a foot. It is necessary, therefore, to be provided with a scale divided
into quarters of an inch, and these divisions again subdivided into tenths ;
which is the decimal scale used for taking the measurements in making the
calculations of a ship.

The displacement can be calculated both by vertical and horizontal sec-
tions, which is generally done : the one proving the accuracy of the other,
when they agree in their results.

1844.]

Naval Architecture.

39

The sections in the middle part of the ship must be taken equidistant ; the
common interval maybe from six to eight or nine feet, according to the
de-ree of curvature : they are the vertical sections of the body plan, the areas
of which are to be calculated, and the ordinates of the horizontal sections,
until these lines begin to curve suddenly towards the extremities ; from which
places it is requisite that the ordinates should have a smaller common interval.
In all cases, the more sudden the curvature, the less must be the intervals ;
and where there is little curvature, the larger may be the interval.

The calculations are in general made to the outside of the plank, so that
the displacement is obtained to the fore-side of the rabbet of the stem, the
after-side of the rabbet of the stern-post, and the lower part of the rabbet

of flip IcppI

The contents of the keel, false keel, stem, knee of the head, stern-post and
rudder may, if it be considered desirable, be calculated by any ordinary
method of measuring the solid content of timber, and be added to the dis-
placement. Being insignificant in comparison with the whole displacement,
and the results of other calculations are affected by them in so trifling a
degree, they are commonly left out of consideration. _

Fie 1 represents the principal transverse vertical section, or midship sec-
tion of a ship to the outside of the plank. The middle line is considered the
axis of the curve, which is divided into a number of parts ; from which points
the perpendiculars which meet the curve are the ordinates. From the load
water-line, which is the upper ordinate, there are six common intervals of
1-5 feet which give seven ordinates; and below the fifth, to the lower part
of the rabbet of the keel, there are three common intervals of one foot, which
give four ordinates : the seventh ordinate of the upper part being the first
of the small part below, at which place the section begins to curve more
suddenly.

Kg. 1.

The ordinates are numbered 1, 2, 3, &c, beginning at the upper one,
which is the height of the load water-line at this section ; and the length ot
each is noted on it, taken from the middle line to where it meets the curve.
The upper ordinates are put into the first rule, and those of the small part
below into the second.

20-0

Area of upper part.

2 — 14-8

3-

-14-4

4 — 13-6

5-

-120

6— 9-0

.

26-4

37-4

4

2

52-8

149-6

— . —

52-8

20-0

222-4

5 x

i of 1-5,

the common interval

111-20 = area of upper part.
5-88 = area of small part.

117-08 = area of half the midship section.

Area of small part below.

2 — 2-4

3 — 1-0

5-5

15-7

3 x f of 1 , the common interval.

8)47-1

5-88 = area of the small part.

It is not necessary that the ordinates of the vertical section should have
the same common interval as the areas of the horizontal sections have : the
object being to obtain correct results, any arrangement may be made which
will attain it, and at the same time afford the greatest facility in proceeding
with the calculations.

In a similar manner the areas of all the other vertical sections are obtained,
employing either the first or second rule, or both, as may be found necessary.
The small areas below the lowest ordinate of some of the sections will be so
small as not to require the use of a rule in calculating them : it is sufficient,
in such cases, to add the lowest ordinate to the breadth of the section at the
rabbet, and take a mean, and multiply by the distance between them.

The load water-line is represented by fig. 2 ; the middle line of which is
considered the axis of the curve ; and the perpendiculars to it, the ordinates.
From the midship section, forward and aft, until the curvature increases sud-
denly, the intervals are taken at eight feet, so as to obtain ten ordinates. The
small area abaft is divided into six intervals, and that forward into four : the

Fig. 3.

\s t, 3 :

2 3 4s

5

' 8 9 10

,

3

1 2 3

I

1

1

1

1

1

/l

1

1

71
/ 1
/ 1

6\\~

/ c

f>\\-

i
1
1
l

a

7! C

1

IS

3

i.

1

Fig. 2.

r 7 ? v

1^01 *

r-1

«>

\

is

»

\

K>

ti

1*

1

ST
9

I

7 £ y

5

_

—

cy

hi

=>

>

rv

fomerr giving seven ordinates, and the latter five. The ordinates of the
middle area are put into the second rule ; those of the small areas, forward
and aft, into the first.

It may be observed, that when the calculations of a ship are to be made,

facility will be afforded by an arrangement of the sections and ordinates, so
that when the first rule is to be used, the interval may be some multiple of 3 ;
and, when the second, that three-eighths of the interval may be a whole
number.

40

Naval Architecture.

[February,

Half area of the middle part of the load water-line.

1 - 13-4

4 — 14-6

2—14-2

10 — 12-4

7 — 14-6

3 — 14-4

5 — 15-0

25-8

29-2

6 — 15-0

2

8 — 14-4

9 — 13-8

58-4

86-

260-4
58-4
25-8

344-6

3 x # of the common interval.

1033'8 = middle area.

Small area abaft.

13-9

2 — 12-8
4 — 10-6
6— 5-0

28-4
4

113-6

40-8
13-9

•12
■ 8-4

20-4
2

40-8

168-

4 x -r of common interval.

3)673-2

224'4 = small area abaft.

1 — 12-4
5— -5

12-9

Small area forward.

2 — 11-2
4— 6-2

3 — 9-2
3

27-6

110-1

4 x \ of common interval.

3)440-4

146-8 = small area forward.

1033-8
224-4
146-8

1405-0 = the half area of the load water-line.

The areas of all tlft water-lines are calculated in a similar manner. The
small areas forward and abaft may sometimes require a different interval to
be taken between the ordinates, to render the application of one of the rules
convenient ; and there will sometimes be a small part at the extremity not
included, the area of which must be obtained by an ordinary method of cal-
culating the area of a trapezium, as was remarked of the small areas below
the lowest ordinate of some of the vertical sections.

To calculate the Displacement by vertical Sections.

The areas of the sections are considered as ordinates of a curve, the area
of which contains the same number of superficial feet as there are cubic feet
in the displacement ; that is, the sections are imagined to be rectangles, one
side of each of which contains as many linear feet as there are superficial feet
in the area of the section ; and the other side of each rectangle is one foot ;
consequently, the solid, the base of which is the area of this curve, and the
depth one foot, contains the same number of cubic feet as the displacement.

If, instead of imagining the areas of the sections to be rectangles, having one
side of each one foot, we imagine each of them to have one side ten feet, the
other sides of the rectangles will be the ordinates of a curve, the area of which
will be the base of a solid of ten feet in depth, which contains the same num-
ber of cubic feet as the displacement ; or the area of the curve contains one-
tenth the number of superficial feet as there are cubic feet in the displace-
ment. In this manner, by dividing the areas of the sections by any common
divisor, ordinates of a curve, or " line of sections," are obtained, the area
of which, multiplied by the common divisor, is equal to the displacement.

Half vertical Sections.

Middle Body.

69-3

2— 54-8
4— 90-5
6 — 110-1
8 — 117-08
10—109-1
12— 74-8

3— 76-0
5 — 101-8
7 — 116-2
9 — 116-2
11— 96-5

556-38
4

2225-52
1013-4
69-3

506-7
2

1013-4

3308-22

8x3 common interval.

3)26465-76

882T92 = half the displacement of the middle body in
cubic feet.

Content of Small Solid abaft.

1 — 0

5—2-78

2— 7-0
4—20-5

3-

-140
2

27-5
4

28-0

110-0
28-0
27-8

165-8
2x-

■ common

interval

1 — 0
5— -41-5

41-5

3)331-6

110-53 = half displacement of after-body in cubic feet.

Content of Small Solid forward.

2—110 3 — 21-5

4 — 31-5 2

42-5 43-0

4

170-0
43-0
415

2545

2xj common interval.

3)509-0

169-66 = half displacement of fore-body in cubic feet.

8821-92 = middle part.
HO'53 = after part.
169 "66 = fore part.

9102-11 = half the displacement in cubic feet.

The areas of the sections which are put into the rules, as above, are num-
bered as in fig. 3, which is a representation of the sheer plan from the load
water-line to the lower part of the rabbet of the keel, and from the after-part
of the rabbet of the post to the fore-part of the rabbet of the stem.

1844.]

Bar Harbours.

41

In the same manner, the areas of the water-lines are considered the ordi-
nates of a curve, and are put into one of the rules ; by which means the area
of a curve is obtained which contains the same number of superficial feet as
the displacement contains cubic feet.

The upper part, between the load water-line and water-line 5, may be cal-
culated by the first rule : and between water-lines 5 and 7, where the body
alters its form suddenly, intermediate water-lines must be introduced at
smaller intervals, as was shown for the ordinates of midship section : to these
must be added the small solid below water-line 7, which may be calculated
without the aid of a rule.

The following method of calculating the displacement from the areas of the
sections on the draught — that is, the outside of the timbers, when the inter-
vals between the sections are irregular, will frequently be found useful : —
Calculate the areas of a number of the sections ; in the middle part of the
ship, every third or fourth section before and abaft the midship section will
be sufficiently forward and aft every section, three at each extremity : divide
these areas by any common divisor, as 10, to obtain ordinates of a line of
sections, and set them off from the middle line of the half-breadth plan on
the respective sections ; through the spots so obtained pass a curve which
will end on the middle line at the places where the water-line, to which the
displacement is to be calculated, meets the middles of the rabbets of the stem
and stern-post in the sheer plan squared down to the middle line of the
half-breadth plan. Calculate the area of this curve, by taking equidistant
ordinates, as was shown for the load water-line, and multiply the area by 10,
the common divisor, which will give the half displacement to the timbers.
Then, as similar solids are, to each other, in the triplicate ratio of their ho-
mologous sides, we find the half displacement to the outside of the plank
in the following manner : —

Let b = the half-breadth of the ship to the timbers ;

B = ditto ditto to the outside of the plank ;

d = the half displacement to the timbers ;
D = ditto to the outside of the plank ;

then, b3 : B3 : : d : D,

B3

and D = — x d ; or, the displacement to the outside of the plank, is
b3

equal to the displacement to the timbers multiplied by the cube of the breadth
to the outside of the plank at the water-line, divided by the cube of the
breadth to the timbers.

It is also useful to know the number of tons which will immerse the ship
one inch at the load water-line. There are as many cubic feet in the solid
of one foot in depth, the base of which is the load water-line, as there are
superficial feet in this line : and the number of cubic feet in the solid of one
inch in depth, is one-twelfth the number in that of one foot in depth : there-
fore, one-twelfth the number of superficial feet which the load water-line
contains, is the number of cubic feet to an inch immersion at this line ; and
this number divided by 35, the number of cubic feet of sea-water to a ton,
gives the number of tons to an inch at the load water-line.

Errata.
In Art. IX., page 11, of the last Number, line 9 from the bottom of the column,
for " the displacement of its centre of gravity," read " the displacement and its
centre of gravity."

Page 12, lines 21 and 20 from bottom of first column, for " one-third the dis-
tance from the fore-part," read " one-third the breadth of the rabbet from the fore-
part for the middle of that of the stem ; and one-third the breadth of the rabbet
from the after-part for the middle of that of the post."

Page 12, line 13 from top of second column,/or " siding" read " half-sidirig."

Art. X.— BAR HARBOURS.

To a maritime nation the condition of its harbours is obviously a subject of
great importance, and any suggestion for their improvement, if feasible and
inexpensive, can hardly fail to obtain attention. The most serious and most
prevalent affliction under which the generality of harbours suffer is the exist-
ence of bars at their mouths, and the known resources of engineering science
appear to be inadequate for the removal of this evil. It is easy enough in-
deed to dredge away a bar, but very little benefit is to be derived from that
operation, as the bar will be produced again by the same influences that ori-
ginally determined its formation. Some engineers have erected expensive
piers for the purpose of carrying the bar of a harbour into deep water, and
thus virtually subverting it. But this obviously is rather a palliative than a re-
medy ; for the deposition of the materials which constitute the bar will still go
on, just, indeed, as if the water had been deepened by dredging ; and however
deep the water may be at first, it must become shallow eventually. Bar har-
bours, in fact, are the opprobrium of civil engineering : their subtilties have
baffled men of the highest reputation, and artizans might well be deterred from
venturing where engineers have failed, were it not the fact that it is with
the class of artizans new features of improvement for the most part originate.
There is no book with which we are acquainted which throws much light
upon the subject of bars, and whatever explications we have upon the mode
of their formation or the measures adopted for their cure, are to be found in
the reports of civil engineers given in the course of their practice, where such

points are usually touched upon by the way of vindicating the particular ex-
pedients recommended. We shall here recapitulate the more important of
the opinions thus propounded and maintained.

Eustace Zanotti, the celebrated Italian Professor, in his work on the
" Depositions of the Bed of Rivers near their Entrance to Sea," attributes
the accumulation of bars to the want of slope, at the mouth of the river, and
specifies the inclination requisite to be 10 inches per mile ; which would give,
he says, sufficient impulse and acceleration to drive away any matter in sus-
pension, and which could not subside to form shoals, &c

Zendrini, in his " Report of the Diversion of the Reneo and Montone,"
and also in his " Report for a New Harbour at Ravenna," promulgated the
same doctrine, and proposed to, " unite the waters of the mills and drainage of
the city, and by so doing collect a sufficient body of water to drive back and
sweep away the sand banks, bars, &c."

This theory was also advocated by Frisi, on Rivers and Torrents — and
also by M. Meyer who advised at the mouth of the Arno, that parallel
piers should be constructed to confine the waters and drive away the sand
banks, bars, &c. A kindred theory was advocated by Farnien Michelini,
Engineer to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who wrote thus: — " It is well
known that rivers subject to floods, or more properly, mountainous torrents,
frequently roll large masses of matter along with them : if it be clay torn from
its stratum, it breaks it by frequency of collision in its motion, and dropping
here and there the weightiest of its constituent parts, forms bottoms of
gravel in the channels of rivers, but lighter parts being ionger borne up are
carried further, and make shores of sand to lakes and to the harbours of the
sea, where the waters spread themselves, and lose their force, the sand sub-
sides and forms a bar." The following is another cause which the same au-
thor assigns for the formation of bars, viz. : — " If it happens that a vein of
hard ground, and one of a soft nature, should join together and cross a river,
the water will operate on the soft vein and form a bar." Several other emi-
nent hydraulic engineers, in Flanders, Switzerland, Holland, France, &c,
could be quoted as advocating these doctrines.

But it is not by continental engineers alone that these opinions are held, as will
be seen by a reference to the reports of the leading British engineers, some of
which may here be referred to. J. Whidby, Esq., C.E., in his report on the
Port of Liverpool, writes thus : "Tide harbours are deep or otherwise in propor-
tion to the quantity of water that flows into them from the sea and the fresh
water that comes down from the interior, the greater the quantity of water
the greater will be the depth, from the effect which the increased body of
water will have in scouring the bar, and carry the sillage, &c. seaward."

The same doctrine is maintained by J. Nickolls, Esq., C.E., in his report on
Lynn Harbour, in these words : " If the abstraction of this water amounting
to 16 million tons be permitted, it will be ruinous both to drainage and
navigation and to take away this efficient scouring power from the bar of Lynn
Harbour and reduce the fall, — I predict without the gift of prophecy that it
will ruin the drainage and annihilate the Harbour of Lynn." Similar doctrines
were advocated by Messrs. Walker and Mylne, in their reports on Liverpool
Harbour, &c, and by Mr, Jessop, who in his report upon Arundel Port,
wrote as follows : " There are two leading principles to be kept in view in
the improvement of a bar harbour ; 1st, The extension of the entrance into
the sea so as to remove the bar into deeper water ; and 2nd, so to confine
and direct the channel through or over the bar, as to make the entrance more
safely accessible. But in the present state of the harbour, the combined cur-
rents instead of acting with a condensed force and power on the bar spread in
a sheet."

J. M. Rendell, Esq., C.E., in Reporting on Arundel Port, advocated
this theory in these words : " This harbour, like all others of its class, is main-
tained by the power of the back water, which being sufficient to drive to sea,
the gravel and sand washed up at its mouth, keeps open a navigable channel.
Such harbours are commonly called ' bar harbours,' being always attended
with a bank, or bar, at the point where the current of back water is lost in
the sea, or destroyed by the tidal current of the coast. It will be evident from
this description of a bar harbour, that its depth and general capacity, are de-
termined by the power of its back water, compared with the tendency of the
sea to form shingle or sand banks at its mouth."

It will of course be thought very presumptuous in us to say that all these
authorities are in error, yet such is our conviction notwithstanding. If the
doctrine propounded by them were true, namely, that the existence of a bar
is due to the insufficient velocity of the water when it enters the sea, a bar
would be the unfailiDg accompaniment of a sluggish river and would never
afflict a rapid one. Now, some sluggish rivers are it is very well known
free from bars, while others whose waters flow with much impetuosity into
the sea are nevertheless barred most effectually. Not to dwell on the rivers
of the continent, the Liffey, Ballyshannon, Yare, Tweed, Wyre, and others
which have considerable fall at their mouths are nevertheless impeded by bars.
TheTynehas 4 inches, Tees 5 inches, Dee (Flintshire) 1-1 inches, and the Wear
20 inches of fall per mile, near their respective embouchures, yet all these have
bars notwithstanding. It may however be contended that these rivers have
not velocity enough, and we shall therefore take another case, the A dour, to
which this objection cannot apply. On looking over the levels of this river
taken by Mr. Pritchard, in 1843, we find that the rise from the bar in the
first 40 chains is 6 feet 6 inches, and in the next 40 chains 18 inches, or about
8 feet per mile. The average velocity of the water during spring tides is 6
miles per hour, and on some occasions the water rushes with a considerably
greater velocity even than this : yet in spite of this great scouring power,

42

The Gresham Club-House.

[February,

which it is pretended will prevent bars from forming, this river is tarred as
completely as any of the others.

This unreasonable inflexibility of facts, is it must be confessed sufficiently
provoking, and some engineers finding that the scourage hypothesis was un-
tenable, have modified it by saying that it is an essential condition of the pre-
vention of bars that there shall be, not merely a considerable velocity of the
water where it enters the sea, but also a small declivity of the bed of the river,
so that the current may run horizontally onwards without impinging against
the bottom of the ocean. This theory is nearly as old as the foregoing, and
quite as unstable, for it is equally controverted by facts, but we may here
enumerate the authorities by whom it is supported.

M. A. Lorgna, M. Pliny, Sabbadini, and Barattiero, advocate this doctrine.
M. Manfridi writes thus : — " When rivers are shortened, an inclination of
bed will take place and the gravel extended and pushed forward and raise sand-
banks, &c." He also says, he has proved that a small fall at the mouth, is
sufficient to prevent any deposition so as to occasion obstruction.

Signor Guglielmini, in his writings in the Florentine Collection, states : —
That whenever the inclination and velocity is great, the earth is torn up and
gravel impelled forward, which forms sandbanks. But in beds of which the
inclination is small, no deposits can take place as the force of gravity alone
impels the steam. The foregoing he has also confirmed in his " Treatise
della Natura de Fuini," and states, " That so long as rivers could of them-
selves keep their mouths open on flat-shores, the regurgitation of the tides
would prevent any shoals, &c, from forming."

British engineers have also advocated the same views. A. Pryddorch, in
1610, in his work on the River Dee, and rivers of N.Wales; proposed to
embank the Dee, and reduce the slope to a »very small inclination, which
would, he said, keep a good and free navigation and prevent sandbanks, and
bars. J. Reynolds, C.E., in the beginning of the last century, we find fol-
lowing the same views in his writings on the Adour ; and in 1762, C. Vallancey,
C.E. (of Dublin), writes thus : — " The water having made its bed horizontal,
the bottom is now arrived at a permanent state, and is no longer able to carry
soil, &c; for where the stream is swiftest there will the gravel be carried for-
ward, but when its fall is uniform and regular we may consider the river to
be in a permanent state."

The most recent of these theorists is Mr. Brooks, who writes thus : — " We
shall be able to trace to the same cause the existence of bars, viz. : to the
excess of slopes, which their longitudinal sections presents near their em-
bouchure." This last named gentleman has brought forward this antiquated
doctrine as if it were a thing manufactured by himself, and perpetually speaks
of " my new theory on bar harbours," as if it had not been the theory of
persons innumerable before.

These, then, are some of the authorities who favour the doctrine that bars
arise from too great a declivity at a river's mouth, and what says experience ?
The " Dee," a bar river (as before stated), has a great declivity, but the next
river to this is the " Clwyd," has also a bar : now, the levels of the Clwyd
stand thus : — At 30 miles inland it is only 12 feet higher than at its junction
with the sea : while at Ruthen, 16 miles from its embouchure, low-water sur-
face is 2 feet lower than low-water mark at sea. At " Plascoch-Bridge," 6 miles
from its entrance, it has a rise of 2 inches ; so that its slope in its lower
reaches is almost nothing: again, the " Conway River," has only 6 inches
of rise from its embouchure to " Tale Caon," a distance of 6 miles, no
" excess of slope," certainly ; yet is encumbered with abar. The Adour, a bar
river as before stated, has great declivity in its lower reaches, but on the east
side of this river is the Ouse, the first f of a mile of which has only 2 inches
of fall. Also on the west side the Arun, for the first mile has less than 1
inch, and for the next 2 miles but 3 inches of fall, still each of those rivers has
a bar.

These examples very clearly show, that whether a river has much or little
fall near the mouth is a point of indifference, so far as the formation of a bar is
concerned. — Here, however, we must break off for the present. In our next
number we shall shew to what influences the formation of bars is attributable.

Art. XI.— THE GRESHAM CLUB-HOUSE.

This building, the foundation of which has just been laid, is of the Italian
style of Architecture, which appears to be that best adapted for uniting ele-
gance with convenience. Its purpose is to afford accommodation for the
Club, which bears the respected name of the founder of the Royal Exchange,
and this confederation already numbers among its members many of the
leading merchants of London. The elevation speaks for itself, and therefore
supersedes the necessity of any remarks of ours. The basement plan shows
the kitchen, which is arched over to prevent the heat from affecting the tem-
perature of the morning-room above. The dishes are conveyed from the
kitchen to the waiters' room above by means of "lifts," in which latter
apartment they are examined and adjusted before being taken to table.
Opposite the lift is the clerk's desk. The clerk is accountable for every
thing that leaves the kitchen ; he is telegraphed by means of a speaking-
tube proceeding from the waiters' room. The soiled plates are returned by
means of the side lift, and are handed through a window into the scullery,
where they are cleansed, and put in a hot closet warmed by steam, so as to
fit them again for the Epicurean routine. The various receptacles for ice,
fish, &c, are similar to those attached to the kitchen of the Reform Club,

and they are complete enough to satisfy the wants of any corporation. The
great secret of club architecture is to make a good kitchen ; and this element
of perfection Mr. Flower, the architect of the Gresham, appears to have
secured very effectually.

The ground floor consists of the coffee-room, morning-room, &c, as seen
by the plans, reference to which may be made for particulars of the rooms
above, all of which are delineated except the billiard-room and smoking,
room, which communicate, by means of Venetian windows, with the lead flat
over the east end of the drawing-room, the bath-rooms, and sleeping apart-
ments situated thereby.

On the half space of the staircase to each story, and forming a mezzanino
story, are dressing-rooms and water-closets, to which hot and cold water are
laid on, as well as to the baths on the two-pair, so that a bath may be ob-
tained in a very few minutes. The amount of the estimate, exclusive of the
fittings, is 8,000/. ; and Mr. William Cubitt, the builder, has undertaken to.
have the building covered in early in May, and fit for occupation by the end
of September next. The face of the work will be composed either of Roman
or metallic cement.

Art. XII,

-PROMISCUOUS NOTES ON ARCHITECTURE
AND BUILDING.

DURATION OF BRICKWORK.

It has often been observed that the railways, with their extensive bridges,
viaducts, and tunnels, have afforded a great amount of experience in con-
structive engineering. It is true that the constructions on the railways far
exceed in magnitude any works which had ever before been found necessary
for the purposes of internal communication ; but to assume, for this reason,
that any improved mode of construction has been developed, or any improve-
ments made in matters of construction, which are highly susceptible of it,
would be giving to the constructors of railways a credit which they do not
deserve. In no department of their construction is this remark more strik-
ingly true than in the execution of their brickwork ; which, throughout many
extensive districts of country, exhibits lamentable defects of judgment in the
choice of materials. In order to be convinced of this, one has only to in-
spect, after a few weeks of frost, the bridges, retaining walls, and other
works of brick, even on the most celebrated lines in the country. In every
direction will be seen at the base long lines of debris, which has fallen from
the mortar joints, from top to bottom of the wall ; and besides this, the
bricks are, in many cases, shattered, burst, and reduced to dust by the same
cause, so that large hollows are seen all over the face of the wall. Neither of
these defects ought to be displayed thus early, if proper judgment had been
exercised in the choice of good limestone for being burnt into mortar, and of
good elay for the burning of the bricks. The former defect — that of the mor-
tar— may, it is true, be repaired by the process called pointing, for which
Roman cement is commonly used in railway works. This, however, occa-
sions an extravagant expenditure, which might have been avoided, if a cement
or a strong mortar, of even slightly hydraulic properties, had, in the first
instance, been made use of for the face of the wall.

The destruction of the bricks, however, is afar more serious evil, and one
which more directly affects the stability and durability of the wall. The writer
has lately observed this destruction on a very extensive scale, in the works of
a great part of the Birmingham Railway ; namely, between Blisworth and
Coventry, which part comprises the clays of the oolite and lias formation. A
great proportion of the brickwork on this part of the line is in a truly deplor-
able condition. The bricks are similar to the soft red variety which has long
been locally burnt from the clays of the midland counties ; but, in adopting
this kind of brick for railway works, their quality has been much more severely
tested than in the construction of houses and ordinary walls. In railways a
great proportion of the brick walling is destined to serve for the support and
facing of embankments, or cuttings in earthwork ; and they are frequently
exposed to be saturated by the water which percolates through the strata.
The red brick is notoriously more porous, and its capacity for water is greater
than most other kinds ; and hence, when exposed to such incessant contact
with water, it is necessarily in a state of almost constant saturation. Now,
an imperfectly burnt brick, or one in which incipient vitrification has not
taken place, will be injured, and partly reduced, even by the common action
of water ; but when to this is added the effect of frost, which will burst and
shatter even the hardest minerals which absorb water, the liability to destruc-
tion must be very obvious. Now this is just what is going on with the brick-
work on the parts of the London and Birmingham line which has been men-
tioned. All the brick walls in contact with earth, and particularly the re-
taining walls which support cuttings, and even those dwarf walls, three or
four feet in height, which form the sides of drains, are in a state of such
serious dilapidation, that the Company must shortly incur an enormous ex-
pense for their restoration.

The remedy for defective mortar joints has been already pointed out. With
respect to the destruction of the bricks themselves, nothing but careful expe-
riments on the effect of frost upon a variety of bricks burnt from different
kinds of clay, and different mixtures of silex and alumine, with reference also
to the degree of vitrification produced by the burning, will enable the engi-
neer to construct brickwork that shall possess the requisite qualities for
work of this kind. Hitherto this subject has been lamentably neglected. We

1844]

The State Trials.

43

know not if such tests have ever been practised by railway engineers ; and the
consequence has been, a system of construction incomparably inferior to that
of all our old canals and their accompanying works. So much for railway
engineers and their boasted constructions. Time, the great judge of the
works of man, is now pointing out the gross ignorance which has characterized
their proceedings in more than one principal department of construction. Let
those learn better to whom our future railways may be intrusted ; let them
avoid the example which has been placed before them, and distinguish them-
selves by building well and cheaply, not by gingerbread constructions, ac-
companied by wasteful extravagance.

Art. XIII.— THE STATE TRIALS. MUST WE STAND THIS ?

The State Trials are ended, so far as the legal question is concerned. A jury
has been found to give voice to the wishes of the ruling powers, and the
expression of public opinion in Ireland is pronounced illegal, by high au-
thorities, claiming obedience to the forms of law. Grave is the question
involved in the result ; so all-absorbing, that it imperatively bids us turn
aside from our usual path, to add our voice and counsel to the free press of
England, to exhort the manly race of English artizans to cast aside all
shades of difference and make common cause, with heart and hand, with
head and voice, throughout the length and breadth of the empire, to proclaim
their unflinching determination, that the expression of opinion, either singly
or in masses, either publicly or privately, shall be as free as air. In Ireland
has been woven the first mesh of the net which, if suffered to remain un-
broken, would gradually spread over England also. We tell the English
artizans that the Irish people are their brethren ; and if they do not make
common cause with them in resisting an iniquitous wrong, so surely shall
the same measure be meted out to themselves, by the wrongdoers, who
are patiently watching the safety-valve of endurance, increasing the load as
the indications of resistance lessen. In Ireland, the fight of freedom has
commenced, and a victory has been achieved by the dominators. There,
on that ground, must the men of England set up their battle array — the
fight for freedom of opinion, of discussion under any and every form. In
concert with their Irish brethren, they must win back the ground that has
been lost ; they must curb the oppressor's power at the outset, or "merrie
England" will be merged in miserable Ireland ; and this world's wonder,
this marvellous Britain, this nursing mother of all earth's progress, this type-
setter of nations, that belts the world as with a girdle, this conqueror, ruler and
civilizer of savage races ; this wielder of the occult powers of nature — will be
shorn of her strength, and become a scoff and a by-word for the finger of
scorn to point at. Take from us the power of free discussion, and the
aspiration of the modern monks* may be realised, over the ruins of the
great manufacturing cities of England, that have borne so large a share in
the work of the world's civilization. Spain and Portugal are living pictures
of the degradation to which humanity may be reduced, by conferring on state
rulers the power of preventing the expression of opinion.

Up, then, and be doing, ye masters of " matter," ye of hard hands and
strong brains, ye who earn your living by the " sweat of your faces," ye who
design the forms into which the materials of nature shall be moulded, and
ye who work out those designs. By your joint powers has the physical gran-
deur of Britain been achieved. By your joint powers must her moral
grandeur be sustained. Cry out as with one voice, " We will be free ! free
In our minds as in our bodies ; we and our fathers made Britain what she
is ; we will strive to make her more than she is, and we will not endure that
she shall be made less. If there be unruly members amongst us who resort
to "physical violence, we will put that down with the strong hand: but we
recognise no violence in words. Our motto shall be ' Peace and order, and
the tools to those who best can handle them.' " If those who wield the
state tools use them so badly as to produce waste, and stir up clamour and
discussion, it shows them to be unfit for their office, and the tools must be
given in charge to better workmen. Bad government in Ireland has pro-
duced outcry and clamour, the wholesome natural symptoms of bad govern-
ment. The rulers would check the wholesome symptoms, stagnate the pu-
rulent matter, and leave the disease untouched. Checking the outcry, they
would force a rebellion. Artizans of England ! join with Irishmen, join with
Welchmen, with Scotchmen, with Chartists, with Trades-Unionists, middle
classes, with universal humanity, in proclaiming that there shall be no Irish
rebellion, and that Irish clamour and English echoes shall continue with
increasing vehemence, till Irish grievances shall be redressed and be no more.
The history of the Irish grievances is a long one. It is a history of the
conquest of the weak by the strong, of the disunited by the united, of the
Celt by the Saxon. It is the history of Wales as well as Ireland. That
such has not been the history of England, has been a result of thorough
amalgamation. Saxon strength and judgment, mingled with Celtic impulse
and enthusiasm, in one of nature's choicest abiding-places, has wrought a
great work. Not by the aid of governments, but in spite of governments,
the results of the power of many individuals have produced a mighty whole.
Where governments have been oppressive or unfavourable, they have, from
time to time, been coerced. The people of England have been constantly
gaining power, and, occupied with their own pursuits, they have been ig-

* See " Quarterly Review."

norant of the oppressions of Ireland, they have suffered their government
to coerce the Irish people, and to keep them without education. The
men of Saxon races, who settled in the country, were few in number, and
oppressed the Irish as much from fear as from peculation. Hatred was
perpetuated between the oppressors and the oppressed ; and to this day the
holders of land are looked on as strangers and tyrants. The insecurity en-
gendered by this civil fraud, both to life and property, precluded all progress.
Manufactures, the great element of human civilization, could find no rest-
ing place, and capital could not grow up, between the oppression of the
sword and the resistance of the knife. Capital, like Christianity, shuns
strife. A strong minority coerced a weak majority ; and the lords could
not trust their serfs. White slaves in Ireland, or black slaves in America,
the result is alike ; the curse of his crime ever rests on the oppressor, and
haunts him with the vision of retribution. Only in the north of Ireland,
where the rulers became the majority, where strife ceased by amalgamation
of the inhabitants, or by cessation of the causes of oppression, there only
were to be found quietude and progress.

So little was known or thought of the Irish people, that they were treated
as though they were a herd of cattle; in law phraseology, they were " Les
mere Irish." And practically, as a people, they were inarticulate; they
had no voice to speak their wrongs, no language recognised through the
civilized world. They had no organization, no power of concert. They
suffered, but not in quiet ; when the suffering grew too great for endurance,
they could not speak, and they testified their pain in deeds of violence, not
on their oppressors, but on the agents of their oppressors. Like children,
they beat the post they happened to stumble against. Like inebriate Malays,
they " ran a muck." They burned houses and massacred agents; as the
English agricultural labourers, who are not taught to read, write, or speak,
burn down hayricks, and farm steadings, as even " the men of Kent" fol-
lowed at the heels of mad Thorn, to work violence on those who had left
their hunger unappeased. The civilized man speaks and reasons ; the brute
bull gores. It has been a common topic with our rulers to dwell on the
necessity for keeping down and uneducated, those whom they call the
"lower orders," as though God had not made all men alike in his own
image, as though they alone had been stamped with the Divine superscription.
Again and again has the fear of a "bloody revolution" been inculcated; a
repetition of the scenes of Jacobin France ; a conspiracy of the working men
to throw down the upper classes, and share the plunder of the rich among
the poor. We hold this in England to be a sheer impossibility, unless bad
government can contrive to reduce the people to the condition which pro-
duced the French revolution, almost total ignorance and privation of daily
food. Where are the mischievous mobs found ? Certainly not amongst
the educated industrious artizans. Who burned down Bristol ? Ignorant
boys and half-starved paupers. Who tried the Welch insurrection in the
time of Frost ? Uninstructed and half-starved men. Had they been edu-
cated men, they would not have wasted their strength on an impracticability.
Who made the Rebecca riots ? uneducated and ill-fed men labouring under
oppression. Who are the " Whiteboys," the " Peep-o'-day boys," the
" Riband men," the " Rockites ?" Who, but the remnants of "Les mere
Irish," whose clans have been preserved under the joint influence of bad
government, hunger, and ignorance. We remember the Luddites, who de-
voted themselves to the destruction of machinery. Where are they now ?
Vanished in the light of advancing knowledge, in spite of the long-continued
taxes thereon: Where are the " physical-force Chartists ?" — reduced to an
uninfluential fraction. What was the result of their last attempt in the
cotton factory districts ? Failure, discomfiture, contempt ! Is there a
power of regenerating them, of making them fearfully powerful and mis-
chievous, of joining in brotherhood with them all the artizan race ? There
is ! Stop up the access and passage to complaint ; prevent discussion, repress
all language " tending to bring the acts of Government in question," and
the pent fire of the artizans will involve the whole community in ruin by
explosion, or, if successfully kept under, the fire of England will be burnt
out, and her source of power extinguished. Kept under! The sacred fire
that burns in the hearts of Englishmen ! God's own spirit, that sustains
humanity, and lights the onward path of progress, from the condition of
savage beasthood, up to that time when men shall become as gods ! Kept
under ? Not the artizan race ! whose mission it has been, and is, to remove
from man the primal curse ; and by substituting, for the " sweat of the face,"
the sweat of the brain within the brow, to extinguish human drudgery, by
substituting for it the powers of nature, won, and to be won, by skill and
science ; powers placed at our command as fast as our reason advances.
It is, alas 1 but too true, that there is no conceivable state of degradation
to which human beings may not be reduced, if it be but done by degrees.
There are large numbers of Saxon men, yet chained to the soil of half
feudal tenure, half fed and half clothed men, likened unto clods, by neglect
of all mental culture. These men might be kept under, from exercising
more than " Swing" vengeance for their wrongs, the vengeance of the slave
on the oppressor ; but it is only with his life, that the holy fire in the heart
of the artizan, prompting to free thought, free speech, free discussion, free
combination, and free action in all things, not infringing on the freedom of
his fellow-men ; — it is only with his life that the sacred fire can be extin-
guished.

The law of human nature is — progress. In consonance with this law,
the Irish people, becoming gradually more amalgamated with the English,
have become more united. They have gradually acquired the habit of

G

44

The State Trials.

giving form and consistence to the expression of their opinions and grie-
vances. Even though all the individuals in a crowd possess the powers of
speech and reason, they cannot, to any purpose, speak in common. They
must appoint leaders, delegates, orators, rhetoricians, to expound their
general views and thoughts, precisely as a member of Parliament represents a
number of men in a city or county. All this arrangement of persons is called
the "machinery," from its analogy to certain mechanical processes, and
without this machinery no public question could go on. " Order is heaven's
first law ;" and that the Irish people have been enabled to organise machi-
nery for working public questions, while abandoning the appeals to brute
force, is the strongest of all proofs of their moral progress. They abstain
from strife, they abstain from drunkenness, their most besetting sins, under
the influence of moral as well as political leaders. Call the motive fanati-
cism, or by any other name, still there remains the unquestionable fact that
the Irish have become a people capable of combination for a general ad-
vantage. That they were not formerly capable of this, was the cause of
their internal strife, was the cause that the Saxon men, capable of combi-
nation, marched in under Strongbow, and within the short space of two years
subjugated the country. If, at that period, there had been a fusion of the
two races, by bringing half the Irish to England, and replacing them with
Saxons, the curse of misgovernment would have disappeared ; and Ireland
would at this day have been in no way distinguishable from England in general
prosperity. The distinction, the broad distinction, between the civilized
man and the savage is, that the former is capable of foregoing a present
enjoyment for the sake of a greater future good ; while the latter will sacri-
fice his whole future to grasp a temporary excitement. The same difference
exists in nations.

With food in surplus, even though it were potato food, which that
sturdy, prejudiced, prose poet, Cobbett, was accustomed to designate as a
mechanical mixture of " earth, straw, water, and sand" — with a surplus
even of such food, Ireland might have remained tranquil, might have slum-
bered on in vegetative inactivity ; but the law that " man shall go forth and
replenish the earth" has ensured the multiplication of human mouths. The
water-walled land filled up gradually with people, when wars had ceased to
decimate them. In spite of the flow of coarse labour into England, Ireland
was filled with people to overflowing. As the trees of the wild forest
press upon, and extirpate each other, the weaker yielding to the stronger,
so does the wild man or the thoughtless man — for they are synonymous —
press on his neighbour. The ignorant lords of the soil did not foresee this
natural result. Their rents arose from the letting of national land in po-
tato patches, and not from the cultivation of farms by instructed men.
The land was put up to auction to the highest bidders, and let for rents
which it was not possible for pauper tenants, without capital, to pay.*
The tenants were mere slaves of the soil. Competition went on,, and the
population went on increasing, till a full meal of wholesome potatoes be-
came a luxury, till the wholesome potatoes were kept for selling to pay
rent, while their producers were fed on an insufficient amount of unwhole-
some " lumpers." Nature did her work in her own way, and for the
decimation of war was substituted the decimation of typhus fever, brought
on by insufficient food, clothing, warmth, and shelter. The steaming bodies
of rag-drenched paupers were habitually laid in unseemly contiguity in filthy
hovels for the sake of attaining warmth — a warmth fitted to generate putri-
dity, but not to maintain vitality.

Violence of all kinds returned ; clan was armed against clan, as amongst
the red tribes of America : parish against parish, neighbour against neigh-
bour, for the gain of one was another's loss. The conviction came home
to the minds of the lords of the soil, that competitors for food might be in
excess ; that the privilege of the monopoly of the supply of food was of no
advantage when the food consumers had no means of paying for it. The
"improvers" of estates resorted to summary process. The wretched people
their neglect had called into existence, were "cleared off" the estates like
noxious vermin, and driven forth to seek shelter where they could. Like
red Indians, they sought occasional vengeance by massacring those who
had driven them forth from potato grounds — not the lords of the soil, but
the industrious farmers who rented the lands they had lost.

In all this, religious antipathy was only a circumstance, not a cause. The
dominators — the Protestants or Orangemen — were hated by the dominated,
the Catholics — not as Protestants, but as tyrants, as unjust and oppressive
rulers. A serf may have reverence for a kindly master, while well-fed ; but
it is impossible that a starving slave should do other than hate a cruel mas-
ter.

The modern Poor Law, which was resorted to in England to prevent the
increase of a population, to whom the English law-makers were unwilling

* Tlie Marquis of Normanby has stated in the House of Lords, on the autho-
rity of Mr. Wiggins, an agent, both for English and Irish estates, that " where the
produce of an Irish farm was ISO/., the share of the landlord was 100/., or two-
thirds; while in England, where the produce of a farm was 300/., the share of the
landlord, in the shape of rent, was 100/., or one-third. The burdens on land in
England were double those in Ireland. In England they would be 40/., and in
Ireland 20/. ; therefore the share received for the tenant in England, out of 300/.,
was 1G0Z. ; while the share of the Irish tenant was only 30/. out of 150/. This
would seem to indicate that Irish land only produces one-half the crop of English
land ; and that Irish landlords are one-balf more ignorant than English landlords.
It is not marvellous that Irish paupers abound.

[February,

to grant a free supply of food — the Poor Law was applied to Ireland. This
is just. The lords of the soil have bred a pauper population, with
scarcely any earthly possession beyond a mouth and limbs, and without any
means of acquiring the decent appliances of civilized humanity. With
estates and natural advantages capable of maintaining double the amount
of population, the lords of the soil have shown themselves too ignorant to
administer those estates for the general benefit of the community. Tn<ise
estates, so far as they go, must be saddled with the maintenance of the
children of the soil, and if not in the hands of their owners, why then in
other hands. The men who cannot must give place to the men who can.
The State must administer land which cannot maintain its own poor. Nor
does this apply exclusively to the Irish estates. If the Irish parishes cannot
maintain their own poor, they must be joined on to the English parishes.
London and Westminster must supply the deficiencies of Dublin. Munster
cum Middlesex, Leinster cum Lincoln. Ireland is an integral part of Bri-
tain, virtually made so by Strongbow, legislationally made so by Pitt.
England and Ireland are like Siamese twins. Disease in the one must
produce suffering in the other. If the joint legislature determined, that a
surplus population shall have no food grown in foreign lands, the soil owners
must be content to see the produce of their home lands divided fairly amongst
the paupers ; for it is an undoubted principle that a man born has a right
to live, if he can ; if not at his own cost, at the cost of his neighbours. It
may be wise and just to deter men from producing paupers, but men born
are entitled to life, and the means of living ; and it is a crime of murder to
compass their deaths or extinction, either by the direct process of slaying,
or the indirect process of starving.

The gradual modification of the Irish people by the infusion of fresh
blood exhibited itself, from time to time, in the upspringing of leaders capableof
organising those who became capable of organization. The Grattans, Currans,
Joys, Floods, Plunkets, Bushes, and Saurins, were assuredly neither " kernes
nor gallowglasses." They were not men to advocate physical force. They
knew it must be unavailing ; that a struggle between organised systematic
power, and mere passionate impulse, could only end in a slaughter of the
weaker parties. But they could not hold the fiery passions in check; and
the deaths of the gallant Emmett and Fitzgerald, with many others, as brave
but less high-minded, only showed the fruitless nature of the struggle, of
a weak majority against a powerful minority — Catholics against Orangemen.
Ireland was again reduced to the position of a conquered country, and a
long term of years was needful to tranquillize her. The best thing that
could happen for her, under all circumstances, took place. She was amal-
gamated with England by the Act of Union, and Pitt, mischievous as he
was in many respects, was yet clear-sighted enough to see that the wisest
policy was to make Catholics and Protestants equal in all points. But he
could not carry his object. The conquerors were afraid of the conquered,
and kept them under by processes similar to those that Norman William
used to keep down the Saxons.

The Irish were unjustly treated after the Union ; treated, not as fellow-
citizens, but as a conquered people. A not very logical idea has thereupon
grown up in Irish minds, that all their national evils are owing to the Union,
as though no such evils had existed before the Union. From time to time,
the rallying cry of an aggrieved people has been "Repeal of the Union."
One man, fitted by nature to be the chief of an impulsive and unreasoning
people has, at length, taken charge of the national excitement, to swim in
its stream, and guide it wherever practicable, to produce the greatest national
advantage, according to his views. To call Mr. O'Connell an " agitator" is
a misnomer. The true designation is Moderator. The Irish agitate them-
selves ; they are as prone to it as the French, by nature ; but they have
ample reason for agitation. They are oppressed and misgoverned ; and any
people capable of sitting down, unrepiningly, under oppression, lack the
principle of progress. Mr. O'Connell has had many rallying cries, in
order to keep up excitement, and at the same time to repress action. The
skill of a practised pleader has been exerted to keep the imaginations of a
whole people continually on the stretch, and latterly it has been turned into
a single channel, to the pursuit of one object, the least likely of all others
to be achieved, and therefore the least troublesome to work on — the " Repeal
of the Union." A never-ending, still-beginning theme.

The argument is, that forty years back the representatives of Ireland, in the
Irish Parliament — in the words of Mr. O'Connell —

" The servants of the nation destroyed our existence as a nation, and added to
the baseness of assassination all the guilt of high treason. . . . The Union had
injustice for its principle, and crime for its basis. . . . The Union was, there-
fore, a manifest injustice, and it continues to be unjust at this day. It was a
crime, and must still be criminal, unless it shall be ludicrously considered that
crime, like wine, improves by old age, and that time mollifies injustice into inno-
cence. . . . England, at a period when, out of 100,000 seamen in her service,
70,000 were Irish, England stole upon us, like a thief in the night, and robbed us'
of the precious gem of our liberty. . . . Our enemies revived every antiquated
cause of domestic animosity, and invented new pretexts of rancour ; but, above all,
my countrymen, they belied and calumniated us to each other; and they continued
to repeat that assertion till we came to believe it. They succeeded in producing
all the madness of party and religious distinction ; and, while we were lost in the
stupor of insanity, they plundered us of our country, and left us to recover at our
leisure from the horrid delusion into which we had been so artfully conducted.
. . . I would be glad to see the face of the man, or rather beast, who would
dare to say he thought the Union wise or good — for the being who could say so

1844.]

The State Trials.

45

must be destitute of all the feelings that distinguish humanity. With the know-
ledge that such were the sentiments of the universal Irish nation, how does it
happen that the Union has lasted ten years?"

This speech was spoken by Mr. O'Connell, in the year 1810. He speaks
in the same strain now. He execrates the Saxons and extols the Celts, he ad-
vocates exclusive dealings and the exclusive use of Irish manufactures. He
advises the Irish people to wear dear clothing, instead of cheap, in order to
be national. If he be earnest in this, and there is no reason to doubt him,
he has shown good reason why the Union should be maintained. If he, one
of the foremost men in Ireland, betrays such narrow nationality, descending to
such petty warfare, on Saxon cloth and Saxon coaches, what must be expected
after the " repeal?" The smallest thing would be, the expulsion of all En-
glish, Welsh, and Scotch " foreigners'' from Ireland, and then a " repu-
diation " of any share in the national debt. Saxon England contracted it, let
Saxon England pay it.

According to Mr. O'Connell's own showing, the Union was effected by the
baseness of an Irish Parliament and the dissensions of the Irish people. There
is nothing in this more than occurred at the original conquest in the reign of
Henry the Second. It was the baseness of an Irish, a Celtic chief, and the
dissensions of the Irish tribes, that let in Strongbow ; and if the Union were to
be repealed to-morrow, the probable result would be a paltry thwarting of the
greater country by the lesser, a renewal of provincial dissensions, a war be-
tween the north and south in which the north would be the victors, and an
application for a fresh alliance with England on the part of the victors, with
a possible chance of France taking part in the struggle. For the union for
repeal, is a union of nationality not a union of calm reflection, not a settled
conviction. It is a union of a passionate people, more bent on conquering
a fancied enemy than on benefiting themselves. The repeal of the union be-
tween England and Ireland once accomplished, would be the signal for un-
twisting a rope of sand in Ireland. Food would not be increased in quantity
by repeal, and scarcity of food is the most powerful source of misery and dis-
pute. They would probably be freed from the operation of Customhouse
laws, but a people without commodities to sell, would not be in a condition
to buy the commodities of others.

If Ireland was " robbed of her liberty," as Mr. O'Connell asserts, it is at
least a proof that she had not strength to maintain herself as a nation. If a
lapse of forty years is insufficient to expiate the theft, what length of time is
sufficient to constitute a right ? All nations that we know of commenced in
violence. The weaker became merged in the stronger. If forty years — which
was about the term of life, when the value of life was less — if forty years
will not confer a permanent right, will sixty ? will a hundred ? If Ireland
has a right to reclaim her nationality, why not Wales ? why not Scotland ?
why not the Heptarchy, Essex, Wessex, the kingdom of Mercia ? Why
should not Ulster, Munster, Leinster and Connaught, resume their ancient
freedom ? The Isles of Man, of Bute, of Arran, every separate island of the
Hebrides, the Channel islands, were all of them probably at one period or other
independent states, and so was the Isle of Wight. We know that the Isle of
Man was annexed to the crown of England by its last chief or leader, for a
consideration in money. Why should not the people of Man rise up and de-
mand a repeal of their union ?

There is but one answer. It is a law of nature, both in the vegetable and
animal kingdoms, that the weak should give way to the strong. Power is the
chief element in human progress. Power is the essence of order. Might is
the original creator of right. In social life, to be powerless is to be depend-
ent. Mental power is stronger than physical ; and in the feudal or clannish
state, the strongest brains attained the masterdom, as they do now. The brains
that could maintain order, maintained sway. The captains over fifties gave
place to the captains over hundreds. The chiefs of large states dictated to the
chiefs of small ones. The tendency of streams and brooks is to be absorbed
in rivers. The tendency of the people of small islands is to be dependent on
the people of large ones, for the strongest people settle in the most eligible
spots. If a weak people settle in an eligible spot in a crowded neighbourhood,
they are rapidly encroached on by their stronger neighbours. Malays drive
out negroes, Europeans drive out Malays. White men drive out red men.
In a too crowded social state, to be weak is to be vicious. Deceit supplies
the place of strength, and treachery begets suspicion. Ignorant children re-
quire restraint for their own sakes. If those whose office it is to restrain
them, are too irritable and impatient, or too unphilosophic, to lead and guide
them, the relation becomes that of master and slave. Guided or coerced they
must be ; there is no medium.

The history of Ireland is that of a weak nation. Hostile tribes engaged in
civil war called in strangers to help, and the strangers helped themselves, as
the Saxons did by Vortigern. Mr. O'Connell would fain make it appear that
the Irish are a strong nation, and that their evils are the result of untoward
circumstances. This is an error. Strong nations make circumstances, or
turn adventitious circumstances to good account. Weak nations become the
sport of circumstances. The Irish, the Welsh, the Bretons, are all examples
of weak and prejudiced people, obstinately refusing to amalgamate with their
strong neighbours, confirmed in their obstinacy by the coarse coercion which
has usurped the place of gentle guidance. The scenes enacted by repub-
lican France in weak and prejudiced La Vendee, are but a parallel to the scenes
enacted by monarchal England in weak and prejudiced Ireland. There was
a time when similar scenes were enacted in Wales. Resistance, in Wales, has
been for ages extinguished ; but the neglect of just rule, the oppression of irre-
sponsible power, aided by poverty and hunger, has lately roused even Wales

to insurrection, in which two hopeful circumstances have been shewn : the in
surrection was conducted with system, and was put down without cruelty —
proof of great social advance since the days of the insurrections in Ireland and
La Vendee. But if efficient measures are not taken to feed the hungry and
remove poverty from their dwellings, outbreaks and murders will become
perennial in Wales as in Ireland.

It is a disgrace to civilised England, that the only principle of government
resorted to in Ireland has been the " keeping under " principle. The Irish
government has been a huge police establishment, not a school of national in-
struction and guidance. English landlords have drawn large rents from the
labour of Irish tenants, but have failed to teach them the arts of civilised life
and the principles of social economy. The landlords have exacted what they
call their rights — their rents ; but, failing in the discharge of the correspond-
ing duties, those rights have degenerated into gross wrongs.

Let not the English people, let not the English artizans, lay the flattering
unction to their souls, that the fault is the fault of the Government, and not
their fault :

" He who permits oppression shares the crime."

A brother's blood crieth out as loudly on them from the ground, whether
they be the actual murderers, or the abettors and harbourers of the mur-
derers.

We have deemed it right to record our opinion of the faults and weaknesses
of the Irish character, but not the less do we give our testimony to its higher
qualities. Ferocious as enemies, Irishmen are warm and attached friends.
Devoid of caution, they are full of enthusiasm. With little knowledge of the
principles of justice, they abound in generosity. Unsound in logic, they
overflow with rhetoric. Poor, from imprudence, yet hospitable to the stranger.
Unapt thinkers, yet cheerful companions. We would rather eat our social
meal with an Irish kern than with an English churl ; with an Irish lawyer
than with one of Cobbett's " Scotch feelosophers ;" with Daniel O'Connell
than with Robert Peel.

That Mr. O'Connell possesses the Irish virtues, is the secret of his power.
That he possesses not the mind of a statesman, is the secret of his weakness.
He is an Irish chieftain ; a kind of patriarchal Irish judge, who in earlier
days might have been an Irish king, with sound counsellors at his back.
That he is not a statesman, his own speeches give the best evidence. They oc-
casionally read more like the scolding of an Irish fishwife than the thoughts
of a legislator. He is a patriot in the narrow sense of the term, possessing a
patriotism such as a pirate might possess for his " rocky isle;'' a love for
Ireland rather than a love for humanity ; a love for Celts in opposition to
Saxons, and withal an odd kind of attachment for legitimate royalty in the
abstract. To impute to him a republican propensity is simply absurd. He
has praised all kings and queens in succession, and the last most. The Fourth
George he took into especial favour on his visit to Ireland, and was thus im-
mortalized by Byron :

" Wear, Fingal, thy trapping ! O'Connell, proclaim

His accomplishments! His!'.! and thy country convince
Half an age's contempt was an error of Fame,

And that ' Hal ' is the rascalliest, Bweetest young Prince !"

In 1844 he says in his speech in his defence, " I, for one, believe, that
Europe will never be perfectly safe until that (the elder) branch of the Bourbons
is restored — restored upon the principles upon which the monarchy of 1688
was restored." Assuredly Mr. O'Connell is no republican.

But with all his faults, he has rendered a signal service to humanity. He
has taught the Irish nation to abstain from physical force. He has taught
them order and organization ; and if any one comes after him who can keep up
that order and organization, it may grow into a habit, and when that is the
case Ireland will cease to be unhappy. No matter what may be the induce-
ment to be orderly and to exercise self control ; even though it be a bad induce-
ment, the habit of self control once engendered may be turned to good pur-
poses. The discipline of the mind is the first step to mental excellence.

And for doing this work well, for devoting his life to arouse attention to
the wrongs of Ireland, for changing the people of Ireland from weapon-
wielders into speech- listeners; for doing the very work which of all others is
the work of civilization, changing physical force into mental power, for doing
the very work which it is the business of a good government, of any govern-
ment but a mere police government, to get executed, the work which a go-
vernment is appointed to execute, the work which even the despotic govern-
ments of the Continent do to a certain extent execute ; for doing this work,
the existing government of the most powerful nation in the universe has set
every engine in motion to find Mr. O'Connell guilty of a conspiracy, and
bring his grey hairs to the grave, in the narrowed atmosphere of a prison. A
police government, competent only to coerce, and not to instruct, regards
with envy and distrust the man whose genius has achieved popularity, by
combining a disunited nation in a common cause, and seeks to crush him under
insidious pretexts. Shame ! eternal shame ! on the English race, if they do
not champion this cause to the uttermost, disowning the ensnarers, and rend-
ing the toils they have coiled around a popular leader and teacher.

We have written thus far to set clearly before our readers the causes of Irish
misery, and the processes which have made O'Connell a man of more power
than even the hereditary kings he is so prone to worship ; which have given
him a large revenue from the voluntary contributions of rich and poor alike ;
which have made him the arbiter of private disputes, like an Eastern potentate
sitting at his palace porch and dispensing justice. We do not object to the

46

The State Trials.

[February,

measures taken by the Government, to maintain peace, if they really believed
it likely to be disturbed by the Repealers. It is the business of a government,
even though it be not merely a police government, to preserve order, and by
an imposing force to prevent even the attempt at violence. No permanent ad-
vantage can ever accrue to a people from violence. That which is won by the
sword may be lost by the sword. That which is won by unbiased public
opinion, can never be lost, till that public opinion shall change ; always sup-
posing that opinion to be the opinion of a majority, whether of a nation or of
nations. Even if the opinion of a majority be wrong in principle, still it
must rule, till such time as better opinions shall obtain the mastery. We now
proceed to analyse the trial, and its conduct.

In striking the list of the special jury, there were but thirteen Liberals out
of forty-eight, and but eleven Roman Catholics. The imputation rested on
the Government that, either from accident or design, the list did not contain
the full number that ought to have been included in it ; for which reason it was
protested against by the defendants or traversers. The officers for the Crown
struck off all the Catholics and one liberal Englishman. As the defendants were,
with one exception, Catholics, it is therefore manifest that it was to that ex-
tent a trial by a party and not a trial by their peers. We in no way impugn
the conscientiousness of the verdict of the jury, but it would have looked better
had the Crown officers permitted at least twelve out of the twenty-four jurors
to be Catholics. The moral effect of the verdict is destroyed by such a pro-
ceeding.

On the first day of the trial, the persecuted popular champion was conveyed
to court in the state carriage of the Lord Mayor, amidst the shouts of the
populace. Successful or not as they might be in the result of the trial, it was
an ill omen for the Government that their destined victim should pass to the scene
of accusation, not as a criminal, but as an apostle. The days of Emmett and
Fitzgerald were gone never to return. The Orange power was withered.

In the Attorney-General's opening speech, he read an article from the
Nation, of rather eloquent declamatory writing, but devoid of logic — an ar-
gument for a fight — rhetorical, but not convincing — a display of
" Valour, like light straw in flame,
A fierce but fading fire."
He read another article from Mr. Duffy's paper on the " morality of war,"
which appears sound in principle, and well expressed ; a paper, which it
would have been very creditable to a government to issue.

The verbal evidence brought forward was chiefly that of newspaper re-
porters and policemen. It literally proves nothing but that there were meet-
ings of large numbers of an excitable people, and that some of the orations
were seasoned with language known under the slang term "spicy." The
worst feature of the whole is the speech of O'Connell at Mullaghmast, pan-
dering to the prejudices of race, at the same time that there was circulating
in the crowd a halfpenny paper, called " The full and true account of the
dreadful slaughter and murder at Mullaghmast;" giving an account of a
slaughter of Irishmen by Englishmen in the days of Bloody Mary. The
comments in the paper were of the most mischievous kind.

" Tcutones and Celts, the races of the two countries are different ; like acids, they
cannot meet without one neutralizing the other. For this reason, as well as num-
berless others, it is necessary that the parliaments of the two countries should be
separate, and the inhabitants of each be brought as little into collision with each
other as possible. From the first to last, the Caucasian lords, from whom the
Saxons are descended that rushed on Europe, and, as if hell had broken loose, for
years barbarously desolated it, were a predatory race ; bloody of mind, treacherous
of disposition, and savage in propensities; possessing little of the refinement, and
scarcely any of the arts, that distinguish people of Eastern origin; a taste that
spreads such a halo over fallen Greece, and which once characterised and will again
illuminate Ireland. The descendants of this race, like animals of the different
species, inherit the different passions of their parents; and as nations as well as
animals have each peculiar propensities, England may be called the tiger of all —
possessing the insatiable thirst for human blood, the stealthy paw and piercing
talons of the brute which is tameable alone through fear. On this account, those
who know either the one or the other — either England or the tiger — will not, like
the unfortunate people of Mullaghmast, trust to their clemency or 'mercy, but be
prepared, with the hard hand and iron heel, to meet, strike down, tread upon, and
subdue their butchering appetite."

Very Celtic, very declamatory, very enthusiastic, and very unsound in all
its inferences, is this paper. " Like acids, they will not amalgamate, nor
cannot meet without one neutralizing the other." That they have met in
England, that they have amalgamated, and have neutralized the respective evil
portions of each other, is probably the reason, of all others, why the English
power, and English civilization, are spreading over the earth. Saxon strength,
and Celtic refinement, are commingled. It is this very union of the qualities
of the two races that constitutes that very fine specimen of humanity, the
Irish Gentleman, who is in no way to be distinguished from the English
Gentleman, unless where circumstances have given a peculiar accent to the
voice. It is certain that the Celt preponderates in Mr. O'Connell ; but it is
simply ludicrous in him, trained to Saxon law and Saxon literature, wearing
Saxon garments, and speaking the Saxon language, — a man, in short, made
up of Saxon acquirements, and who, if reduced to his Celtic qualities and
acquirements, would become only a mere wild man, a " mere Irish" — it is
a kind of Irish bull in him to affect to abjure the Saxons. To work out the
matter thoroughly, he should commence by numbering and registering the
Irish people, — setting aside all those with Saxon blood in their veins, un-

teaching the remainder the English language, and bringing up the children to
speak Erse, and reviving all purely Irish antiquities. Mr. O'Connell cannot
disguise from himself that all this is a mere theatrical display ; but it is not
the less mischievous in its effect on the minds of an uneducated people. It
is the kind of thing that tends to prevent English capital from flowing into
Ireland to employ Irish labour. A single irritated Celt might destroy the
manufactory which employed a thousand of his fellows.

The evidence for the prosecution clearly showed, that in all modes violence
was deprecated and denounced. Not even the irritation of an ordinary elec-
tion took place ; and the attempt to show military organization was an entire
failure.

Mr. Sheil's speech for the defence had for its scope to show that Ireland
was in a state of great prosperity just previous to the Union ; and that the
union was much opposed by many of the Irish leaders at the time. Mr.
Sheil's views of the advantages to accrue from a repeal of the Union, are
peculiarly Irish.

" This city would appear in renovated splendour. Your streets would he
shaken by the roll of the gorgeous equipages in which the first nobles of the coun-
try would be borne to the senate-house, from which the money-changers should be
drivon. The mansions of the aristocracy would blaze with that useful luxury
which ministers to the gratification of the affluent, and to the employment and the
comforts of the poor. The sovereign herself would not deem the seat of her par-
liament unworthy of her residence. The frippery of the vice-regal court would he
swept away. We should look upon royalty ilself, and not upon the tinsel image.
We should behold the Queen of England, of Ireland, and of Scotland, in all the
pomp of her imperial regality, with a diadem — the finest diadem in the world —
glittering upon her brow, while her countenance beamed with the expression of that
sentiment which becomes the throned monarch better than the crown. We should
see her accompanied by the Prince, of whom it is the highest praise to say that he
has proved himself to be not unworthy of her."

An odd notion Mr. Sheil seems to entertain of Irish prosperity. Is it that
the sound of the " roll of the gorgeous equipages," and the sight of " the
finest diadem in the world" — all real diamonds — would increase the amount
of potatoes, or make " lumpers" more wholesome ? None of your " tinsel,"
but all real royalty. The smell of the taste of the sound of a man's thoughts
would be a fine thing for an Irish Barmecide dinner.

The speech of Mr. Whiteside was an admirable specimen of the highest
kind of legal oratory. He pointed out, in a single sentence, the whole gist
of the trial : —

" One man is sought to be affected here, not by what he has himself done,
spoken, and committed, but by what other men have done, spoken, and com-
mitted."

The nature of the charge by the Attorney- General is forcibly stated, as
well as the principle of the Government movement.

" I require the Attorney-General, since they have at the other side, in the pro-
gress of the trial, put questions to us, to state to you whether he requires twelve
men, administering the law of England as it exists, to adopt that monstrous pro-
position laid down by the Attorney-General, that the more profound the tran-
quillity of these meetings — the greater the peace — the more perfect the order. — the
greater is the illegality ; the greater the determination not to violate the law, the
more incontestable is the proof of conspiracy. If men say, we will not violate the
law, and act up to that expressed intention, and seek to carry on a legal object by
legal means, without assailing personal liberty or property, I want to know how the
several circumstances of those meetings can be brought by any rational or just ar-
gument as proof of the conspiracy laid down in that indictment. Gentlemen, I
may say with truth that these meetings of the people are disliked both by kings
and their ministers. For men born to command dislike hearing the language of
the people, expressing, perhaps in tones of indignation, their grievances or their
wrongs. Such sounds startle their ears, and discompose the serenity of a court ;
when the people meet together to complain of grievances, and state that they are
badly governed, they thereby pronounce a censure, more or less warm, upon the
ministers who direct the government of the country — upon men who are, more or
less, affected by public opinion. It involves a censure, and they dislike the de-
monstration. Any meeting of a trifling nature, so far as numbers are concerned,
will be allowed to pass unobjected to."

We cannot refrain from quoting the following clear view of the question
of public meetings : —

" Suppose the twelve gentlemen whom I have the honour to address agreeing
upon any one question — a fiscal question, or any other in which they maybe inte-
rested— hold a meeting. Let your facts be the most convincing, your reasoning
the most just, still your meeting is treated with contempt by the press — your ob-
servations produce no effect upon the minister. Let twelve hundred of the same
class of men meet, with the same object in view, and the reporters will flock to
hear you, aud your arguments will reach the public — your resolutions will find
their way to the minister of the day ; he begins to see what is the hearing of the
public mind upon a public question, and his slowly-moved nature begius to be
affected. But, suppose 1,200,000 meet, and exhibit determination and resolution
in the pursuit of their object — meet three, four, and five times, and state in plain,
unmistakable terms, that the minister must consider their cause of complaint — that
he must discuss it with them — the attention of the government will be awakened to
your wants. And, let me tell you, you would not be conspirators because you
agreed to one common object ; and you would not be made conspirators if one of
those ^assembled used violent and foolish language, or if an incendiary, or spy,

1841]

The State Trials.

should spread through the congregated mass seditious matter which was hrought
home to you as having heen connected with it in act or language. And, gentle-
men, the humbler classes of the community (to call them rabble is the heiglii of inso-
lence), who have not, in their several individual positions in life, the same moral
weight as each of you, must compensate for the want of it by the addition of num-
bers in their meetings ; and if the reporters that came here from England were
astonished at the peace, order, and good manners, exhibited by those savages who
inhabit this part of the empire — if the peasantry of Ireland at those meetings con-
ducted themselves better, as one of the witnesses said, than the British House of
Commons — I will cot say that they are more orderly than the House of Commons,
as that House is now sitting — but if the people are so well conducted at those
meetings, then these assemblages are as legal as yours would be, gentlemen of the
jury, though so different in numbers."

It is said that Mr. Whiteside is a Conservative. If the party would sub-
scribe to the opinions he has thus clearly stated, the whole community would,
ere long, be Conservatives also.

The speech of Mr. O'Connell himself was in good taste, and devoid of his
usual style of oratory. He appealed fairly and manfully to the jury.

In the charge to the jury, the Chief Justice used the following remarkable
phrase : —

" I say, there are crimes like the present — by saying so I do not mean to antici-
pate—no, God forbid !"

A jury formed from an imperfect list : — a jury formed to try Catholics,
and from which all the Catholics had been excluded by the prosecutors : — a
lapsus Ungues on the part of the judge, pronouncing a half sentence, and then
disclaiming it, previous to the verdict ! It is not possible that such a trial,
or such a verdict, should carry moral weight. O'Connell is acquitted of all
crime by the community at large, though the jury have found him guilty.

After a careful perusal of the whole trial, we come to the conclusion that
Mr. O'Connell neither desires nor expects repeal of the Union ; that he con-
templates no revolution but a moral one ; and that he has gathered together
his meetings on the principle so well set forth by Jeremy Bentham,

" It is only by making the ruling few uneasy, that the oppressed many can hope
for a particle of redress."

The Chief Justice, in his charge to the jury, lays down the rule, that the
ruling few are never to be made uneasy.

" Suppose the parties all went to those great meetings, in ever such great masses
and multitudes — suppose they went without arms — suppose they conducted them-
selves with great propriety — suppose no breach of the peace was committed — and
suppose there was no tendency to a breach of the peace,- — all these facts might
concur towards the establishment of the innocence of that meeting; but, gentlemen
of the jury, that meeting might have been an illegal assembly ; and every party
who went to that meeting might be convicted, if they concurred in the objects of
the meeting. Suppose the object of collecting these hundreds and thousands of per-
sons was not for the purpose of committing a breach of the peace — suppose it had
an ulterior and more remote object — suppose it was for the purpose, not of terri-
fying the neighbours by what was done, or intended to be done, by the persons
assembling at that meeting — but suppose that the persons who had collected that
mass and multitude together, did so for the purpose of making a demonstration of
immense force and physical power, guided and actuated by the will and command
of the person who has caused that multitude to assemble — suppose they had no in-
tention of disturbing the peace, but that they met for the purpose of exhibiting to
those with whom they had to do — to those who were the legal legislators of the
country, and that his object in calling all those people together — his object in as-
sembling, dispersing, and calling them, was to do that with the greatest possible
notoriety. Suppose he did it in the open day, when all the world could see and
hear him, and that his object was to overawe the legislature, who are likely to have
to consider certain political subjects in which he was interested, and for the pur-
pose of deterring the legislature and the government of the country from a free,
cool, and deliberate judgment on the subject — if that were his object in causing and
procuring that demonstration, then, gentlemen, I say that that is an illegal object
in him, and in all who concur and agree with him in the procuring of such means."

If this principle can be made the law in Ireland, it can readily be trans-
ferred to England ; and if it becomes law in England, farewell justice — fare-
well progress. Almost all governments, and more especially police govern-
ments, have a tendency to pedantry , to consider themselves perfect, and to
reject with contempt any endeavour on the part of the ruled to show them
they are not perfect. Mr. Rowland Hill has tried hard, for some time, to
convince the English Government that the Post-office arrangements are not
perfect; and his only progress has been, by making the Post-office authori-
ties " uneasy." Finality is a pet phrase with the members of Government ;
as though, in a changing world, any thing could be final ! Improvements do
not originate with governments, and are only forced on them by time ; and,
where an improvement is for the benefit of the many, and not of the few, it
is the most firmly resisted. There was one final country in the world, whose
rulers said, " We have arrived at perfection, and will have no changes."
Even that country — China — has at length been forced to yield, and consent
to go onward. How was it accomplished ? By external circumstances. It
could not remain shut out from the rest of the world. " The pressure from
without" forced it into contact with improving men.

Forms of government were made by men ; by the majority of men ; and
the majority of men are, therefore, competent to unmake them. If the prin-

ciple be once established, that a government is paramount to all other autho-
rity, and that it is not legal to meet in numbers to express the will of the
majority, the reign of brute force must inevitably return, unless we suppose
that government an incarnation of the principles of truth and justice — in
short, an emanation of the Divinity. We have not come to that pass yet.

A great cause is now on its trial in England. People are starving ; and a
large body of men assert that the misery is a result of certain mischievous
laws affecting the supply of food ; which laws have been made to keep up
the rents of the landholders. The landholders are the law-makers, by hold-
ing the monopoly of land : the right to vote for law-makers being vested in
tenantry under their control. They therefore treat with contempt all argu-
ments opposed to their interests. If it be a breach of the law to meet in
numbers, to influence them to alter the laws, and they can punish with impri-
sonment those who meet, can, in short, make new laws to punish with death,
if they please, society will resolve itself into its first elements. If the op-
posers of the laws be a minority, they must submit under any circumstances ;
but if a minority be debarred from expressing its opinions, new opinions can
never be formed. They will be nipped in the bud by the existing govern-
ment, and a Chinese empire established, to go on for a given period, till its
vitality be decayed, and the land and people fall a prey to some stronger
nation.

To ensure the vitality of a nation, perfect freedom of discussion must exist
throughout the whole nation. The extension of the suffrage to all competent
persons, though a justice, is of far less importance than free public discussion.
With a universally educated people — a subject we propose discussing at a
future time — suffrage as universal should exist ; and private discussion would
enable much public discussion to be dispensed with ; but, with a limited suf-
frage, thought must express itself in words, or it will infallibly express itself
in deeds, of a ruder kind than the registration of names at the polling-booth.
The majority of a nation — i. e. the power and influence of a nation, whether
it consist of numbers, or intellect, or wealth, or of all combined — must have
its will respected. If that majority decide that the constitution shall be
changed, it must be changed ; for the constitution can have no power save in
prestige, in opinion. The real meaning of the respect paid to the constitu-
tion, is the belief that it is synonymous with Truth, with Justice, and with
the equal rights growing out of them. Make it a sham constitution, repre-
senting Falsehood and Injustice, and the bond of society will be severed. The
Irish agitation is a practical example of the results of a sham constitution.

The fallacy of the repeal consists in this. England and Ireland have been
so long joined together, that they have become part and parcel of each
other. Ireland has been misgoverned and misused, but so has Wales ; such
has been the case with all agricultural districts. England herself has been
misused generally ; but there would be no wisdom, or justice in her separate
agitation for her own wrongs, apart from Ireland and Wales. If Mr.
O'Connell can get the majority of the population of the whole empire to
resolve on the repeal of the Union between England and Ireland, we do not
see how any government can refuse it. Nay ; if the majority of the whole
empire should come to the conclusion that a republican form of government
would be the best, we see nothing that would prevent it. But we are of
opinion, that the disadvantages would far outweigh any advantages that
could accrue from either of these changes. The tendency of the age is to
consolidate small things into large, not to break up large things into small.
Bazaars supply the place of shops ; mills and manufactories supply the place
of the cottage and garret working system ; and even the American republic is
extending itself over the whole continent, absorbing petty states and pro-
vinces. But a large amount of injustice is perpetrated under the banner of the
Stars and Stripes, which has yet to be remedied. It is a curious spectacle to
behold Americans sympathizing with the wrongs which Ireland suffers under
English government, and O'Connell sympathizing with the wrongs the negroes
suffer under the American government.

With fair play, the power and influence of the state would mainly reside in the
great body of the artizans. They would at least maintain the balance of power
in their present condition, educated chiefly to the arts of physical progress.
Educated as they might be, and ought to be, they would become the patrons
of national progress. Poets, dramatists, musicians, painters, sculptors,
engravers, and the whole round of authors, could find no treasury so wealthy
as the surplus earnings of well-paid artizans, men of simple minds and vir-
tuous habits. It is the extent of the sale that constitutes the chief value of
the articles of sale, in a mercantile point of view.

Earnestly do we adjure them to band themselves together at the present
time for a purpose paramount to all others, to fight their own battle, in
throwing the shield of their power around the man who has championed their
dearest interests on the Irish soil. Let the high and noble English heart show
itself as the protector of the

" head
That rulers, flusli'd with conquest, aim to hit !"

Let the Saxon spirit of "fair play" speak out. Let the artizans meet
throughout England, in all districts, and require, not a pardon, but a quash-
ing of the verdict against O'Connell. He has fought the battle for the
right of the Irish people to discuss the best mode of relieving themselves
from the misery which it was the business of a government to prevent. He
has forced on the whole nation the necessity of relieving this misery by wise
legislation, and removing from amongst us au opprobrious plague-spot. He
has gallantly jeoparded his own freedom for the welfare of his native land,

48

Review of the Periodicals.

[February,

and if he has done it more in the spirit of a patriot chieftain than of a
world-wide legislator, if he has fought rather as a hrave partisan than as
a far-sighted general ; if the fault of early clannish training has made him an
advocate of race, an upholder of Celt against Saxon, instead of an upholder
of universal humanity ; let the English artizans remember that this is not
the moment to scan too closely his shortcomings. Let them generously up-
hold him against his foes; and thus show the people of Ireland, by practical
demonstration, that it was an ignorance and a prejudice on the parts of
the Irish leaders to represent the people of England as their enemies. Leav-
ing undischarged this claim of generosity, the English artizans will leave
unrazed a vantage-ground, whence, on a future occasion, they themselves
may be attacked. In such a cause, to be generous is to be wise. They
have yet many things to discuss publicly, many claims to assert, much that
will be slowly wrung from power and prejudice. Let them beware how they
suffer a barrier to be commenced, which may prevent the redress of their
own grievances.

We have this moment returned from the meeting of the Anti-Corn-Law
League at Covent Garden Theatre. A man of statistics was going through
the oft-repeated demonstration of the fallacies of the laws made to restrict
commerce. The audience were attentively listening, when there came gra-
dually stealing on the ear a distant shout ; it increased, louder and louder
yet, till the audience distinctly heard the name of O'Connell pronounced.
The ferment grew, the lecturer was impatiently listened to ; the chairman
addressed the meeting ; the lecture again commenced, when O'Connell ap-
peared at the side door, leading on to the platform. Then rose in one wild
uproar the voices of that dense mass of human beings, filling the huge build-
ing from floor to ceiling. Up they started to their feet, and the hollow
floors reverberated with their heavy tramp. From every spot, galleries,
boxes, pit, and stage, there was nothing seen but moving human limbs waving
hats and handkerchiefs, and straining eyes, bent on the man who had undergone
persecution in a public cause. Speech there was none ; heart spoke to heart
in generous, overflowing, spontaneous emotion. Eyes glistened, and voices
rung with wild huzzas, which were more than speech, for many minutes.
In that simultaneous action, in those stunning shouts, the noble English
mind pealed forth its fiat, " There shall be no oppression in our land."
Never was seen a more majestic, a more imposing sight. Peace, freedom,
moral might, fairness, justice — all were expressed in that universal outbreak.
There was no strife, no struggle ; it was the calm expression of resistless
power that no fallacy could deceive, no law oppress, no purpose overcome.
We would that the universal race of artizans could have beheld it ; for no
words of ours can do justice to the effect. People looked at each other,
but it was not with thought. It was emotion, feeling, strong purpose with-
out thought, as though they had arrived at conviction by inspiration.
O'Connell seemed overcome ; the latent sensibility of his nature seemed
aroused to the uttermost, and it was some time ere his speech gained the
ease and fluency of the practical orator. If there could have been one thing
better calculated than another to link the people of Ireland to the people
of England, it must be this reception of their champion. There was
no spirit of Saxon oppression under that roof; but there was the Saxon
love of freedom, the English determination to have might on the side of
right, to proclaim discussion the right of freemen.

We will not doubt that this is but the first of many expressions of English
feeling, which will go forth to the world to bid oppression cease.

Amongst the speeches which have been made in the House of Commons
on this subject, none has been more high toned, none more soundly logical,
than that of Mr. Macaulay.

Art. XIV.— ANALYSIS OP BOOKS.

REVIEW, OF THE PERIODICALS.

TJie London Journal, and Repertory of Arts, Sciences, and Manufactures.
No. CCXLVI.
The Repertory of Patent Inventions. No. XIV.
Of the specifications of patents contained in these two periodicals, devoted to that
particular object, only two are of so recent a date as those described in the Analysis
of Patents given in The Apprentice. Some of the others relate to inventions pa-
tented in 1840 ; which might as well have remained on the shelves of the Inrol-
ment Office, after so long a slumber. The scientific information with which these
periodicals are filled consists in the repertory of reports of old patent law cases,
which are of not much use, since they present but isolated views of the law bearing
on the subject of patents ; whilst the interest they might have excited, if of recent
occurrence, has altogether evaporated. The Journal gives, as its scientific news,
reports of the proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers at the commence-
ment of last year.

The Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, No. 157. The most re-
markable article in this number of the Philosophical, is Dr. Faraday's exposition of
his views respecting the nature of matter, which were announced recently at the
Royal Institution, and aie now presented by him in a printed form. The pecu-
liarities of Dr. Faraday's views are, that he denies the existence of space, and
also of matter itself, in the usual acceptation of the term. According to his
theory, all nature is a plenum, and the assumed ultimate atoms of bodies
are merely centres of force, according to the notions put forth by Boscovich iu
the last century. Dr. Faraday was led to this view of the nature of matter,

from the consideration of the cause of electric conduction in different bodies.
If, as generally assumed, the ultimate atoms of all bodies are separated by a sur-
rounding atmosphere from each other, that atmosphere, he asserts, must be either
a conductor or a non-conductor ; for it would envelop the solid particles, and form
a kind of net-work of space. Whether we take the particles of shell-lac, or of a
metal, it is difficult, he says, to explain why one should be a non-conductor of elec-
tricity, and the other a conductor, if the particles of both are, according to the
commonly received theory, surrounded by a net-work of space ; for the conducting
properties must be regulated by that of the communicating space which surrounds
them. Dr. Faraday would, therefore, literally " annihilate space." He assumes
further, that there are no solid particles or atoms kept apart by a surrounding at-
mosphere. Alluding to the difference between his theory — or rather of his revival
of Boscovich' s centres of force, and the ordinary consideration of matter, Dr. Fara-
day observes, " With the latter atoms, a mass of matter consists of atoms and in-
tervening space; with the former atoms, matter is everywhere present, and there
is no intervening space unoccupied by it. In gases the atoms touch each other just
as truly as in solids. In this respect the atoms of water touch each other, whether
that substance be in the form of ice, water, or steam ; no more intervening space is
present. Doubtless the centres of force vary in their distances from one another,
but that which is truly the matter of one atom touches the matter of its neighbour.
Hence matter will be continuous throughout ; and, on considering a mass of it, we
have not to suppose a distance between its atoms and intervening space. The
powers around the centres give those centres the properties of atoms of matter ; and
those powers, again, when many centres, by those conjoined forces, are grouped into
a mass, give to every part of that mass the property of matter." It would occupy
too much space in this department of our publication to discuss the merits of these
speculations ; which, indeed, belong rather to metaphysical mystification than to
physical science.

Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, No. CCCXL. — This number of Blackwood
contains a short article on Free Trade and Protection, in which the somewhat anti-
quated notions of protection to native produce and industry are advocated with great
vigour, and not a little unfairness. The writer would not, however, prohibit the
interchange of commodities, the produce of different nations; but it would seem,
from his views of the question, that all similar manufactures and produce ought to
be excluded. It is difficult, if protection be admitted as necessary, to draw the line
between protection and prohibition ; for when purely protective duties are imposed
on manufactures, without regard to revenue, there is no point short of prohibition
that would not be objected to by competing manufacturers at home. The writer
exhibits, in a tabular form, the decrease in our exports with certain countries, since
the introduction of the principles of free trade by Mr. Huskisson in 1833 ; but he
omits to state the great increase that has taken place in our manufactures, and the
additional exports to other countries consequent on those measures. The silk
manufacture affords a striking example of the effects of foreign competition in sti-
mulating our own exertions ; for, under a system of competition, that which was an
exotic branch of industry has become a staple manufacture of the country. The
writer remarks, that whilst England has been relaxing her commercial regulations,
the nations whose produce has been thus favoured, have been imposing more pro-
tective tariffs, and have assumed a more prohibitory system towards the manufac-
tures of this country. It is assumed, also, that in proportion as the government of
a country becomes democratic, its tariff against rival manufacturing nations will be
more rigorous. We regret, indeed, that this should be the case ; but we are sur-
prised that a periodical so distinguished for its advocacy of loyal and aristocratic
opinions should seek for support of any argument in the practice of democratic
governments. The narrow-minded and selfish policy of restriction should rather,
it would seem, have afforded an additional argument against trusting communities
with the government of their own affairs, than have been adduced in such a quarter
as an example for imitation.

Tlie Gentleman 's Magazine, Vol. XXL, No. 11. — There has been a great deal
written in this magazine, of late, respecting the " harmonic proportions of churches ;"
and a correspondent, who addresses " Mr. Urban" in the present number, makes a
proposition for settling the disputed points of church architecture by a council of
bishops. This method of deciding the question is really not so absurd as it appears ;
for now that articles of faith and modes of worship are considered to be involved in
certain styles of architecture, it is really desirable that it should be known, on good
authority, what parts of ancient Roman Catholic churches may be copied, and what
parts may not. If these questions were satisfactorily adjusted, one of the difficul-
ties that now beset architects in building churches might be removed ; for at
present they may make a beautiful, and seemingly appropriate design, and yet, when
the structure is finished, it may be pronounced papistical or heterodox, and be con-
sidered totally unfit for the purposes of public worship. These are, indeed, fasti-
dious times ; and it is to be hoped these sticklers for form do not let the substance
escape.

The Literary Gazette. — Prominent notice is given in the la6t monthly part of the
Literary Gazette to some new views of chemical elements, propounded by Dr.
Brown, and published by him in a small book, called " Two Processes for Silicon."
Now it must be understood that silex, or flint, under its chemical term silicon, is
considered one of the elements of matter : so also is charcoal, under the term car-
bon. There is but little resemblance between those substances; nevertheless Dr.
Brown contends that silicon may be produced from carbon, and that, consequently,
it is not an element. At this averment the chemists stare and sneer, because, in
all their systems, carbon and silicon are set down as distinct substances, incapable of
decomposition. Dr. Brown challenges inquiry ; but as he does not belong to the
learned societies in London, and has not an alphabet appended to his name, they
think it waste of time to accept his challenge, though he offers facts, and records
experiments, in support of his opinions.

1844.]

Marvels of the Day.

49

Art. XV.— MARVELS OF THE DAY.

From our own Correspondents.

Calcutta. — In accordance with the intimation at the conclusion of my last.
letter I now offer some remarks as to the most suitable ports for the Oriental
Company's steamers to touch at, on the Indian side of Suez, with the view of
testing the accuracy of the averments of the first article in the second number of
the Artizan, to which article I beg now to refer. And firstly, I perfectly agree
with you, that Cosseir is a far preferable " port of departure" than Suez ever can be,
unless indeed the canal across the isthmus be accomplished. At Cosseir, it ap-
peared to me that a pier might easily be built, as there are no reefs to mar the
efficacy of any such erection. The reef runs along the coast a little to the north-
ward of the small bay, immediately in front of the town; and I should think would
be rather an advantage than otherwise to the port.

The distance from Cosseir to Kennah is about 120 miles; thence to Boulac by
the Nile, about 480. One great objection to Suez appears to be the great expense
attending its coal depot, and although the extra navigation of the Nile, would
require a greater quantity of coal than has yet been supplied to the small steamers,
the expense attending its transit would be trifling, when compared with that of the
coal transported to Suez, for the Red Sea steamers. Upon the coal reaching Alex-
andria, it would only require to be conveyed by canal to the Nile ; and thus the
great expense of land transit would be avoided. Owing to the shallowness of the
sea at Suez, much delay is incurred in the shipment of cargo or of passengers ; and
in our case, it occupied fully one hour and a half to proceed from the " Hindos-
tan's" anchorage to the town; whereas, were a pier constructed at Cosseir, there
being depth enough of water there to permit of a large vessel proceeding alongside,
great facilities would be afforded for the loading or unloading of cargo. It is
true, that by adopting Cosseir as a station instead of Suez, the transit will
occupy a few hours more, the distance on the Nile being, as I have said, 480
miles — that from Cosseir to Suez being only 270 ; but I do not think this
extra distance is of so much importance, as the saving of the enormous ex-
pense of coaling at Suez, and the avoidance of the very intricate navigation
of the Red Sea to the north of Ras Mahomed. Owing to this intricacy, the
steamer, I believe, seldom runs down to Cosseir in less than a day and a half, and
the steaming from Kennah to Boulac with the 30 miles more of desert to be crossed,
could scarcely occupy more than two days, which greater length of time could well
be deducted from that we spent uselessly at Suez. The road too from Cosseir to
Kennah, is 6aid to be good, having the advantage of good halting-places, and good
supplies of water ; whereas the indifferent water supplied at the present desert sta-
tion-bouses, is all brought from the Nile. All the provisions are, at present,
brought from Cairo; and in this respect, the station-houses could be as well sup-
plied on the route between Cosseir and Kennah, as on that between Cairo and
Suez; for the former could receive their provisions from Kennah, the great em-
porium of traffic betvveen Jaddah and Cairo, and in whose markets the spices of
Arabia are bartered for the corn of Egypt. The distance from Kennah to Thebes
being only about 38 miles, travellers bent on inspecting the "stupendous re-
mains of antiquity," which there exist, would be enabled to gratify their desire
without incurring the uncomfortable and tedious passage of weeks to which native
boats so often subject them. I was much struck with the safe and comfortable
appearance Cosseir possessed as an anchorage, over almost any other part of the Red
Sea; and, indeed, I think that under all circumstances (excluding for the present
any consideration of its position, in relation to the Island of Perim) it is, as a " port
of departure," infinitely superior to Suez.

You suggest, in the article to which I have already referred, the adoption of the
Isle of Perim, at the Straits of Babelmandel, as a coaling station, and the abandon-
ment of Aden ; chiefly because " the distance from Ceylon to Perim is nearly
the same as the distance from Perim to Cosseir and back," and in which case, one
coaling station could be dispensed with. If the latter port be adopted, then , I
think, there can be no doubt a9 to the superiority of Perim to Aden. This little
island stretches about ten miles from east to west, and its greatest breadth may be
about four or five. A reef runs almost the whole length of its northern coast, but
the side nearest to Arabia has deep water to the base of the rock, and, besides being
clear from reefs, has a small bay, which might be turned to good account. It has
a barren, bare appearance, but in this respect not more so than Aden, where not
a blade of grass is to be seen; and a stay at Perim for a couple of days, while the
steamer was coaling, could not prove more unpleasant than a similar detention in
the Bay of Aden, where, surrounded by dark volcanic-looking rocks, not a breath
of wind can gain admittance to the burning amphitheatre to assuage the pleasures of
a blazing 6un. The greatest objection to Perim as a station is, without doubt,
the want of water. If your suggestion, as to the probability of water being found,
"if wells were dug," should prove true on trial, then I should think Aden would
be no longer used ; and the Parsee who now keeps the hotel at the latter place,
finding that all his " customers" had left him, would have no more difficulty in
procuring provisions and "water from the interior of Arabia, at the solitary island of
Perim, than in his present situation. I should think, too, that the Arab ves-
sels bound to Mocha from Bombay, would much prefer landing supplies at Perim
than having to deviate so much from their course as to touch at Aden. You
remark that, "vessels bound for Mocha, which is close to Perim," would "be
happy to transport coals thither at a very moderate rate of freight." You, I
imagine, allude to vessels from England ; but I think you must be unaware of the
fact, that the Arabs allow no coffee to be exported except in their own vessels ; so .
that the coffee-drinkers at home labour under a delusion in supposing that the raw
material comes direct, and therefore unadulterated, from Mocha. The fact is, it
all proceeds to England from Calcutta or Bombay, to which ports the Arab ships
convey it : so that any calculation as to return freights to Mocha must have refer-
ence to India and not to England. Your suggestion, however, reminds me that

should the native coal of India ever be wrought from a good seam, then may ves-
sels bound for Mocha transport coals to the Straits of Babelmandel at a moderate
freight, and, in all probability, thus effect a considerable saving to the proprietors of
the steamers.

The late loss of the mails by the unfortunate shipwreck of the " Memnon," and
the detention of the succeeding mail by the steamer being forced to put back to
Bombay, after having been some days at sea, have roused the attention of the
Indian merchants ; while the circumstance, of the " Hindostan " having last month
brought the mails to Calcutta five days sooner than the Marseilles letters, which
went via Bombay, has considerably exalted the Peninsular and Oriental Com-
pany in the eyes of the Calcutta people, and shown to them more forcibly than
ever the necessity of some great improvement in the present system of the trans-
mission of the European letters. I observe, that a public meeting has been held,
in London, to bring forward a proposal to convey the mails to and from Bombay to
London in 28 or 29 days, so that the English merchant may be enabled to answer his
letters the same month that he receives them. This, at first sight is plausible
enough, and apparently an excellent plan ; but while it secures to Bombay great
advantages, it appears to me that it affords to India, in general, fewer advantages
than other plans could secure. The question is, How can intelligence be most
rapidly communicated to India at large ? It is needless to tel! you that I do not
participate in the envious and selfish spirit which some of the Bombay and Calcutta
papers display, and which can only excite the laughter or contempt of discriminating
spectators, when arguing upon overland conveyance. But let the question be
fairly put, Which coast of Hindostan — the Malabar or the Coromandel — is the most
important? and let the answer determine the measure of the solicitude for its com-
munication with the mother country. I can hardly conceive any one to hesitate
in replying, That the coast of Coromandel, which claims Madras and Calcutta,
and may perhaps lay claim to Ceylon also, is not of a far weightier interest than the
coast of Malabar, which can boast of nothing but Bombay. If the meeting held
in London had proposed a plan which would secure to Calcutta, Madras, and
Ceylon also, the earliest possible intelligence, their plans would have been viewed
in a very different light; but it is neither politic nor equitable to give one presi-
dency an undue importance over another, by making it the sole object of solicitude.
By the present arrangement, the express occupies at least ten days from Bombay to
Calcutta, and as the letters arrive here in separate portions it is four or five days
more before the bulk of them are received. The postage, too, of letters received
here overland demands some consideration, Is. 9d. being paid on every single letter
forwarded or received, while those that arrive or are despatched by the " Hindos-
tan," are only charged 3d. From tbese considerations, it must appear plain that
the forwarding of letters by way of Bombay, is not the quickest mode of trans-
mission to India at large, and is certainly neither the safest nor cheapest, and
why it should be persisted in, it certainly requires much ingenuity to conjecture.

You propose in the article in your second number, that there should be two
steamers, one for the Bombay, and the other for the Calcutta line, at Perim ; or
if Aden continues a station, they would meet I suppose at that port. It would
undoubtedly be the best plan to run two vessels, provided it would pay; but it has
been almost proved that small vessels cannot successfully contend against the mon-
soons from Bombay to Aden, and large vessels would be too expensive. I question,
indeed, whether the amount of passengers would be adequate to maintain steam-
vessels of any description between Aden and the coast of Malabar, and the most
feasible project for giving Bombay a communication with Europe, appears to lie
in the establishment of moderately-sized vessels between Bombay and Galle, to link
on there to the main line between Calcutta and Suez. By this expedient, the
monsoon would be avoided, and a communication perfected between Calcutta and
Bombay.

It has been for some time a prevalent impression here, that the Peninsular and
Oriental Company had determined to remove the "Hindostan" and " Bentinck"
from the Calcutta and Madras line, and to employ them on that to Bombay, which
impression has in some minds been strengthened by the correspondence which has
appeared between the Secretaries of the Peninsular and Oriental Company and of
the East India and China Association : while to others, the question appears to be
set at rest, inasmuch, as they imagine that while the vessels are to continue on
their present route, they are entirely at the disposal of the East India Company,
and they cannot believe that the directors in St. Mary Axe would break what is
considered to be their plighted word. If it be the case, that the " Hindostan" and
" Bentinck" are to he transferred to the voyage from Suez to Bombay, I can
venture to assert, that no arrangement has yet been contemplated for the convey-
ance of overland intelligence, that will give more general dissatisfaction throughout
India. It will certainly by no means augment the number of passengers proceed-
ing to Europe by the Red Sea, as from this side of Hindostan, the land journey to
Bombay is so fatiguing and tedious, and at some periods of the year so dangerous,
that parties would prefer proceeding home by the Cape of Good Hope. If there had
been coupled with the " plan" of the Peninsular and Oriental Company, a proposal
for improving the land transit between the presidencies by some adequate measure,
then might their suggestions have been favourably entertained here. One fallacy
by which this Company has been misled, is the supposition that the Overland
letters are sent from Bombay to this place in ten days, without fail ; whereas, it is
always fifteen days before the bulk of the letters are received, and fully ten before
the driblet sent by express makes its appearance.

Since the above was written, I have met with a late number of the Friend of
India, in which it is suggested to establish a branch steamer between Aden and
Bombay during eight months of the year, and between Galle and Bombay during
the four months of the monsoon. But, indeed, the question now appears to me
almost entirely to depend upon the £. s. d. ; for, if the direct line of communi-
cation will not pay the Peninsular and Oriental Company, it of course cannot be
continued ; and I should not be surprised if the Company, finding that they have
not encouragement enough to keep up a monthly direct line, were, during the un-

50

Marvels of the Day.

favourable monsoon, to send the steamers via Bombay, and during the other parts
of the year to put on a branch steamer from Galle.

A meeting has been held at Bombay by the Chamber of Commerce, for the
purpose of drawing up a memorial to be forwarded to " The Board of Com-
missioners for the Affairs of India," approving of the plan of accelerating commu-
nication between that port and Suez, and praying that the duty of transmission of
the mail, &c, between these two places be transferred into the hands of a private
company, obviously a broad hint to the Peninsular and Oriental Company to adopt
that route, and to Government to sanction its adoption. Two meetings have also
been held here — the first being preliminary to the public meeting which was held
on the 11th inst., when a memorial was agreed to be presented to the Commissioners
of Her Majesty's Treasury, the President of the Board of 'Control, and to
the Directors of the East India Company, urging in the strongest possible light the
arguments in favour of the direct line, and stating that " four perfect interchanges
of correspondence might take place within the year, allowing seven days between the
arrival of one mail, and the despatch of another for answering letters, &c." It will
be interesting to learn how these two memorials have been received at home, in-
consistent as they are in their views and aspirations. The Bombay people have
already secured the transit through Egypt, as it appears a lease has been entered
into with Messrs. Tibaldi and Co., which provides, that the Bombay Steam Fund
Committee are to have a five years' tenure of the Desert Bungalows, upon pay-
ment of 201 per annum, and Messrs. Tibaldi and Co. to charge, as before, 15^.
per head for the whole transit, engaging to keep "provisions of the best description"
together with a " sufficient number of servants" at the bungalows, and to provide
" efficient means of transport" to bring the passengers in time for the steamer of
either side ; — all other hotel expenses to be defrayed by the traveller, as has
hitherto been the case. I confess that the agreement to such a lease has taken me
somewhat by surprise ; for it would have been much more advantageous to the
Peninsular and Oriental Company to have been one of the contracting parties,
than for a committee who have hitherto had no voice whatever, or at least no
management in any portion of the Overland route. Perhaps the committee
imagine that they have fastened one spoke in the wheel, and so virtually secured
the final adoption of a line from Suez to Bombay.

The "Bentinck" anchored in the river on the 23rd of November, having been
out 91 days, as will be seen from the following table, which may perhaps prove of
interest.

Time under

Detention in

Total-

_

Steam.

Port.

Days. Hours.

Davs. Hours.

Days.

Hours.

Miles.

Southampton

to Gibraltar .

5 20

0 13

G

9

1175

Gibraltar

„ Cadiz . .

0 2

2 12

9

21

90

Cadiz

„ St. Jago .

7 10

5 G

12

16

1648

St. Jago

„ Cape . . .

23 15

9 G

32

21

3930

Cape

„ Mauritius .

11 15

4 4

15

19

2480

Mauritius

„ Cevlon . .

9 22

1 21

11

19

2128

Cevlon

„ Madras .

2 11

0 16

3

3

573

Madras

„ the Sand Heads
Days . .

3 2

— —

3

2

670

64 8

24 6

88

14

12,694

From the above it would appear that, during the time she has been under steam,
her rate of steaming was on an average, rather more than 8£ miles per hour, or
196J miles per day. Her average performance from St. Jago to the Cape of Good
Hope, which is, I suppose, the longest distance ever accomplished by any steamer,
was somewhat less than 7 miles per hour; during which run, I believe, she ex-
perienced far from favourable weather. On comparing the foregoing table with a
similar statement of the first voyage of the " Hindostan," I find that the " Ben-
tinck" has performed the distance from the Cape to the Mauritius, thence to Cey-
lon and Madras, in a little less time than the former, although the " Hindostan's"
daily average is stated to be at 198 miles.

The " Hindostan" left for Suez on the morning of the 15th November, and
arrived at Madras at daylight on the 19th; the quickest passage ever made, between
the two porls. She reached the sea from Calcutta in less than a day and a half —
an extraordinarily short time for any vessel to get safe out of the Hooghly. The
pilots are not at all anxious to have the management of either the " Hindostan"
or "Bentinck" in this intricate river, where their great length and great speed
serve only, as it were, to add dangers to those proper to the channel of the stream.
They would much prefer if the vessels were only brought halfway up — namely, to
Diamond Harbour, where there is good and safe anchorage, and where a small
steamer could bring up " to town" the passengers and cargo. Some of the best
pilots, indeed, have ventured to predict that, if the steamers persist in coming up
to Garden Reach, (about 2-J miles from Calcutta,) some destructive accident will
occur; and so fearful arc the captains of some such catastrophe, that when pro-
ceeding up or down the river, the ports are ordered to be closed, to prevent, I sup-
pose, the ingress of the water, should the vessel be thrown on her beam-ends. There
would, however, he great inconvenience attending the alternative of bringing the
ships no farther than Diamond Harbour; although, if the railway to that place,
which was some time ago proposed, but which proposal has since sunk into oblivion,
should ever spring into existence, many of the objections would be removed, and
Diamond Harbour might then be the most desirable station. In all these things
the choice usually lies between two evils; and nothing is easier than to point those
evils out : the difficulty lies in propounding some plan by which still greater evils
will not be encountered.

Some discontent was experienced on the departure of the " Hindostan," in con-
sequence of the list of passengers being withheld instead of being published, as is
usually the case. Capt. Engledue, the agent of the Peninsular and Oriental Com-
pany, had, it appears, been applied to for it, by some individuals who suspected that

their creditors Were leaving the country in the steamer. He refused to give it ;
upon which they threatened to obtain their information through the press; and to
disappoint them here, the agent refused to publish it. Capt. Engledue certainly
evinced much firmness, and a natural desire not to allow himself to be bullied.
But it may be questioned how far he was warranted in depriving the public of
information touching a public transaction, to avenge the incivilities of private
parties. I observe, however, that the list of the passengers by the " Bentinck" has
been published as usual.

I cannot close this letter without holding up to the reprobation of your readers,
the language indulged in by the London correspondent of the Englishman, relative
to the operatives of England. This mighty personage, who, it appears, is the pro-
prietor of the paper, writes as follows : — " The only annoyance we experienced in
all our ramblings, was in our visit to Westminster Hall, and was caused by the
immense concourse of people forcing their way in. I cannot understand what
pleasure the great unwashed ones can find in viewing subjects it is impossible for
them to comprehend." Such language as this is symptomatic not merely of a
narrow understanding, but of a vulgar and contracted heart; and has, I confess,
given me a very unfavourable impression of the people of India who are able to
tolerate such representations. In England they would not be endured for a
moment, nor do I believe any writer would there be found of hardihood sufficient
to libel the great body of English artizans, whose industry and ingenuity alone
sustain their country's greatness. And what, let me ask this intolerant nabob, is
there to prevent the labouring classes from being moved by the creations of the fine
arts, quite as effectually as those who deal more largely in Latin and perfumery?
Does he not know that it is from the humbler classes of society that genius is
chiefly recruited? The readers of the Artizan will at least understand that
neither in elegant nor useful attainments will that great section of the community
suffer by a comparison with any other, and they will only laugh at the carica-
turist who would represent them as incapable of judging of what is profound in
science, or elevated in art. In the fine arts, indeed, as is shown in your article
on the Philosophy of Architecture, the commonalty are the best judges, and those
who upbraid them for their ignorance on such subjects, only read in that sentence
their own condemnation.

None of the Loudon periodicals for October have been received. The captain of
the Bombay steamer having left them behind at Aden ; but bringing on those for
September, which the " Hindostan" had left at Suez. He looked upon periodicals,
he says, as merchandise, which he is prohibited from carrying ; but why those for
one month should have been so considered, and those for[another month not, I cannot
conjecture. The people here have therefore to endure the want of their Artizans
for this month, which I need hardly say, is a great deprivation. Mac.

Glasgow. — Iron as a material for Housebuilding. — Messrs. Scott and Sin-
clair, engineers, Greenock, have constructed an iron school-house for Lady Noel
Byron, to be erected in one of the Midland Counties of England, where building
materials are scarce and schoolmistresses not abroad. If not feeling at home were
synonymous with being abroad, one could not devise a better method of sending the
schoolmaster abroad throughout the breadth of the land, than by translating the
whole fraternity into similar tenements.

The edifice is one story in height, very simple in construction, and weighs from
eight to nine tons. Circular iron houses have been for some time used, by the
artizans at Coltness iron works. Mr. Fairbairn's construction (familiar by name
to most of our readers) exhibited last summer in Manchester, is of a different
character, more resembling vulgar architecture.

Cotton Mill disaster. — A cotton mill was burnt down a few days ago at the
Grccnhead, only three days after first starting. "We notice this occurrence, to
animadvert upon the monstrous folly of erecting buildings of this description not
fire-proof. But we fear, that the infatuated short-sightedness which could persist in
such a practice till now, is beyond the reach of either reason or ruin, to reclaim it.

Decay of the Wooden Bridge. — The wooden accommodation-bridge is showing
symptoms of decay. One pile has sunk so much, as to bring the safety of the
erection into doubt. The structure is one of great massiveness and strength. We
can only regret that the material was not made rot-proof; and venture to express
the opinion, that iron will hereafter have the preference to wood in the construction
of bridges of such permanent accommodation as this.

Cylindrical Carriage-wheels. — Perfectly cylindrical carriage-wheels on straight
axles, are getting into more extended use ; and bid fair, in no great length of time,
to supplant entirely the old system of coned peripheries and crooked axle-trees.
None but the mechanic, whose sense of propriety has been dislocated by witness-
ing the grinding or rather dredging action that takes place as the conic frustra
(mitre gear we wore going to call them) of a metropolitan coal -wagon, clenched as
they frequently are, with largo protuberant nails, rive and tear away at the
Macadamized roads; or who has seen the massive causeway of Cheapside shiver and
vibrate, while they jarred across its surface, can rightly appreciate the superiority
of our light-running cylindrical wheels. We confess, it was not without some
feeling of satisfaction, that we once saw a Great Western locomotive occasion the
destruction of one of the above barbarous vehicles, when in the act of being carted
on one of these truly English carriages.

Iron Steamers. — In iron steam vessel building there is a good deal doing, both
for Government and private companies. One vessel is building to which it is
intended to adapt the well-known horizontal or endless chain system of paddle?.
As, at least, a dozen years have elapsed since last this description of propeller
figured on the Clyde, we are inclined to wonder that the present inventor has not
thought fit to securo his discovery by a patent.

Tlie Artizan at Constantinople. — We have just received a tantivy from Con-
stantinople for not having sent the Artizan to the Sublime Porte, where it
appears multitudes are famishing for it — the regular bibliopolist supply having failed
to appease the mechanical hunger. You must increase your supplies in that
quarter, or you will set your friends into scrapes.

50

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THE ARTIZAN.

No. XV.— MARCH 30th, 1844.

Art. I.— THEORY AND PRACTICE OF VENTILATION.

Illustrations of the Theory and Practice of Ventilation; with Remarks on
Warming, exclusive Lighting, and the Communication of Sound. By
David Boswell Reid, M.D. Longman and Co.

A proper supply of fresh air in our dwellings and places of public resort, is
admittedly of great importance to health, yet little attention has hitherto been
paid to the subject ; and it would appear, from the general practice of build-
ers, that the exclusion of air is the'object they aim at, since no arrangement is
made for its admission into our common apartments. Were it not, indeed, for
the defective workmanship of the doors, windows, and flooring, through the
chinks of which the vital fluid forces its way, we should be literally suffocated.
Nature has made peculiar provision for the supply of man with the kind of
air suitable to his constitution and his wants, and for renewing it as it be-
comes vitiated in the process of respiration ; but these provisions are too
often set at nought by the manner in which people are crowded together,
without the means being afforded them of respiring other air than that which
has been already deprived of its vital properties. There has, however, been
of late a growing attention to this subject ; and foremost among those who
have devoted a large portion of their time to devise the best means of im-
proving ventilation, is the author of the book at the head of this article.

Dr. Reid had been well known in Scotland for some years previous to his
being brought into prominent notice in London, by his experiments to im-
prove the ventilation of the Houses of Parliament. The Courts of the Old
Bailey, many of our prisons and hospitals, have been since ventilated accord-
ing to his system, which has been applied also to several ships ; among the
rest, to the Royal Steam Yacht, and to the steam-ships employed in the last
fatal Niger expedition. The numerous and often curious experiments which
Dr. Reid has tried, in the furtherance of his system of ventilation, leaves no
doubt that he has well studied the subject, and is practically acquainted with
all its bearings : consequently, a work which professes to contain the results
of his extensive experience on this important subject, cannot fail to arrest
attention, and to become a standard book of reference in the ventilation of
public buildings, whether his system, in all its minute ramifications, be or be
not adopted. We shall best exhibit the numerous points which Dr. Reid
undertook to investigate in forming his system, by quoting his own words : —

" In the attempts which he has made to assist in placing the practice of ventila-
tion on a more precise and systematic footing, his efforts were devoted principally,
in the first place, to the amount of air required for this purpose. Hundreds of in-
dividuals were successively made the subject of experiment, in the manner described
afterwards, and the result led to that enlarged supply which forms the leading
feature in those peculiarities he has introduced. After the amount of air had been
determined, and the extent to which the ordinary estimate ought to be varied ac-
cording to the ever-changing circumstances under which ventilation is conducted,
extreme diffusion — the ingress and egress of the air — the moving power when
natural ventilation was not sufficient — -the nature of the mechanical power to be
employed, or the mode of applying heat when it was to be preferred — the plenum
and vacuum impulse — the chemical examination of the air to be used — its purifi-
cation when necessary — the communication of moisture- — the direct exclusion of
the products from the combustion of gas-lamps and other artificial lights — the pre-
vention of descending currents from cold glass — and numerous other circumstances
engaged attention : each building to be ventilated having been treated as a piece of
apparatus, and absolute power obtained over the ingress and egress of air so far as
the peculiarities of the case rendered this necessary or desirable."

We shall pursue nearly the same course in accompanying Dr. Reid through
the details of his system, which he has indicated in the foregoing extract,
commencing, in the first place, with the consideration of the quantity of air
requisite for perfect ventilation. This point may be considered the pivot on
which the practical application of any system of ventilation turns ; and the
endeavour to ascertain the amount of air required, our author admits was the
most difficult problem he had to determine. The result at which he arrives
is, that ten cubic feet of air per minute should be provided for each indi-
vidual ; though this estimate is given with much diffidence, and only as an

VOL. II.

approximation to the real quantity. In fact, no standard amount of air
requisite for ventilation can ever be determined, since the quantity varies
according to the constitution of the individual, the temperature of the air, the
condition of the stomach, and numerous other extraneous circumstances that
must always regulate the quantity of air which it is desirable to supply. la
stating ten cubic feet of air to be the average quantity to be provided, Dr.
Reid agrees with M. Lablanc, the results of whose numerous experiments on
vitiated air were recently reported to the French Academy of Sciences ; but,
in our opinion, the estimates of the Doctor and of the French philosopher
greatly exceed the quantity that it would be necessary to provide for the
healthy respiration of individuals not in exercise. Dr. Reid, indeed, admits
that the requisite amount of air varies with the occupation as well as with the
constitution ; but he assumes that too low a standard of health is generally
taken for guidance, and that, by a better supply of air, the constitution would
be invigorated, and life would be prolonged for at least ten years beyond its
usual average duration. This representation holds out great inducement for
opening free access to fresh air; but admitting, as we do, the great advan-
tage, nay, the necessity of ventilation, we think it is possible to have too
much fresh air ; and that the effect of such an excess must be to shorten
rather than to prolong life. Many analogies in nature would bear out this
opinion, but we need not go beyond the pages of our author for its confir-
mation. He is willing to admit that the quantity of air requisite is deter-
mined in a great measure by the occupation of an individual ; and we may
naturally infer from this, that to give a sedentary individual as much fresh,
air as is required by a person in exercise would be about as injurious as to
supply him with an equal quantity of food. Nature herself has shown, by the
constituent proportions of the atmosphere, and by the provision for diluting
it in the lungs, that but a limited quantity of oxygen is desirable for respi-
ration. Oxygen exists in the atmosphere in the proportion of but one to
four ; and the quantity of nitrogen and carbonic acid gases which remains in
the lungs after each expiration, clearly indicates that the air may be too pure
as well as too impure for respiration. Oxygen gas is considered by Dr.
Liebig, in his " Animal Chemistry," as the " great devourer," by which all
things are consumed ; and, unless its demands are supplied by food, it feeds
on the human frame itself. All the processes of decomposition are, for the
most part, conducted by this destroying agent ; therefore, taking this view
of the subject also, it would seem that the admission of oxygen into the
lungs may be carried to an injurious excess. Dr. Reid himself admits — he
advances it, indeed, as a proof of the advantages to be derived from more
perfect ventilation — that, in proportion to the larger supply of air, the
greater quantity of food is necessary. He thus considers air to be an expen-
sive luxury ; and the Doctor contemplates that one of the strongest argu-
ments to be used against his system of ventilation is the appetite it main-
tains. Alluding to the ill-ventilated dining-rooms in London, we are told : —

" Many a hard-worked clerk too often imagines he has had enough for his sup-
port, because he has taken all that his appetite permitted ; whereas the saturated
atmosphere in which he dines may have reduced his appetite by a half, and made
him contented with an inadequate supply."

Ventilation, we thus perceive, may be the source of want and discontent,
as well as a blessing ; and we are informed, in confirmation of this, that many
" strikes " for higher wages have originated from a better system of ventila-
tion,— the former wages not being sufficient to procure the increased demand
for food required by improved appetites. We will not now stop to inquire
how far public discontents and rebellions may be attributed to the cause
assigned by Dr. Reid : we leave these investigations for other inquirers ; but
we cannot refrain from extracting a curious passage in reference to this
subject, in which the Doctor shows how he contrived to make a conclave of
Edinburgh philosophers commit a great excess in drinking, by supplying
them at the same time with good air as well as good wine : —

" Some years ago about fifty members of one of the Royal Society clubs at
Edinburgh dined in an apartment I had constructed, where, though illuminated by
gas, the products of its combustion were essentially excluded, as they were all re-
moved by a ventilating tube connected with but concealed in the drop of the Gothic

52

Theory and Practice of Ventilation.

[March,

pendant in which the central lights were placed. Large quantities of a mild atmo-
sphere were constantly supplied, and passed in quick succession through the apart-
ment, throughout the whole evening, the effect being varied from time to time by
infusing odoriferous materials, so that the air should imitate successively that of a
lavender-field, of an orange-grove, &c. Nothing very special was noticed during the
time of the dinner by the members; but Mr. Barry, of the British Hotel, who
provided the dinner, and who, from the members of the club being frequently in
the habit of dining at his rooms, was familiar with their constitutions, showed the
committee that three times the amount of wines had been taken that was usually
consumed by the same party in a room lighted by gas, but not ventilated — that he
had been surprised to observe that gentlemen whose usual allowance was two
glasses, took, without hesitation, as much as half a bottle — that those who were in
the habit of taking half a bottle took a bottle and a half; and that, in short, he
had been compelled twice to send hackney-coaches for additional supplies during
dinner, though he had provided a larger supply than usual, considering the circum-
stances under which the members met. Minute inquiries afterwards assured me
that no headach nor other injurious consequence had followed this meeting, nor
were any of the members aware that they had partaken more heartily than usual,
till Mr. Barry showed them what had taken place."

Without wishing to imply any doubt whether an improved quality of the
wines supplied by Mr. Barry might not have contributed as much to the
recorded result as the zephyrs from lavender-fields and orange-groves sup-
plied by Dr. Reid, we may at least question whether the health of our phi-
losophers would have suffered more from the vitiated atmosphere, with its
limited quantity of wine, than from the air of orange-groves, with its accom-
panying excess — putting Mr. Barry's bill out of consideration.

The amount of air absolutely necessary to support life is much less than
was generally conceived previous to the experiments of Dr. Payerne in the
diving-bell at the Polytechnic Institution, with his apparatus for renewing
the air. The Doctor's experiments induced others to try how long they could
remain under water without any apparatus ; when it was found that two per-
sons in the same bell, and with a candle burning, could remain under water
for an hour and a half without any further supply of air than the contents of
the bell. Dr. Reid has enclosed himself in even a less space, without com-
munication with the external air, for upwards of an hour ; and he states, that
the actual quantity of air which enters the lungs in the course of one minute
does not exceed half a cubic foot : nevertheless, founding his estimate on the
quantity of carbonic acid gas evolved, he maintains that a quantity equal to
ten cubic feet per minute ought to be provided. We dwell upon this point,
for all practical applications of a system of ventilation must depend on the
quantity of air to be supplied ; and the proportions considered requisite by
Dr. Reid, are, in some instances, one hundred times greater than have been
considered necessary by others. In the ventilation of the House of Com-
mons, for example, Dr. Reid has provided an area of fifty square feet for the
escape of vitiated air ; though Sir Humphry Davy was of opinion that an
area of one square foot was amply sufficient : and Dr. Reid also gives a
quicker movement to the air than was contemplated by Sir Humphry. The
Doctor somewhat resembles, in his administration of air, those empirics who,
fancying they have discovered a panacea for all human ailments, conceive it
cannot be administered too copiously ; and if the patient die under the inflic-
tion, his death is attributed to the insufficiency of the dose. A candle will
burn in a vitiated atmosphere, though with a dull, lurid flame, twice as long
as in a pure air : the same candle, if immersed in oxygen gas, would burn
with surpassing splendour, but it would be quickly consumed. This, to a
certain extent, must be the case with the human frame ; the more actively its
energies are exerted, the more rapidly will it be exhausted. There is a proper
medium between the lurid flame and the splendent light, which, if attainable,
would give the proper supply of air ; but, as the requisite quantity is ever
varying, even in the same individual, with changing circumstances, it is hope-
less to expect that any fixed standard can be ascertained. We agree with
Dr. Reid, in thinking the supply of air generally provided is too small ; but,
in attempting to introduce a system of ventilation on the scale he proposes,
the expense presents so formidable an obstacle, that, for general purposes, it
would be impracticable. Warmth is as essential as ventilation ; and in cold
weather it would be absolutely necessary to heat the air before it was ad-
mitted, if supplied in quantities at all approaching to those recommended by
our author ; and this could not be done without an expense which, for general
use, would render the plan unattainable, even were it advisable to cause such
frequent changes of the atmosphere.

We will now proceed to consider the plans by which Dr. Reid produces
the amount and purity of ventilation he considers necessary for the preser-
vation of health. These plans comprise the purification of the air, to fit it for
respiration ; the employment of a moving power sufficient to give impulse to
the stated quantity ; the arrangement for heating and moistening the air pre-
vious to its admission ; the mode of ingress and egress, so as to produce
extreme diffusion without causing draughts ; the prevention of descending
currents from cold glass ; and the exclusion of the products of combustion.
In the ventilation of the House of Commons, all these plans have been carried
into operation with extreme minuteness of detail ; therefore, a description
of the mode adopted will serve generally for an exposition of Dr. Reid's
system.

The first consideration was the supply of pure air for ventilation. The
atmosphere of Old Palace-yard and of the river was analysed ; all the pro-
bable sources of impurity were examined, and means taken to counteract
their influence. These examinations were extended with a degree of particu-

larity that, by most persons, will be thought ludicrous. St. Margaret's
churchyard was tested by the noses of numerous investigators, some of whom
detected contamination at all times in the vapour arising therefrom ; whilst
others, with sense of smell less delicate, could only perceive offence at certain
hours of the day and night. Drains and dust-bins near Westminster Abbey
were ventilated, and even the number of cabmen smoking their pipes in Old I
Palace-yard was counted, that proper means might be adopted to prevent the
smoke from entering the House. The air is made to pass, in the first instance,
through a fine horsehair veil or strainer, to arrest impurities, mechanically
suspended ; by which means, it is stated that 200,000 visible particles of soot
are sometimes excluded in a single evening. The filtered air is then tho-
roughly washed for the purpose of additional cleansing ; the celebrated Guy
Fawkes's cellar having been fitted up as a washhouse for that purpose, wherein
fountains are constantly playing, through which the air passes in its progress.
It next traverses, in winter, through hot-water pipes, to be heated to the
desired temperature, and, when thought necessary, it is purified by passing
through lime-water, or the air is medicated with chlorine. The medication
of the air is, however, an exception to the general rule ; but, as the whole
atmosphere of the House is under the command of the operator, Guy Fawkes's
cellars may even now be as pregnant with danger to our legislators as they
were when filled with gunpowder ; for, by some artful medication of the air,
perfumed with the scent of orange-groves, the whole House might be lulled
into the sleep of death. We wish not to excite alarm ; we only desire to
indicate the complete control which Dr. Reid boasts he possesses over the
atmosphere breathed by our representatives.

To introduce this prepared air in the proper manner, so that it should be
universally diffused, an air-chamber is formed under the entire floor of the
House, into which the air is first admitted through several apertures, pro-
vision being made for its diffusion by causing it to strike against boards,
which deflect it along the lower floor. The upper portion, which forms the
floor of the House of Commons, is pierced by nearly a million of small aper-
tures for the admission of the air ; and its diffusion is still further secured by
covering the floor with a porous and elastic hair-cloth carpet. Apertures
are made in the roof of the House for the emission of the vitiated air ; and
the whole current of ventilation is regulated by a ventilating shaft, with
which the space above the roof is connected. The fire at the bottom of the
ventilating shaft is supplied with air from the chamber above the roof ;
therefore it will be readily seen that the ventilating movement may at any
time be quickened by increasing the fire, or retarded by opening a communi-
cation with the external air. There is also a valve to regulate the draught
from the roof, so that the current may be stopped at a moment's notice.
Tiie varying circumstances of the House of Commons during each night,
render it necessary to have the power of regulating the ventilation and the
heat in proportion to the number of members present at various periods. This
is so carefully attended to, that sometimes a hundred changes are made in
the apparatus during a single sitting ; and a person is appointed, whose
business it is to examine, every five or ten minutes, thermometers placed in
different parts of the House, that the ventilation and heat supplied may be
regulated in proportion to the changing temperature. In hot weather the
ventilation is increased, and the air is sometimes cooled with ice before it is
admitted.

The arrangement for lighting the House of Commons was also entrusted
to Dr. Reid, because the ventilation would necessarily be affected, were the
combustion of the gas or oil used for the purpose of illumination to take
place in the same atmosphere. He dwells much on the necessity of what is
termed " exclusive lighting," or the exclusion of the products of combustion
from the apartment illuminated. The lighting of the House of Commons js
made absolutely exclusive, the gas-burners being placed not only out of com-
munication with the atmosphere of the House, but in a distinct compartment,
above a false roof of ground-glass, through which the light penetrates. It is,
indeed, of considerable importance that, in rooms brilliantly illuminated,
especially when gas is employed, that the products of combustion should be
removed ; but, for all practical purposes, small tubes fitted to each light
would be sufficient : and one reason assigned for adopting the costly ground-
glass roof of the House of Commons is, that it facilitates the communication
of sound.

In the experiments to improve the ventilation of the House, no expense
appears to have been spared. Dr. Reid was allowed to carry out his system
to its full extent ; and as the cost was known to be great, the results were
expected to be proportionate, and to give universal satisfaction. Let us see,
from the Doctor's own report, how far these expectations were realized : —

" The first remark made after the House of Commons met, subsequent to the
alterations, was, ' The temperature is rising; we shall be suffocated immediately.'
This was addressed to me by a member walking from the bar to the door ; and he
had no sooner passed than another followed him hurriedly, stating, as he passed,
' I am shivering with cold, I can bear this House no longer.' I went to the lobby,
and stated to each what the other had said, when a conversation ensued as to the
most desirable temperature, as it was obvious that unless a peculiar atmosphere was
prepared at each place, it would be impossible to do more than give an average
quality, particularly when some members demanded a temperature of 52°, while
others required a temperature of 71°."

This, then, was the result of all the care to select the air, to strain, and
wash, and warm it, and to regulate its admission so as not to cause any
draughts. Dr. Reid was driven, after all, to the necessity of considering

1844.]

Theory and Practice of Ventilation.

53

whether each member should not have a temperature and ventilation suited
to his constitution ; and, as regards the Speaker and the Sergeant-at-Arms,
this has been done. He does not state the means he adopted ; but we con-
clude it was by closing the apertures around their chairs, and thus diminish-
ing the draught. The straining and washing of the air, before it is admitted,
we must confess, has the appearance of empiricism, with which many parts
of Dr. Reid's system of ventilation is chargeable ; and, in practice, it exhibits
a very apt illustration of straining at a gnat and swallowing a camel. The
fact is, that the current of air rising through the horse-hair floor-cloth carries
with it the particles of dirt deposited from the members' boots ; conse-
quently, the atmosphere of the House is at times charged with dust : and,
though 200,000 microscopic particles of soot may be arrested by the strainer,
there are millions of annoying particles of dirt to supply their places. We
have been informed by gentlemen who have been accustomed to sit the greater
part of the night in the House of Commons, that their boots have become
covered with dust before morning.

Dr. Reid is a systematiser, and, like most other formers of systems, he
will, if he can, make all things conform to it. He has had the good fortune
to get his system into repute, and to have had almost boundless funds placed
at his command for carrying it into operation. But these opportunities for
allowing his crotchets to run riot are rather calculated to injure the cause of
ventilation, by representing its attainment to be a matter of great cost and
complexity. In ventilating the courts of the Old Bailey, for example, Dr.
Reid was not satisfied with the air to be obtained in the neighbouring streets,
but he carried a venti-duct underground, passing even through drains, that
the Judges and counsel might draw their breath from a purer source than the
neighbourhood wherein they were congregated. The " Victoria and Albert "
steam-yacht was, we understand, fitted with Dr. Reid's complete apparatus
at an enormous cost, and the ventilation of the Niger ships was entrusted to
his care. In the latter instance, however, the system of ventilation proved
totally ineffective against the fatal malaria of the Niger. The apparatus was
so arranged that the atmosphere between the decks could be medicated with
chlorine, or other gases ; but it appears not even to have tended to arrest the
evil. We conceive it probable that a rapid change of air might, in fact, be
directly injurious in such an atmosphere, and that the vitiated air of the
breath, charged with carbonic acid, would be far less deleterious than the
exhalations of sulphuretted hydrogen, with which the malaria is generally
impregnated. The result of the fatal Niger expedition, when all conceivable
precautions were taken against infection, confirms our opinion that ventilation
may be too free as well as too defective.

That part of Dr. Reid's book which relates to the ventilation of ships, is
more practically useful than any other ; for the circumstances of the case
prevent him from seeking " airs from heaven " in other quarters of the globe
than that where the ship is situated : and it would be difficult even for Dr.
Reid to desire to send a greater current of fresh air between the decks of a ship
would be agreeable to most passengers. We have protested in the Artizan,
on previous occasions, against the squandering money in the absurdly-incon-
sistent decorations of steam-packet cabins, when the essential of ventilation
is neglected ; and we are glad to find the same sentiment expressed thus
strongly by Dr. Reid : —

" A small fraction of the amount usually spent on mere decoration in steam-
packets, if devoted to the purposes of ventilation, would give unspeakable comfort
to all who are borne down by the smell of the intolerable bilge, and other accom-
paniments of a rough or stormy passage. To them the want of some superfluous
finery would be no loss, compared with the substantial advantages of a fresh and
wholesome atmosphere ; the want of which too frequently causes delicate constitu-
tions to brave the severities of an exposure on deck, from which they do not always
recover, rather than be subjected to the polluted atmosphere which they dread
below."

Common sense and private interest combined, will, we hope, soon remedy
this pressing annoyance to all who travel by sea ; whilst, to those who pass
the greater portion of their lives on board ship, the want of ventilation is
seriously injurious. The manner in which sailors' hammocks are slung
closely together near the top of the deck, in which no provision is made for
ventilation, frequently produces a vitiated atmosphere, which no one coming
directly from the fresh air could breathe. The plans recommended for giving
them a supply of fresh air are generally simple, and might be adopted with
little expense. When the vessel is in motion there would be little difficulty
in directing a current of fresh air through any part of the ship. The only
requirements are tubes, descending from the upper deck, for the ingress and
egress of the air. The tube that admits the air should descend to the floor
of the deck to be ventilated — care being taken to diffuse the current by
placing obstacles to deflect it on its passage, — and the tube of emission should
be connected with the top, and be placed at the greatest distance from the
ingress-pipe. The ends of these tubes should rise a short distance above the
tipper deck, and should be covered with cowls pointed in contrary directions
— the cowl on the ingress-pipe facing the wind, and the egress cowl turned
from it. This arrangement would be sufficient to produce great relief, if it
did not afford perfect ventilation ; but during calm, sultry weather, it is pro-
posed to produce a current of air by mechanical means. In steam-boats this
may be readily effected by connecting fanners with the machinery, or by con-
ducting the egress-pipe into the chimney : in sailing-vessels it would be
requisite to turn the fanners by hand, if no other moving power could be
conveniently applied.

Returning to land, and accompanying Dr. Reid once more in the details
of his system for ventilating buildings, we will endeavour to select the wheat
from the chaff with which it is covered, and to present those of his plans
which, with modification, may be rendered generally useful. Viewed as a
system of ventilation intended for general application, it is open to two serious
objections : in the first place, it is too costly to be attainable in ordinary
dwellings; aDd, in the second place, if attainable, it would render us all
valetudinarians, and incapable of enduring the vicissitudes of our climate.
The fact is, the Doctor treats the whole population as patients confined to
their rooms, whose only object in life is to preserve health. By an admirable
provision of the human constitution, it possesses a compensating power, by
the exercise of which man is enabled to counteract numerous predisposing
tendencies to disease ; but when this counteracting power ceases to be exer-
cised, even for a short period, a change of temperature, or exposure to a
current of air, which would otherwise be attended with no prejudicial effects,
becomes often of serious consequence. We know instances of gentlemen
who, by the careful regulation of the temperature of all the apartments and
passages in their houses, have become so incompetent to bear a change of
temperature, that they cannot leave home without danger of suffering severely.
The extended operation of Dr. Reid's system would, we fear, be attended
with similar results. The careful exclusion of all draughts, by the diffused
admission of well-tempered air ; the prevention of cold currents from glass
by double windows ; the preservation of the same temperature and hygro-
metric state of the atmosphere ; would enervate the compensating power of
the constitution, and render those who had been accustomed to such an
equable atmosphere too susceptible of the change they must experience on
quitting their luxurious dwellings. For hospitals and sick-rooms, the plan
proposed by Dr. Reid seems admirably adapted ; and, with some modifica-
tion, it is also applicable, with great advantage, to large places of public
resort, but it is not suitable to general ventilation.

Part of the plan proposed by Dr. Reid might, however, be introduced
with great advantage in the ventilation of houses. It would be advisable that
there should be in every room an aperture near the ceiling, for the escape of
the vitiated atmosphere, and an opening near the floor for the ingress of fresh
air. These openings should be controlled by doors or valves, for the regu-
lation of the ingress and egress, according to the temperature and the number
of persons in the room ; and provision should be made for diffusing the air
as it enters, to prevent it from passing in a current through the apartment.
This is the more necessary when the air is not previously heated ; and for
this purpose Dr. Reid recommends that the skirting-board should be pierced
with a number of small holes. There is not, in our opinion, any necessity
for a ventilating-shaft to carry away the vitiated air, or to occasion a draught
through the rooms. Were the egress-pipes to communicate with an iron
funnel fixed outside the house, or even were they made to pass directly into
the open air, all the necessary purposes of ventilation would, we conceive, be
attained.

The whole of Dr. Reid's operations are embarrassed by the superabundant
quantity of air which he deems it necessary to provide. It is impossible for
persons not in active exercise to endure, at ordinary temperatures, such a
constant change of air. Hence arises the necessity of heating, and moisten-
ing, and extreme diffusion : and to produce the change demanded requires a
ventilating-shaft, or mechanical means. We have already stated that, in our
opinion, the Doctor's prescribed dose of air is much larger than is required
for healthy respiration, inasmuch as it exceeds, by at least twenty times, the
amount actually inspired. The quantity of carbonic acid retained in the
lungs after each expiration, shows clearly that a certain quantity of that gas
is not deleterious ; and the result of the experiments with the Niger ships
renders it questionable whether a very free ingress of air in such an atmo-
sphere is not positively hurtful. We suggest, for the consideration of our
medical readers, that the carbonic acid generated in the lungs may serve as
an antidote against the virulence of the atmospheric poison, by combining
with the noxious sulphuretted hydrogen which usually contaminates the air
on the shores of tropical rivers.

The ventilation of light-houses, of coaches, and of mines, is briefly con-
sidered by Dr. Reid, but there is nothing requiring notice in this part of his
work. More air, and a greater diffusion of it, with provision for " exclusive
lighting," form the panacea of the Doctor's practice in ventilation, in these
circumstances, as in most others ; but he omits the preliminary straining,
washing, and heating of the air ; nor does he appear to think it necessary to
indulge the miners with the luxury of orange-grove zephyrs ; such provoca-
tives of thirst being reserved for the festive meetings of the Edinburgh
philosophers.

We must not conclude our notice of Dr. Reid's illustrations of ventilation
without giving him much credit for assiduity in the collection of facts, and
in using the extensive resources placed at his command to make numerous
experiments with a view to test the efficacy of his plans. The book has a
superfluity of diagrams, and it affords much curious information on the
subject of ventilation ; but it is so far unsatisfactory, that the system founded
on these facts and experiments is more theoretical than practically useful,
and is more fitted for invalids confined to a sick-room than to persons in
health, whose avocations require their exposure to different temperatures.

h 2

54

The German Sculptors.

[March,

Art. II.— THE GERMAN SCULPTORS.

We have already remarked, that the earlier sculptors of Germany were not only
inferior in positive power to their contemporaries, who excelled in the sister
art of painting, but that they were altogether deficient in nationality. The
influence of foreign art, Byzantine, French, Italian, is felt at once, by those
who contemplate their performances. On the other hand, however, it must
be observed, that anything more than mere influence is not to be met with ;
the style is foreign, but there is no servile imitation — no lack of invention ;
and there is that profound appreciation of the idea which is the foundation of
style ; that nice and delicate estimate of what is significant in form, that be-
speaks, not poverty of resources, but a sensibility to excellence, informed by
patient study and acute criticism. The infirmity of the German mind — an
infirmity generated by its nobler properties — is too much speculation ; it will
dare anything in support of a theory — dare nothing to supply the facts that
shall constitute the elements of a theory.

The researches that have been made in Greece during the present century
have indirectly modified the opinion which obtained concerning ancient sculp-
ture, and the taste that should govern the imitation of it by modern artists.
Before these researches were made, without any personal acquaintance with
the relics of ancient Greece, with no better opportunities than were at hand
to every one who chose to study and to think, a German, John Henry
Dannecker, arrived at these very conclusions, and exhibited the practical
consequences of them in his works, which so many persons of learning and
taste have, with so much labour and after so much controversy, eliminated
from the Elgin, the Phigalian, and the iEginetic marbles. He was born at
Stutgard in the year 1753, and before he was twenty years old had executed
some caryatides and other figures, for the princes of Wiirtemberg. In 1783
he went to Paris, and became the pupil of Pajeu, the man who first protested
against the enervated and debauched style that prevailed under Louis XV.
At Paris he remained two years ; and thence proceeded to Rome, where he be-
came the pupil of Canova. There, at Bologna, and at Milan, he executed
some works on mythological subjects, remarkable for a chasteness and deli-
cacy at that period scarcely known. After a residence in Italy of some years,
he returned to the city of his birth, and there passed the remainder of a long
life, honoured by the court of Wiirtemberg, admired by all Germany, and
renowned throughout Europe. In the year 1797 he made a bust of Schiller,
in every way worthy of the great poet, but somewhat detrimental to his own
career, for the numerous sovereigns of Germany became desirous of securing
immortality to their features, and overwhelmed him with commissions. He
found time, nevertheless, to execute some works that are distinguished by the
highest poetic feeling, and practical powers not easily surpassed. A group of
Cupid and Psyche, now at Stutgard, has all the charm, the mystery, the pa-
thos, that belong to an apologue which will ever delight the fancy and engage
the understanding. The statue of Ariadne, which was executed in 1809, and
removed to Frankfort in 1816', is the best known of his works. It is in the
gardens of M. Bethmann, and every tourist pays it homage. The daughter of
Minos is seated on a panther, and exhibits at once the voluptuousness that made
her the victim of Theseus, and the pride which she feels at being caressed by
a god for the infidelity of a hero. The head is bent forward, as though the
eye sought the lover, to show she hastens ; and the body follows the inclina-
tion thus given it with a movement not only full of grace, but of the anticipation
of happiness. A gesture, exquisitely feminine, brings the right hand in con-
tact with the foot, and reveals the weakness that was expiated atNaxos. The
attitude of this figure displays, boldly indeed, but without affectation, that
system of inflecti 3ns on which the whole art of the ancients is based. The
different aspects of the head, on the other hand, present a mixture of auda-
city and languor that belongs to the forms of modern genius. If the body
were better modelled, and the parts equal in delicacy to the composition it-
self, this work would be among the greatest of modern times : such as it is,
the classic school of Germany has produced nothing equal to it.

The figure of Christ, which Dannecker executed for one of the churches in
St. Petersburgh, is less celebrated, but, on the whole, an equally successful
performance. The loftiness of the outline, the elegance of the proportions,
the sweetness of the expression, just stopping short of melancholy, are pecu-
liar to the master. This work realises in sculpture, and with a strict observance
of the conditions proper to ancient art, that Ionian type, which Overbeck and
his pupils, following Giotto, Fiurle, and Perugino, have restored to the do-
main of painting. Tall, slender and chaste in person, clothed with a long
robe, and bending toward the earth, a face full of mildness and wisdom, this
inspired apparition seems to contemplate, in the face of some lake in Judea,
the divine enterprise of the regeneration of man.

Among the artists of Munich, there is none so universally respected and
beloved as Conrad Eberhard. He was born at Hindelang, near Augsburg, in
the year 1768, and has devoted himself entirely to the resuscitation of Gothic
sculpture. His delight is to carve figures for the compartments of a shield,
a pulpit, or an altar ; to execute the figure of a bishop reposing on an ancient
hieratic tomb. Unfortunately, he imitates the defects as well as the beauties
of the Gothic style ; and it has been said, with some truth, the former rather
more closely than the latter. His works are interesting, and no more ; but
the man himself, so pious, humble, conscientious, and enthusiastic, is a
marvel.

Louis Michael Schwanthaler was born at Munich, in the month of August,
1802. Descended from a family of sculptors, originally from the Tyrol, he
has acquired a precocious celebrity, by transferring to sculpture, with a faci-

lity never surpassed, all the forms which the study of early Christian art, and
a more intimate acquaintance with antiquity, has furnished to the artists of
our days. A most careful education, and the habit of looking at the serious
side of things, have given to his understanding that peculiar cultivation which
is suited to the bent of his taste. He was formed in the Academy of Munich,
under the direction of Langer. The work that brought him into notice was
a bas relief for the table service of the late king, on which he represented the
whole history of the Titans and of Prometheus. The treatment of this sub-
ject proclaimed a mind full of learning, and sensible to all the properties and
conditions of epic art. It was about this time that the works of Cornelius
became known ; and the young sculptor, on whom they made the profound-
est impression, at once gave in his adhesion to the principles which that great
man has laid down. In the year 1826 he was sent, at the expense of the
state, into Italy, and passed a year in that country, which he again visited in.
1834. On each occasion he lived on terms of familiarity with the sculptors
who follow the practice of the ancients, and the painters who have restored
the art of the middle ages. He indeed it is, who, as well by his age as by
genius, appears destined to reconcile two methods which, to the eye of the
superficial observer, cannot but appear utterly opposed and repugnant.

The marbles of JEgina, which are deposited in Munich, have been studied
with the greatest care, and in a spirit of enlightened criticism, by Schwantha-
ler. Their date, as we need scarcely inform the reader, is anterior to that of
Phidias. They exhibit the essential and elementary forms of Greek art ; and
from them may be eliminated the fundamental principles of sculpture, de-
nuded of the accretions which taste and style impose ; even as the principles
of painting have been brought to light from a study of the works of the artists
who preceded Raphael. Schwanthaler has not, indeed, appropriated to him-
self everything which the statues of the Panhelleion offer to the student. He
has neglected much that is sublime, every thing that is austere and hierogly-
phic ; but he has borrowed from them the bold and happy union of beauty
and movement, of style and nature, that enables him to essay all subjects in
which energy is necessary, without having to fear lest his power should offend
taste or want pathos.

The palace of the king of Bavaria is decorated with a large number of com-
positions which have been painted after designs of Schwanthaler. In the
apartments of the king are to be seen subjects from the poems of Orpheus,
Hesiod, iEschylus, Sophocles, and Aristophanes. On the grand floor of the
new wing are scenes from the twenty -four books of the Iliad. The abundance,
the originality, the inexhaustible variety of the ideas, the elegance and faci-
lity of the forms, strike the beholder with astonishment. The original sketches
are wonderful : it is obvious that they have been drawn off-hand, without the
slightest hesitation, with scarcely an erasure, without pausing to measure dis-
tances, to calculate conformity, to observe the general effect : indeed, the
haste, the impetuosity of unchecked inspiration, can alone explain the bold-
ness of the gestures, the vivacity of the different groups, the extraordinary
mixture of fire and grace, of purity and passion. Lines are the language of
Schwanthaler, with which he speaks as in a native idiom, and extempore, as does
an orator by words. On the other hand, it must be observed, that he speaks
this language of lines just as many speak their mother tongue, without under-
standing it scientifically. By profound, conscientious, and persevering study,
he has enabled himself to generate ideas rather than to deliver them. His
designs are like the animated conversation of a clever man, full of matter, full
of emphasis ; the thoughts succeed one another with rapidity, dazzle by their
fertility and their brightness, and are adorned by a natural elegance ; but
they want delicacy, and a sense of those differences and similarities that govern
the relations of things that are subordinate to the principal idea. Conversa-
tion, it must have been remarked by every one, however comprehensive in the
outline which it sketches, is always incomplete in the details : so is it with the
designs of the artist. By patient study of ancient monuments he has become
familiar with brevity and solemnity ; but he uses the straight line with an in-
different prodigality, that bespeaks less the feeling that this is the highest
mark of style, than a knowledge that it is also the shortest path from
one point to another. We have said that he speaks by lines ; he writes by
them, we should have said ; and, too frequently, shorthand. Anything that
abridges, it seems also simplifies the conception, and has a charm for his mind.
His science is embodied in composition and arrangement ; in execution he isr
quaint, precise, impetuous. It were to be wished that he would join to these
qualities exactness of analysis, refinement, — in short, reflection. These ob-
servations apply equally to his performances as a sculptor. Analysis is, in
some measure, the colour of a statue ; it supplies the life, the subtlety, which
the play of colours gives to a painting. In Germany the sculptors want ana-
lytical power, just as the painters want colour ; and yet Albert Diirer was one
of the greatest masters of colour and analysis that ever lived.

The residence of Schwanthaler is one of the most extraordinary spectacles
in Munich : it is a veritable school of sculpture. Pediments, statues, busts,,
models, sketches, blocks of marble, casts, clay, pupils, painters, visitors,
abound. The artist himself is invisible — concealed in his cabinet, far from
the crowd and bustle, he devotes to composition the few hours which a con-
stitution worn out by labour permits him to consecrate to his art.

The groups that adorn the pediments of the Walhalla have been modelled
by Schwanthaler. The subject of the first represents the different nations
recovering, by the treaties of 1815, the conquests which France had won on
the banks of the Rhine. The original design was by Rauch, who took for
his model the beautiful groups on the anterior pediment of the Parthenon ;
and, though Schwanthaler has made some changes in it, he has preserved the

Should the future Ships of the Royal Navy be built of Iron or Timber?

1844.]

elegant attitudes, the flowing drapery, and the happy inclinations of the ori-
ginal. The Genius of Germany, in the centre, extends her arms to receive
the conquests that, from either side, are brought to her feet. The figures are
in full relief, like those on the anterior pediment of the Temple of Minerva.
In composing the second pediment of the Walhalla, Schwanthaler has bor-
rowed the arrangement from the posterior pediment of the Parthenon; the
style from the marbles of Algeria. It represents the primitive history of the
Germans, and the popular story of Arminius, who, on the one side, checks
the legions of Varus, and, on the other, seems to demand from the bards and
prophetesses of his native forests a prediction of the ruin of Rome. The
scene is full of animation, forcible as well as elegant. The figures are in
haut-relief, as are those on the posterior pediment of the Parthenon. But
the Parthenon was surrounded by a wall, which prevented the spectator from
approaching within a certain distance : the Walhalla, on the contrary, is so
exposed, that these figures may be viewed at any angle,

In the studio of Schwanthaler there is a frieze, in gypsum, which is des-
tined to serve as a complement to the paintings of Schwar in the new saloons
of the palace. The life of Frederick Barbarossa is the subject of it. The
groups are full of fire : the costumes of chivalry, the landscapes of the East,
the monuments of the middle ages, the divers accidents in the troubled life
of the hero, are all represented with boldness and effect : in short, the work
is a model of the application of ancient relief to modern history. The artist
has frequently applied this system of relief on gypsum. Several specimens
of it are on the walls of the throne-room ; and in the saloons of the Glypto-
thek he has mingled some with the frescoes of Cornelius. On the second story
of the palace, the mythus of Venus has been executed by him in the same
materials. But of this it may be observed, that the popular mythology has
been followed with far too little disguise.

The mythus of Bacchus, which adorns the banqueting-room of Prince
Maximilian of Birckenfeld, would alone suffice to immortalise the name of
Schwanthaler. It is a frieze in gypsum, and embraces the four sides of the
apartment. On the first side is the Infancy of Bacchus ; on the second, the
Indian Triumph of Bacchus ; on the third, opposite the first, the Labours of
Bacchus ; on the fourth, opposite the triumph, his Reception into the starry
Olympus. By combining the beauty of Phidias with the action of the iEgi-
netau, the sculptor has composed for himself a style so lively, so pure, and
so original, that a copy of the drawings from which the work was executed
would bear juxtaposition with the most celebrated works of modern genius.
The first figure of this frieze represents Semele in the throes of childbirth.
This is the most daring attempt of modern genius ; and it has been successful.
It is impossible to do justice, by language, to the truth, the beauty, and the
delicacy with which this most arduous subject has been rendered ; suffice it
to say, that by the convulsed action of the knees against the covering which
is laid on the body of the figure, of the depending arms, and the head thrown
back in agony, the artist has conveyed the idea of the peculiar suffering which
he had to describe ; and that, even without the glorious figure of Jupiter at
the foot of the bed, it would be felt that this scene of pain has a divine cause
and purpose. In the Indian Triumph of Bacchus there is the like union of
action and beauty. The procession opens with dancing-women and centaurs ;
a charming contrast of power and grace, of merriment and voluptuousness,
of materialism, and delicacy of appetite and sentiment. Bacchus, a figure
of youth and joyousness, is seated in his car in the centre : behind the car the
dance is continued, but with more of passion and license : a centaur carries
off a woman, who detaches herself from the ground with a magic lightness, as
though a flower were to take wing from its stem. The procession is closed
by old Silenus, too fat and too tipsy to keep time with the rest, and therefore
pushed forward by a crowd of merry boys. The spirit and grace of this
composition are beyond all praise, and neither is sacrificed to the other.

Relief is the style that is most suitable to the refined manner of Schwan-
thaler ; for statues require long meditation and a close adjustment to nature.
The beauty of the latter depends on something more than mere form and out-
line : every aspect in which they can be seen must be adapted to the idea
which they are to represent. This requires patient study, minute attention,
and complicated calculations ; of all which, the fiery, impetuous genius of this
artist is intolerant. He is, however, a man of sense ; and it is only by com-
parison with the best and greatest among others, and his own performances
in another style, that his statues suffer. The figures of the ancient sculptors,
which he has designed for the exterior niches of the Glyptothek, want finish,
but they breathe youth and enthusiasm : so the statues of the painters, which
have been placed on the cornice of the Pinacothek, though defective in point
of modelling, display the profoundest study of the genius of the men whom
they represent. The colossal statues, in bronze, of the princes of the Ba-
varian family, which are destined to adorn the Throne-room, are the best per-
formances of the artist in this style ; the armour, and the largeness of the
costume, requiring less analysis ; and they are altogether German in concep-
tion and execution. A series of reliefs, after legends of the middle ages,
which he has executed for the brothers, Boisserie, are in the old Gothic style,
true as the works of Ebechard, but with more of mettle and fire. A Christ,
in bronze, which adorns the cathedral of Bamberg, is in the Byzantine style,
and almost as true to that style as are the works last mentioned to the Gothic.
Thus has this artist essayed every style of sculpture, and made it his own,
without once permitting the impress of his own genius to be obliterated.

55

Art. III. — SHOULD THE FUTURE SHIPS OF THE ROYAL
NAVY BE BUILT OF IRON OR TIMBER ?

In a former Number we compared the merits of wood and iron as materials
for building steam- vessels, and expressed our intention to recur to the subject
on a future occasion ; in accordance with which, we now purpose to extend
our consideration to the comparative advantages and disadvantages in the
use of iron and timber for building ships in general, including large ships
of war.

The principal objections to iron ships are, that the iron plates of the bottom
are rapidly decomposed by the action of salt-water ; and, according to the
present mode of building them, that they are not sufficiently strong. The
advantages claimed for iron ships are, the abundant home-supply of the ma-
terial ; safety in case of accident from collision, or from striking the bottom
on a rock ; superior buoyancy, or less weight of the hull ; the damage sus-
tained from shot, in time of action, not so great ; no injury from the attacks
of sea- worms ; no liability to destruction from fire ; greater cleanliness ; and
less first cost, and subsequent expense of repairs.

The first disadvantage, the corrosion of the iron plates, is admitted to be
of great moment : to protect the plates is of the greatest importance ; and
this, it is considered, can be done by the application of paint, or other anti-
corrosive composition, to their surfaces. Above the water, if the paint should
be rubbed oft', as it is likely to be in some parts, it can be again paid over ;
but, under water, where the bottom of the ship is exposed to the rubbing of
the chain-cable, this cannot be effected without docking or grounding the
ship, which may not be practicable: something more than a coating of paint
or composition, we think, is very desirable, if not absolutely necessary. An
iron-plate sheathing, of about one-third the thickness of the principal plates,
would protect the bottom, and strengthen the ship ; and this, when corroded or
worn, could easily be replaced.

The objection to the general weakness of iron ships would be fatal, if it
were impossible to increase their strength ; but, by the introduction of addi-
tional longitudinal bands and diagonal riders, there can be no doubt as to the
possibility of rendering them as strong as ships built of timber.

One of the advantages in favour of iron, as a material for ship-building,
may be estimated by the abundance of the supply of British iron, and from,
the consideration of the quantity of timber, of foreign growth, used in build-
ing the ships of our mercantile and royal navies. If we suppose that, for a
ship of the line built of iron, to be equally strong with one as at present built,
must have the same weight of hull, the supply of iron in one year would be
more than sufficient to build as many ships of the line as there are in the
royal navy. In case of striking on a rock, or of collision with another ship,
the injury sustained by an iron ship would be confined to the part struck ;
and the water-tight bulkheads would prove an effectual preservation to the
ship : in a timber ship, the planks struck would most probably be started
from one end to the other, an extent of from thirty to forty feet ; and even if
fitted with water-tight bulkheads, the advantage of them would not be nearly
so great as in the case of iron ships.

The shot, in time of action, would do less damage to the hull of an iron
ship, and there would be no splinters. In the timber ships there are more
men killed by splinters than by shot.

The other advantages, safety from fire, and the attacks of sea-worms, are
obvious ; and that of buoyancy we abandon, by supposing the iron ship to be
equally strong and equally heavy with the one built of timber. Of course
iron and timber ships or steamers, of equal capacity, armament, or power,
are supposed to be compared with each other.

The last advantage claimed for the iron-built ships, is that of first cost, and
subsequent expense of repairs. The weight of the hull of a ship of the line
is about 1800 tons ; and the value of the materials of which it is composed,
wood, iron, metal, and copper, taken one with the other, is rather more than
33/. per ton ; the value of the labour is 12,000/. In comparing an iron ship
with this, if we suppose the value of the labour to be the same, and the value
of the material 11/. per ton, the first cost of an iron ship will be 31,800/. ;
while that of one built of timber is 72,000/. ; or, the former is considerably
less than one half. We do not mean to say that this precise proportion ob-
tains ; but we are very confident that the iron will be found much the
cheaper.

The subsequent repairs of iron ships, we coneeive, will be confined to the
bottom plates principally ; the expense of replacing the whole of which would
not much exceed that of re-coppering the bottom of a ship built of timber.
From these considerations, we think that it would, in every respect, be ad-
vantageous to the country, if the future ships of the navy were to be built
of iron.

The Earl of Dundonald's steamer, the " Janus," was launched on the 8th
ultimo, at Chatham. She is to be fitted with his lordship's revolving engines,
to which the shaft is affixed. It is about twelve years since that similar
engines, on a small scale, were fitted on board a boat, and answered his lord-
ship's expectations. How they will answer on a large scale, experiment will
shortly prove. We are not aware that the invention meets the approval of
engineers ; and on this account we cannot say that we anticipate a successful
result. The "Janus" is a vessel of large dimensions, and may be appro-

56

The Patent Laws of England.

[March,

priated to another use. if the experiment should be unsuccessful,
mensions are,

Her di-

Ft.

In.

Length on the upper deck

180

0

Ditto on keel, for tonnage .

. 159

1

Breadth, extreme .

30

0

Ditto, moulded

. 29

4

Deep, in hold

19

1

Draught of water

. 11

2, with 260 tons of coals

Diameter of paddle-wheel

21

0

Launching draught of water, abaft, 7'2 ; ditto, forward, 7'5
Tonnage, 76 Iff
She had, when launched, 40 tons of ballast on board, and an anchor at the
cat-head : having both ends alike, without ballast and anchor, she would
draw as much water abaft as forward.

Art. IV.— THE PATENT LAWS OF ENGLAND.

The justice and policy of granting to the inventor of a useful machine the
privilege of its exclusive manufacture and sale for a limited period, are recog-
nized by all civilized nations. It is a cheap mode adopted by the government
of a country, of stimulating invention, and improvements in manufactures,
whereby the trade and wealth of a nation are increased ; and the inventor is
remunerated at the same time for his ingenuity, and for the trouble and ex-
pense that the perfecting of his invention has occasioned. Hence it has been
observed, with great justice by Mr. Webster, in his work on the Law of Pa-
tents, " the granting of letters patent is not a mere matter of favour, but an
equitable claim on the sovereign." The necessary conditions of the grant
are, that the invention must be of public utility ; that it must be new, and be
either directly by invention, or indirectly by communication, the property
of the party to whom the monopoly of manufacture and sale is granted. All,
therefore, that the true inventor gains by the monopoly, is the protection of
his property, — property, be it observed, of his own creation, and which is
admitted to add to the wealth or comfort of the community. A mere letter
of protection against fraud and robbery is the least claim that could be made
by a subject on his sovereign, whatever were the nature of the property to be
protected ; but when it is considered that the property in question is created
by the owner, and that he has thereby, admittedly, become a national bene-
factor, to a greater or less extent, his claim to protection becomes even
stronger than that of the possessor of any other kind of property whatever.

Notwithstanding these powerful claims of inventors to the full and free
possession of the produce of their ingenuity, labour, and research, it has been
deemed fitting that the right to protection of this inherently natural property
should not be had except by purchase, and at a large price ; so that the poor
inventor who cannot afford to pay this species of Mack mail to the legal
officers of the Crown, is practically in the condition of an outlaw, whom every
thief may pillage with impunity. The plausible pretext for this extra tax for
protection, is the prevention of a multiplicity of monopolies ; but the only
real purpose is to put fees into the pockets of certain functionaries, who do
actually nothing, as regards the interests of the patentee, of the least practical
value. This injustice calls aloud for a remedy ; but it is only one of many
instances that the patent laws present of the necessity of alteration, both in
principle and in practice.

For the purpose of showing succinctly the nature of the reforms required
in our patent laws, we shall consider seriatim the formalities requisite to be
observed in obtaining letters patent, and point out the uselessness of most of
these forms, and the defects of those stages of the proceeding which have
some show of utility. The imperfection of the law, when it is appealed to in
defence of the property, for the especial protection of which the patentee has
paid so dearly, will constitute another subject for animadversion.

The first step frequently taken by an intending patentee, is to enter a caveat
in the Attorney- General's office against the grant of letters patent for any
similar invention. By this proceeding, the inventor is assured of being in-
formed should any other such application for a patent be made ; that he may,
if he think proper, oppose the grant. The entering of a caveat is, however,
altogether optional ; it affords the inventor no protection, nor even priority ;
it only provides him with information of what other inventions of the same
kind may be in progress. When the inventor wishes to proceed in obtaining
his patent, a petition to the Queen must be drawn, stating the title of the
invention, and it must be accompanied by a declaration that he is the real
inventor. The petition and declaration are lodged at the Secretary of State's
office; and, after lying there a few days, it is referred to the Attorney or
Solicitor-General. In the Attorney-General's office the affair is, in ordinary
cases, delayed about a week — not, as might be supposed, for the purpose of
examining the merits of the invention ; for the title of it is all that he is ac-
quainted with; — at the end of which time, a " report" is made about
nothing, (for nothing has been disclosed,) which ends in recommending the
grant. The report travels to the Secretary of State's office, where the Queen's
warrant is made out, directing a bill to be prepared for her Majesty's signa-
ture. The warrant is taken to the Attorney-General, who prepares the bill ;
and again the Secretary of State's office receives the document, which then
receives the Queen's signature, and is called the Queen's Bill. This bill has

to be taken to the Signet-office, where a copy of it is made as a warrant to
the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal, and is sealed with the Queen's signet.
The document is then called the Signet Bill ; and at the office of the Lord
Keeper of the Privy Seal a similar warrant, sealed with the Privy Seal, is
made to the Lord Chancellor, authorizing him to affix the Great Seal to the
letters patent. The Hanaper-office was formerly interposed between the
Privy Seal and the Lord Chancellor's office. This additional source of delay
is now dispensed with ; but the fees of the\Hanaper-office continue to be im-
posed, though there is not now even the pretext of doing anything for the
1/. 13*. 6d. thus taken. The actual letters patent are then made out, and
sealed with the Great Seal ; the whole processes occupying, when nothing
interferes to obstruct, about four or five weeks.

This bandying about from office to office is altogether useless ; the only
object of it being to afford a pretext for extracting fees from the inventor. It
is so much additional trouble and delay, for the sole purpose of giving the
fee-receivers the appearance of doing something for the money they demand.
It would, indeed, be far better, if the plan of the Hanaper-office were adopted,
that the stated fees should be paid, and that, by a fiction of the imagination,
the duties paid for should be assumed to have been performed. The only
offices in which there is anything done that is not a mere matter of form, are
those of the Attorney and Solicitor General ; as it rests entirely with those
officers to recommend, or, in other words, to determine whether or not letters
patent shall be granted. In most cases, indeed, the duty they have to dis-
charge, in recommending the grant of letters patent, is a sinecure. The
declaration of the inventor, and the title of the invention, are their only
guides ; and, unless there be an opposition from some interested party who
has lodged a caveat, the patent is granted as a matter of course. Of the
nature of the invention, the law-officers of the Crown are not otherwise in-
formed ; and the object which the Attorney- General recommends her Majesty
to sanction, by granting her royal license for its exclusive manufacture, may,
for aught the Attorney -General knows to the contrary, be a machine for
blowing up Windsor Castle, or " an improved process " for poisoning all the
inhabitants of London. Whilst the grant of letters patent is such a mere
matter of course, it does seem extravagantly absurd that so much apparent
caution, and so many legal formalities, should be observed.

We have stated that the Attorney-General, who recommends the grant
of letters patent, knows nothing of the nature of the invention, and that,
unless the grant be opposed, it may remain a secret till the day of specifi-
cation. In the case of opposition, however, both parties are heard separately
before the Attorney- General or Solicitor- General, as the case maybe; and
that officer, learned in the law, but frequently ignorant on all matters of
science and mechanism, has to decide which of the competing inventions is
the most novel and useful. He generally, however, gets out of the difficulty
by recommending the parties to unite, and make a joint application.

It is when all the fee-receiving offices have been passed, and the letters
patent, with the Great Seal dangling from the parchment, have been ob-
tained, that the real difficulties of the patentee commence. He has received a
carte blanche from her Majesty to claim the monopoly of any kind of me-
chanism that the title of his patent will cover ; and titles are purposely made
so general as to comprise a vast range. But he has received no information
whether his invention has been previously monopolized ; and, for anything
he knows to the contrary, several patents may have been granted prior to the
date of his own for the same invention, whereby all the trouble and cost in-
curred avail nothing. He has six months allowed for perfecting his invention
by experiments, before he is called upon to describe what he claims to mono-
polize. He must be cautious, however, even now, how he conducts his experi-
ments, or permits the principle of his invention to be known ; for the same
latitude of claiming which has been granted to him may have been granted to
some other unspecified patentee, whose title will comprehend both inventions ;
and he may thus be robbed of the produce of his ingenuity, skill, and indus-
try, when he thought himself perfectly secure. But supposing these obstacles
to be overcome, he has still to encounter the difficulty of making a claim in
such a form that no sharp-witted lawyer can detect a flaw. The uncertainty
of the law, and the subtlety of its practitioners, render this a work almost
impossible. There is an old adage respecting the efficacy of truth in shaving
even a more cunning and more brazen-faced personage than a lawyer ; and
we believe that a simple, truthful description of the invention is the safest
specification that can be adopted. There are, however, some technicalities
to be observed, which none but a person versed in the practice of the patent
laws can be aware of, and the non-observance of which might vitiate an
otherwise good specification. It is necessary, therefore, to have advice in a
business of so much importance and difficulty, but at the same time to be
careful to avoid the multiplicity of words in which lawyers delight to mystify
the sense.

We will conceive our patentee to have truthfully and legally performed all
the conditions required by his grant, and that his invention is useful, and the
manufacture of it becoming profitable. He then discovers that a rival manu-
facturer is infringing his patent, and selling the very article for the exclusive
manufacture of which he has obtained a grant from the Crown, after ample
payment to the public officers and to the public revenue. He applies for
protection against the invader of his rights, when he finds that he can procure
no redress without being at the expense of an action at law ; and that all he
has gained by the purchase of letters patent is the privilege of having his pro-
perty recognized by law, and of defending it at his own cost and risk. Nay,
further, when he goes into court he may find the very Attorney-General, at

1844.]

Naval Architecture.

57

whose recommendation the patent was granted, and whom he had fee'd well
for his opinion, to ,be employed against him, and endeavouring to show that
the patent is of no value, and that the patentee has no right to the monopoly
of the manufacture !

The practice of granting letters patent, on payment of the stipulated stamps
and fees, indiscriminately to all applicants, without asking them to explain
the nature of their inventions, renders that which was formerly considered a
Royal favour a mere matter of purchase ; and the grant of monopolies for
exclusive manufacture and sale is thus conceded, without any regard to the
public interest. The whole system is at present most unsatisfactory, both to
patentees and to the public, and is devoid of any principle based either on
utility or expediency. Viewing letters patent merely as purchaseable com-
modities, it is most unjust — and, in other affairs of purchase and sale, would
be deemed dishonest — to sell the same article to many different customers,
leaving them to contend subsequently for its possession. Yet this injustice
is done, and is always liable to occur, by adhering to forms of proceeding
which have no relation to present circumstances, or are applicable only to
grants of a totally different kind.

In most foreign countries it is an indispensable preliminary, in making
application for a patent, that the inventor should describe, in writing, the
principle of his invention. A similar plan ought to be followed in this
country ; and, considering the large sums now paid annually for the privilege
of protection, some fitting and well-informed officers should be appointed to
advise applicants for patents whether their inventions be new, whether any
previous patent would invalidate their claims, and to consider whether the
invention be of sufficient public utility to make it worthy of being exclusively
privileged. If such precautions were taken prior to granting letters patent,
the privilege, when granted, would be of far greater value ; for the patentee
would not, as at present," require the verdict of a jury to give validity to the
grant from his sovereign.

The average number of patents purchased in the course of a year exceeds
400 ; and the stamps and the fees to Government officers amount to upwards
of 40,000/. per annum. Patentees have, therefore, surely a reasonable claim
to the services of some one at least of the officers thus liberally fee'd, and to
expect that, instead of paying for senseless forms, which result in conferring
a questionable grant, the privilege they purchase at so high a rate should be
of itself considered valid.

The incongruities of the patent laws, and their injustice, are more nume-
rous and more flagrant than we now have space to particularise. The most
pressing grievance on inventors, however, consists in the nature of the grant
itself, and in the forms and the cost of procuring it. Reforms which involve
the reduction of fees, and the multiplication of duties, are those most difficult
to be effected : they are, nevertheless, the most practically beneficial ; and
though we cannot expect the cause of patentees to be forced on the notice of
the Government by public demonstration in their favour, we may hope at
least that when attention is directed to the injustice, and, we may add, the
absurdity, of the existing practice of granting patents, common sense will be
powerful enough to work an amendment.

Art. V.— NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.

On the Centre of Gravity of a Ship, of the Displacement, and of the Load-
water and Midship Sections.

The centre of gravity of a body, or of a system of bodies, is defined to be that
point where, if fixed or supported, there will be an equilibrium, in whatever
position the body or system may be placed.

This point of a ship is the centre of gravity of all the various parts of which
it is composed, when fully equipped, with everything in its proper place, as
the hull, masts, yards, rigging, sails, stores, provisions, armament, or cargo,
ballast, crew, &c, regarded as a system, or heterogeneous body ; that of
the displacement is the centre of gravity of that part of the ship which is below
the surface of the water, considered as a homogeneous body, or a body having
the same density throughout.

A mass or body, multiplied by the perpendicular distance of its centre
of gravity from any plane, is the moment of that mass from the plane.

If there be a system of bodies, whose masses are m1, m.A, m%, &c, and
the perpendicular distances of their centres of gravity from the plane A B, be

d , d„, d3, &c, respectively, then m1 x dy,m2 x d2, mz x d.6, are the moments
of the masses from the plane A B, and

m] x dj + jw2 x d2 + m3 x d3 + , &c.
m1 + m2 + m3 + , &c.

the perpendicular distance of the common centre of gravity of the masses
from A B : that is, the sum of the moments of the masses divided by the
sum of the masses, is the distance of the centre of gravity of the system from
the plane.

If any of the masses, composing the system, be on the opposite side of the
plane, the sum of the moments of the masses on one side must be deducted
from the sum of the moments on the opposite side, and the difference of the
moments divided by the sum of the masses, will be the perpendicular distance
of the common centre of gravity of the masses, from the plane, on that side
of which the sum of the moments is the greater.

The distance of the centre of gravity of a ship, from the load water-line, has
been sometimes calculated by this method ; but the labour is so great, that
practical methods are preferred, which will be explained hereafter. To apply
this principle in calculating the position of the centre of gravity of the dis-
placement and of the load-water and midship sections : —

The principal longitudinal vertical section, when the ship is upright, divides
the displacement into two equal and similar parts ; consequently, the centre
of gravity of the displacement is in this plane ; and the centres of gravity of
the load-water and midship sections are in their respective lines of intersection
with the vertical longitudinal plane, which are their middle lines. It is
therefore necessary to calculate the distance, longitudinally, of the centre of
gravity of the displacement from some fixed plane, and its depth from the
load water-line. That of the load water-line is calculated from an ordinate
near one of the extremities ; and the centre of gravity of the midship section
is calculated from the upper ordinate, which is the height of the load water-
line at this section.

To calculate the distance of the centre of gravity of the midship section
from the load water-line, the equidistant ordinates are multiplied by their
respective distances from this line, the first ordinate being multiplied by 0 :
this gives the moments of the ordinates, which are put into one of the rules
to find the moment of the area : the moment of the small part below the
lowest ordinate is in a similar manner calculated from that ordinate, and this
moment is divided by the area of the small part below the lowest ordinate,
which gives tbe distance of the centre of gravity of the small part from this
line. This distance is added to the distance between the load water-line and
the lowest ordinate of the upper part ; and the area of the small part is mul-
tiplied by the sum of these distances, which gives the moment of the small
part from the load water-line. This moment is added to the moment of the
upper part, and the sum of the moments is divided by the area of the midship
section : the quotient is the distance of the centre of gravity of the midship
section from the load water-line.

To facilitate the operation, the moments are found by multiplying the
ordinates by 0, 1, 2, 3, &c. ; the first being multiplied by 0, the second by 1,
the third by 2, and so on, and putting the results into the rule, and then
multiplying by the common interval.

The centre of gravity of the load water-line is found in a similar manner
from ordinate 1 of the middle area ; but the moment of the small area abaft
this ordinate must be deducted from the sum of the moments of the middle
part and small area forward, and the difference of the moments, divided by
the area of the load water-line, will be the distance of the centre of gravity
of this line from ordinate 1 , from which the moments were calculated.

The distance of the centre of gravity of the displacement from section 1
of the middle solid is found in a similar manner ; the moments of the solids
being calculated by taking the moments of the areas of equidistant sections
from section 1, and putting them into the rule : add the moment of the small
solid forward to the moment of the middle solid, and deduct the moment of
the small solid abaft ; divide this difference by the displacement, and the
quotient is the distance of the centre of gravity from section 1.

The depth of the centre of gravity of the displacement, from the load
water-line, is calculated as that of the midship section : the areas of the
water-lines being used as ordinates in obtaining the moments of the solids.

The following example is the calculation of the centre of gravity of the
load water-line. (Fig- 2 in the last Number.)

Moment of the middle area from ordinate 1.

Ordinates.

1 — 13-4 x 0 = 0

X

1

= 0

2 — 14-2 x 1 = 14-2

X

3

= 42-6

3—14-4 x 2 = 28 8

X

3

= 86-4

4 — 14-6 x 3 = 43-8

X

2

= 87-6

5 — 15-0 x 4 = 60-0

X

3

= 180-0

6 — 150 x 5 = 75-0

X

3

= 225-0

7 — 14-6 x 6 = 87-6

X

2

= 175-2

8 — 14-4 x 7 = 100-8

X

3

= 302-4

9 — 13-8 x 8 = 110-4

X

3

= 331-2

0—12-4 x 9 = 111-6

X

1

= 111-6

1542-0

3 x f of the common interval

4626-0

8 x common interval.

37008-0 = moment of the middle are

58

Naval Architecture.

[March,

Moment of small area abaft ordinate 1.

1 — 13-4 x 0 = 0 x

1 = 0

2 — 12-8 x 1 = 12-8 x

4 = 51-2

3 — 12-0 x 2 = 24-0 x

2 = 48-0

4 — 10-6 x 3 = 31-8 x

4 = 127-2

5— 8-4x4= 33-6 x

2 = 67-2

6— 5-0x5 = 25-0 x

4 = 100-0

7_ -5 x 6 = 3-0 x

1 = 30

396-6

4 x \ common interval

3)1586-4

528-8

1 4 x common interval.

2115-2 = moment of small area abaft.

1 — 12-4

2 — 11-2

3— 9-2

4— 6-2

5— -5

Moment of small area forward.

0=0 x 1 = 0

1 = 11-2 x 4 = 44-8

2 = 18-4 x 2 = 36-8

3 = 18-6 x 4 = 74-4

4 = 2-0x1= 2-0

158-0

4xi common interval.

3)632-0

210-6

4 x common interval.

842-4 = moment of small area forward, from
. ordinate 1 of that part.

Moment 842-4

: 6-2 = the distance of the centre of gravity of the small
area 134-5
area forward, from ordinate 1 of that area; and 78-2 = its distance from
ordinate 1 of middle area.

134-5 x 78-2= 10517-9 = moment of small area forward, from ordi-
nate I of middle area.

10517-9 + 37008 — 2115-2 = 45410-7 = the moment of the load water-
line, from ordinate 1 of middle area.
45410-7

And

32'G = the distance of the centre of gravity of the

1392-7

load water-line, from ordinate 1 of the middle area ; which is -6 feet before
the middle of the load water-line.

Investigation of the expression for the stability of a Ship.

A ship floating on a fluid is supported by the upward pressure of the par-
ticles of the fluid on the bottom, which pressure is equal to the weight of the
ship : the effect, according to a law of mechanics, is the same as if the whole
upward pressure acted in a vertical line, passing through the centre of gravity
o the displacement. If this vertical line does not also pass through the
centre of gravity of the ship, the effect of the upward pressure is to produce

motion round this centre of gravity; when the ship is. at rest, therefore, the
centre of gravity of the ship and that of the displacement are in the same
vertical line.

When the ship is inclined from its upright position, the centre of gravity of
the displacement is carried over to the inclined side, and the upward pressure
of the fluid, acting through this point, passes at a distance from the centre of
gravity of the ship, and tends to restore the ship to its upright position.

The ship being inclined on one side by any force, as that of the wind on
the sails, a part of the body which was immediately above the surface of the
fluid is immersed on the lee side, and on the opposite side of the ship a part
which was immediately below the surface of the fluid is emerged, and these
solids of immersion and emersion are equal to each other, the whole displace-
ment being the same after, as it was before the ship was inclined.

Let BAcba be the vertical transverse section of a ship at the place of the
centre of gravity.

G the centre of gravity of the ship.

C the centre of gravity of the displacement when the ship is upright.

D the centre of gravity of the displacement when the ship is inclined.

A a the load water-line when the ship is upright.

B b the load water-line when it is inclined.

Join CG, and produce it to meet the vertical line through D in the point M ;
draw CL and GK perpendicular to DM, and GH perpendicular to CL.

I is the immersion, and E is the emersion, which solids are equal to each
other.

In consequence of the inclination of the ship, E is taken from the displace-
ment on one side, and I is added to the displacement on the other, and the
horizontal moment produced by the transferring of E to I, is b I where b
is the horizontal distance between the centres of gravity of E and I.

Let V be the volume of fluid displaced, or the displacement ; then the
upward pressure of the fluid through the point D, tending to restore the ship
to its upright position is V x GK, the perpendicular distance at which it acts
from the centre of gravity G, round which point the ship revolves.

Now V x GK = V x CL — V x CH, and V x CL is equal to the horizon-
tal moment occasioned by the transfer of E to I ; and is consequently equal to
b I. Also, CH = CG x sin. of the angle CGH, which is equal to the angle of
inclination : and CG is the distance between the centre of gravity of the ship
and that of the displacement = d; therefore V x GK =51 — Yd x sin.
of the angle of inclination. That is, the effect of the upward pressure to right
the ship is equal to b I - V ds. s being the sine of the angle of inclination.

Let X be the length of the line of intersection of the planes of the inclined
water-line, and the water-line when the ship is upright.

Z the area of a section of the solid of immersion at the broadest part of the
ship.

z the area of a corresponding section of the emersion,

W the perpendicular distance of the centre of gravity of Z, from a vertical
longitudinal plane passing through X.

w that of z from the same plane.

Then Z W is the moment of the area of the section of immersion from this
longitudinal plane.

And z w, that of the area of the section of emersion from the same plane.

f ZW d x and fzwdn, are the moments of the solids of immersion and emer-
sion from the longitudinal plane, and fZWdx fzwdx is the sum of the

~~ I + TT~

distances of the centres of gravity of the solids of immersion and emersion
from the same plane, therefore equal to b : and as I = E

fZW dx + fzwdx

j = b or JZWdx + fzwdx = b I ;

and JZW dx + J z w dx —Yd. s. = bl —Y d.s., which is the expression
for the stability of a ship.

The Metacentre.

The Metacentre is that point where the vertical longitudinal section of a
ship, when it floats upright, is met by a vertical line passing through the cen-
tre of gravity of the displacement, when the angle of inclination of the ship
is indefinitely small. The distance of this point from the centre of gravity
of the ship is immediately deduced from the above expression for the moment
of stability.

Let y = the half breadth of the ship ; andZ being the area of the section
of immersion, then

Z=yx 1 xsandW= 1. y; therefore ZW dx=y. 1. s . t.y.dx = VS-s-dv

2 3 2 3 3

and when the angle of inclination is indefinitely small, Z = z, and W = w ;
and fZWdx + J ' zwdx = f%-ya dx

or,fZWdx + fzwdx - dYs =_/§ .y3dx - dY
and f^y3dx- d = the height of the Metacentre from the centre of

~~ V
gravity of the ship, /* J- y 3 d x being the height of the metacentre, from the

V

centre of gravity of the displacement.

18M.]

Bar Harbours.

59

Midship Section.

Scale, ^in. to a foot.

i z 4 6 8 m 12 M 'C 18 to n U\

I ' ' ' ' ' 1 i ■ ■ ■ 3

After-part of Load Water-line.

Art. VI.— BAR HARBOURS.

When considering the important subject of Bar Harbours in the preceding
number of the Artizan, we quoted the opinions of most of the authorities
worth notice respecting the cause of the formation of bars, and from those
opinions we ventured to dissent We showed, by reference to numerous
existing bars, that they are not dependent on the rapidity, nor on the slug-
gishness of the streams running into the sea ; therefore, that they are not to
be prevented by scourage ; and that their formation has little relation to the
declivity of the bed of the river at its mouth. We now propose to explain
what we conceive to be the cause of the formation of bars, and the means to
be adopted for their prevention.

All bars may be divided into two distinct classes : those formed of fresh-
water deposits, brought by the rivers into the sea ; and those formed by the
accumulation of marine substances, principally consisting of shingle. In
both cases the principle on which the depositions depend is the same, though
the materials are derived from different sources. The earthy and sandy sub-
stances of which the fresh-water deposits are composed, are suspended in the
fluid, against the action of gravity, by the reaction of the bed of the river,
against which the water strikes in its onward course. The more rapid the
stream the greater will be the quantity of matter abraded from its banks,
and carried onwards suspended in the fluid, as the turbidity of all water-
courses swollen by rain exemplifies. When such a stream flows into a large
body of water that is comparatively stagnant, it cannot, of course, impart its
motion to the larger mass ; by being mingled together the original velocity is
lost, and the extraneous particles being no longer supported by the active
force of the current, they are deposited nearer to, or farther from, the mouth
of the river, according to the proportional quantity suspended, to the velocity
of the current, and the body of water. If the river be very large, the flow
of its muddy stream into the ocean may be traced for miles ; but it never-
theless deposits its mud as it flows. The yellow waters of the Mississippi
may thus be distinctly marked, occupying a track in the ocean for a long way
out at sea. It appears, therefore, that the formation of a bar at the mouths
of rivers is almost inevitable, unless the water of the ocean can be made to
act on the entering and turbid stream, so as to carry away its contents to be
deposited elsewhere.

Consequently bars are always formed at the embouchures of rapid rivers,
which carry matter in suspension, and enter rectangularly into a motionless
or comparatively stagnant sea, gulfs, &c. ; as no equalized movement
exists, by which the rivers might mix insensibly with the ocean.

From this we may infer the cause of the formation of Bars, to be the un-
equalized motions of the ocean and the backwater, and rectangular dis-
charge of the latter into a superior mass ; consequently the impossibility of
the backwater, tidal or effluent, and its suspended burthen, obtaining an angle
by which it might escape. This principle applies to several rivers and harbours
in the continent of Europe, Mediterranean or Baltic seas. It equally applies
to a great number of rivers and harbours in the British dominions. The seas
surrounding Great Britain and Ireland being of tempestuous character, the
matter brought down in suspension by rivers is carried on until it meets the
waves of the sea, when a conflict commences between the two. The back-
water, which before moved with sufficient velocity to carry its load in sus-
pension, is now unable to overcome the violence of its opponent, owing to
its entering into contact directly in the face of a superior mass ; and thus,
being unable to escape or overcome its more powerful antagonist, it drops
its burthen, and there the bar is formed.

This is done regardless of the slope of the river ; for if the bed be hori-
zontal, and the water be moving with little velocity, it is only the more
quickly overcome by the resisting sea, and drops its load the sooner. A
similar effect is produced when the slope is great and the current rapid, for
the velocity of any backwater of 20 or 50 millions of cube yards cannot be
increased so as to overcome the resistance of the sea, with its hundreds of
millions ; and so long as this backwater flows in a direct angle to the superior
mass, and the movement of each is not in harmony with the other, so long
will a bar be formed. To this rule there is no exception, and the fact proves
that artificial sluices tend rather to increase than to diminish the evil, since
by increasing the velocity of the water the beds of rivers are more disturbed,
and the quantity of matter suspended is augmented. It is evident, therefore,
that by increasing the backwater, and thereby adding to the amount of solid
particles carried onwards by the fluid, the bar must be increased instead of
being diminished, so long as the backwater enters the superior resisting mass
in a rectangular direction. ■*"

The materials of the other class of bars, such as those on the southern
coast of England, are not derived from the banks of rivers, but consist of
gravel, or shingle, that is impelled by the action of the waves along shore.
The movements of the shingle every engineer ought thoroughly to understand*
before he attempts to prevent the formation of bars in those harbours.

It is rather singular that among all the theories of bar harbours, not one
of them attempts to account for the formation of shingle bars, formed as those
on the southern coast. The cause of the formation of those bars is exactly
the same in principle as the other. The material of which they are formed is
impelled along the coast, from west to east, or rather in a peculiar angle,

* The systematical mode of shingle-travelling being alike at all the harbours,
and guided by one general law, the subject will be treated in a separate article,
jointly with the mode of constructing groynes and reclaiming low lands.

60

Steam Vessels of the Royal Navy.

[March,

until it arrive at the piers or rivers that run across its track, and stop its
progress. The position of all the harbour piers on this coast being rectangular
with the shore, they unfortunately act as barriers to stop the shingle, and
immediately the angle caused by the pier is filled at each flood tide, the
shingle rolls into the harbour's mouth. In no instance, however, is this
material carried farther inward than a few hundred yards ; consequently, it
can have no possible connexion with the slope of the bed of rivers.

Immediately the tide begins to ebb, and the backwater, tidal and effluent,
returns with sufficient velocity to take up this accumulation of the flood, it is
carried forward by the force of the water until it meets and enters a greater
resisting medium, which checks the motion of the fluid, and, as it is then
unable any longer to suspend the burthen, it is dropped, and forms a bar.
The cause is exactly the same as the deposition in the former case, differing
only in the action of the fluid, and the source from which the material is
derived.

It appears, therefore, from the foregoing consideration of the causes of bars,
that we should not attempt their removal by increasing the quantity of back-
water, for that is only a palliative, and but removes the bar from one position
to another, perhaps a little farther off. The formation of a bar is caused by
allowing the backwater when charged with solid matter to impinge against a
resisting medium of far greater power at a right angle to its moving force,
thus precluding the possibility of escape, and producing a deposit of the
matter suspended in the fluid in a situation that blocks up the entrance into
the harbour.

Art. VII.— STEAM VESSELS OF THE ROYAL NAVY.

It is now about twenty-five years since the first steam-vessel was built for the
Royal Navy. Of the first production, the " Congou," little more is known
than that she was an entire failure. The " Comet," of 80 horses power, was
the first successful steamer that was built. She was built at Deptford yard,
and was immediately followed by the "Lightning" and" Meteor," of 100
horses power each. There were at that time six brigs, of 10 guns, on the
stocks, of a new construction. These brigs were lengthened amidships, and
converted into steam-vessels of 100 horses power. They were ill adapted to
the purpose, and ungainly in appearance. These vessels constituted the
steam navy until 1830, when the " Firebrand," now the " Black Eagle," and
the " Flamer," were built, of 120 horses power. The " Pluto," of 100
horses, and the " Firefly" and " Spitfire," of 140 horses power, were next
added to the number. In 1832, the " Dee," " Medea," " Phoenix," " Rha-
damanthus," and " Salamander" war steamers, carrying 2 large pivot guns,
84 pounders, and 4 32-pounders each, the first of 200 horses, and the others
of 220 horses power, were built, making the whole number of steamers in
the navy twenty-one.. The number of vessels went on increasing until 1837,
when it was considered desirable to introduce steam frigates into the navy.
The " Gorgon" was built accordingly, of 320 horses power, intended to carry
fourteen 32-pounders, and two 84-pounders, long guns, and 400 tons of coals,
the consumption of twenty days. She was immersed so much more than
was expected, that it was found necessary to leave all the lower- deck guns out
of her. With little more than half the above consumption of coals on board,
her ports were three feet six inches only from the water ; and, for safety, the
lower half-ports were fastened and" caulked in." The "Cyclops," a sister
vessel, in progress of building at the time, was, in consequence of the failure
of the " Gorgon," lengthened thirteen feet at the middle part.; which increase,
it was considered, would enable her to carry her lower-deck guns, with her
ports " well out of water." Disappointment followed the expectations with re-
spect to the " Cyclops" also ; she could not take her lower-deck guns on board,
and her ports were also caulked in. She was able to carry more coals than
the " Gorgon," with but little increase of immersion. During the past year,
another attempt was made to produce a steam-frigate. The " Penelope," a
46-gun frigate, was lengthened 62 feet amidships, and was fitted with engines
of 650 horses power. It was stated of her that she would be capable of
taking 700 tons of coals, about fourteen days' consumption ; and that she
could convey 1,000 troops to the Cape of Good Hope. Our prediction re-
specting this ship has been fully verified. She can take only 500 tons of
coals, ten days' consumption ; and with this quantity on, board her ports are
less than four feet from the water, or more, .than three feet .nearer the water
than she carried them when she was.an efficient 46-gun frigate. Her accom-
modation for the crew is not so good ; and she takes no more than six weeks'
water for 320 men. A failure could scarcely be more complete. We regret
the ill success that has attended these endeavours the more, that our neigh-
bours, the French, as well as the Americans, have, for some time past, had
what are considered magnificent steam frigates at sea.

The Minister of Marine, in his recent address to the Queen of Spain on the
state of the navy and of naval science, says, that " the naval constructions of
Spain are directed by a corps of ' practices,' who, instead of drinking at the
elevated fountains of science, acquire a knowledge of that difficult art by the
routine of handicraft operations, and by the traditions of other constructors,
always falling off from perfection in proportion as they depart with the pass-
ing time from those luminous principles established by the corps of naval
engineers in our country, which existed at the beginning of the present cen-
tury, for the honour of the Spanish Armada." Can the official state of naval
science in Spain be worse than it is in this country ?

The " Penelope" is 213ft. 9in. long, and 40ft. broad. To give an idea of
her form we give the midship section, and the curve of the load water-line
forward and abaft. The load water-line is that at which she floated when she
was taken the experimental cruise, with 300 tons of coals on board, six days'
consumption. Her ports were at that time only 4ft. Ilin. from the water.
Her false keels had been removed.

There are now two steam -frigates on the stocks at Deptford and Chatham
yards, the " Terrible" and the " Watt," of 800 horses power each, and of
the following dimensions ; —

Terrible. Watt.

ft. in. ft. in.

Length between the perpendiculars . 226 0 220 0

of keel for tonnage . . 196 10£ 192 10

Breadth, extreme .... 42 0 40 6

Tonnage , — .40 0

Moulded , — 39 4

Depth in hold ..... 27 0 26 4

Tonnage 1847 1641,$

Diameter of the paddlerwheel . 34 0 35 0

Draught of water .... — 18 .0

The attention of the navy has been drawn to these vessels ; and a gallant
and experienced officer has, in his place in the House of Commons, expressed
his opinion that the immersion of the wheels of the " Watt" will be two feet
greater than is expected ; therefore, that her ports will be two feet nearer
the water. Without the means of judging, we hope that past experience has
enabled the builder of this ship to avoid so great an error, and that we shall,
ere long, see two magnificent steam-frigates afloat. The steam navy, at pre-
sent, consists of upwards of 100 vessels.

THE NEW CLASS OF BRIGS, OF 12 GUNS.

These brigs are progressing rapidly towards completion. The '•' Daring,"
by Mr. White, is ready to go out of the dock in which she has been built.
We understand she is not unlike the " Water Witch," the production of the
same builder, which has acquired so high a character as a fast sailer. The
" Mutine," by the master-shipwright of Chatham yard, is also nearly ready
for launching. The shape of this brig is remarkably dissimilar to that of the
" Raleigh," designed by the same gentleman. The " Raleigh" has a rising
and nearly straight floor, like that of the " Vernon." The " Mutine's" floor
is similar to that of the " Thetis," constructed by the members of the School
of Naval Architecture] the model of which, at the Admiralty, we have had
an opportunity of examining. Indeed, the midship section of the " Mutine"
is altogether very much like that of the " Thetis" and " Espiegle," the cha-
racteristic of which is a rising hollow floor, and a fulness near the load water-
line.

The dimensions of these brigs are,-

Daring.

Espiegle.
ft. in.

MutiDe.

ft. in.

ft. in.

Length between the perpen

diculars . 104 0

104 8

102 10

of keel for tonnage

.. 83 If

82 8f

Breadth, extreme

. 31 4

31 8

31 10

for tonnage .

. 31 0

31 4

moulded

. 30 6

30 10

Burden in tons ,

No. 425

431

428

Draught of water

Forward 12 3

12 6

12 6

Abaft . 16 0

14 6

14 0

Area of sails, including courses, top-
sails, top-gallant sails, driver, jib
and fore-topmast stay-sail

Load displacement of each 4/0 tons.

8,060ft. 8,060ft. ,8,060ft.

THE 46-GUN FRIGATES.

We understand that it is in contemplation to razee a number of these fri-
gates, and convert them into a powerful class of corvettes,. It has been
satisfactorily proved that they are not calculated for steam vessels, by the
failure of the " Penelope." Some of the 42 gun frigates were razeed a few
years since; one of which, the " Magicienne," proved a fast-sailing and sea-
worthy corvette. The others, from not having had so much of the top ham-
per removed, were not considered such fine vessels. We know of no better
method of disposing of these frigates ; as, from the present manner of arming
men of war, the weights have been so considerably increased as to render
them comparatively useless. The " Daidalus," at Woolwich, is to be cut
down forthwith.

Art. VIII.— THE " ELBERFELDT" IRON STEAMER.

The objection to iron steam vessels, that th.ey are not sufficiently strong to
endure .the shocks to which a ship is exposed in a sea-way, has been proved
to be just by the melancholy loss of the " Elberfeldt." She parted in two
at the middle, and went down fifty miles north-east of the North Foreland,
by which three lives were lost. Fortunately, thirteen were saved by taking to

1844.]

Artificial Illumination.

61

the boat. Most of these iron steam vessels are of extraordinary length, and
are very sharp at the extremities, which receive very little support from ths
water. The objection is not to the material, but to the manner of building
these vessels. Very many of them have no longitudinal tie, but are entirely
dependent on the security of the rivets of the bottom plates. We are more
than ever convinced of the necessity of giving greater strength to iron vessels
in general than has hitherto been the practice. It is true that one ad-
vantage, to which so much importance has been attached, must be sacrificed,
— that of buoyancy, as it is called. We think that iron vessels, when built
with sufficient strength, will not possess any considerable advantage in this
respect. Let it, if necessary, be altogether sacrificed, they will then even
have advantages over others sufficient to justify a very general use of iron as
a material for building ships. We are fully aware of the advantage a light
ship has over a heavy one ; but this advantage must not be acquired at too
great a cost : safety to the crew and passengers is infinitely more momentous
than that the ship should possess the quality of gliding through the water a
knot or so per hour more than she would do if built with a due regard to
security.

Art. IX.— JEFFERY'S CEMENT.

The celebrated " Shannon" frigate, of 46 guns, has been taken into a dock
at Sheerness yard, and has had the copper sheathing removed from the bot-
tom, which has been paid over with Jeffery's cement. After she has been
afloat twelve months, she will be again docked to examine the state of her
plank, in order to ascertain whether there is a probability of this cement an-
swering the purpose of copper sheathing for ships while in a state of ordi-
nary. The expense of sheathing a ship of this magnitude with copper is little
under 1,000/., while the expense of the cement is not one-tenth of that
amount. Should it be considered an efficient substitute for copper sheathing
a considerable saving will be effected.

Art. X.— ARTIFICIAL ILLUMINATION.

So large a portion of human existence in civilised society is dependent for its
enjoyment on artificial light, that the means of producing illumination effec-
tually, conveniently, and cheaply, must always be a matter of interest ; and
it becomes especially so at the present time, when so many competing
" lights" are offered to the public. We propose, in the present article,
briefly to explain the principle on which the illuminating power of flame
depends, and then to describe the manner in which that principle is applied
in several of the plans for artificial illumination that deserve most consi-
deration.

All flames are produced by the combustion of gases ; and the flames we
usually see burning may be considered as explosive mixtures of gas with
atmospheric air. Hydrogen constitutes the source of inflammation in all
artificial light, from whatever material the gas may be derived ; and we need
scarcely mention to the readers of the Artizan, that the cause of its com-
bustion is the combination, at a high temperature, with the oxygen of the
atmosphere ; thus forming, by the union of the two elements, the compound
fluid, water. The combustion of hydrogen and oxygen gas, when undiluted,
produces a greater intensity of heat than can be obtained by other means ;
but the flame of the burning gases is scarcely visible in day-light. When any
small substance is exposed to its action, a brilliant light is then evolved ; but
this light, it must be borne in mind, is not produced directly by the flame,
but proceeds from the suspended particles of the substance raised to a white
heat. The more minute the particles, provided they be correspondingly close
and dense, the more brilliant will be the light ; and it is found that the vapour
of lime is best adapted for giving out light in such circumstances. The small
cylinder of lime exposed to the action of the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe, in
forming what is termed the Drummond Light, is not rendered luminous in
its solid state, but the brilliancy of the light is supposed to arise from the
incandescence of the small particles of the lime which escape in the form
of vapour.

A jet of pure hydrogen gas burned in atmospheric air is scarcely so lumi-
nous as the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe, and its heat is much less, in consequence
of the oxygen gas being diluted with four times its quantity of nitrogen,
which not only tends to lessen the rapidity of the combustion, but it also
diminishes the heat by the cooling influence of so large a quantity of gas
brought into immediate contact with the flame. Nevertheless, the intensity
of the heat of a jet of flame of pure hydrogen is very great, though from the
small quantity of heat evolved, it is not capable of acting effectively on any
bodies that are not extremely minute. The intensity of the heat of a flame
of hydrogen gas may be perceived by holding in it a piece of very fine
platinum wire, which will be heated to whiteness ; and Dr. Ure is of opinion,
that the real temperature of visible flame is as high as any we are acquainted
with. The quantity of heat in flame, however, is so small, that it may be
easily cooled by conducting bodies, and thus reduced below the temperature
of ignition. It was the perception of this fact that led Sir Humphry Davy
to the discovery of the safety -lamp, for the action of it depends on the cooling
influence of the wire-gauze with which the flame is surrounded.

To render the combustion of hydrogen gas available as a source of light,
it is requisite to mingle with the flame some solid particles of matter, the
incandescence of which produces the light. The end of a fine platinum wire,
we have observed, will produce this effect to a limited extent, and if we
could continue to suspend in the flame a number of minute particles of pla-
tinum, we should procure an illuminating power. A similar effect is, how-
ever, produced in a much simpler manner by employing hydrogen gas mixed
with carbon, as it exists in coals, and is called by chemists carburetted
hydrogen gas. This gas, when purified, contains about 35 parts by weight of
carbon in 100. When ignited, the hydrogen gas combines with the oxygen
of the atmosphere, and the carbon with which it was previously combined is
deposited in the flame in a state of great comminution. The heat produced
by the combustion of the hydrogen renders those particles of carbon incan-
descent, and thence arises the light of the flame. There are many conditions,
however, requisite to the production of the greatest illuminating power, to
some of which it will be necessary briefly to advert.

As a general principle, the greater the quantity of carbon contained in a
gas the brighter will be the flame, because there is then a greater number of
incandescent particles. But to produce this effect, there must be sufficient
heat to render the particles incandescent, and a sufficiency of oxygen to com-
bine with the carbon and convert it into carbonic acid gas ; otherwise, the
quantity deposited would darken the flame and produce smoke. When pure
oxygen gas is supplied to the burner the combustion is perfect, and a gas,
much richer in carbon than ordinary coal gas, may be burned without smoke
and with a most brilliant light. This arrangement constituted the original
Bude light, invented by Mr. Gurney ; the coal gas having been previously
passed through naphtha to become impregnated with an additional quantity
of carbon. The expense of making oxygen gas was a serious obstacle to the
introduction of the Bude light ; it was, therefore, attempted to produce the
perfect combustion of the gas by an increased draught of atmospheric air,
employing at the same time such a body of flame as to counteract the cooling
influence of the extra current. For this purpose concentric burners were
used, so as to combine within a limited space great heat with the free ad-
mission of air ; and the ohimney was so adjusted as to cause the air to im-
pinge on the flame. By these means the carbon deposited is rendered
incandescent, and a sufficient supply of oxygen is obtained from the at-
mospheric air for the combustion of the hydrogen and carbon, whilst the
prejudicial effects of the influx of cold air are in a great measure obviated.

The Boccius burner is but a modification of the Bude light ; the effects are,
however, increased by raising the inner concentric burners, and by the addi-
tion of two metallic chimneys, which increase the draught and direct a
descending current of heated air, as well as an ascending one, on to the external
flame. The cause of the brilliant light produced by the Bude and Boccius
burners, it will be seen, is principally attributable to the greater heat pro-
duced by the concentric flame ; but this effect is not attained without a large
expenditure of gas, and the principle would not be applicable with equal
advantage to burners of the ordinary size.

The gas produced from oil contains nearly twice the proportional quantity
of carbon that is contained in coal gas, and it burns with much greater
brilliancy. It has the advantage also of not being contaminated with sul-
phurous and other impurities, that often render coal gas obnoxious ; but the
attempts made to introduce it have not been successful, owing, we believe,
to the greater expense, and to a deposit of oleaginous matter in the pipes and
vessels. The plan adopted of compressing it in strong receivers, and sup-
plying houses with " portable gas," added materially to the inconvenience of
its use, though it possesses many qualities that would give it great advantage
over coal gas if it could be introduced in an available and cheap manner.
The illuminating power of oil gas is represented by Messrs. Taylor &
Martineau, the patentees, to exceed that of coal gas in the proportion of four
to one ; but by other experimenters the proportion is stated to be only as
two to one. The economy of oil gas compared with tallow or oil is con-
siderable, in consequence of an inferior quality of oil serving the purpose of
making the gas than could be used in lamps. The relative expense of oil
gas, of lamps, and candles, for the production of the same amount of light,
has been thus stated : —

Oil gas, argand burner
Argand lamp, spermaceti oil
Mould candle
Wax candle

per hour

i

3

14

If the above estimate be accurate, which we think somewhat questionable,
the cost of oil gas is less than that of common carburetted hydrogen, even
when manufactured in districts where coal is much cheaper than in London.
It appears from calculation of the actual expense of lighting a manufactory in
Manchester with gas made on the premises, and with candles, that, when gas
was burned only two hours a day on the average throughout the year, the
relative cost of candles and gas was as 2000?. to 600/. ; but as a great portion
of the expense in the manufacture of gas arose from the interest of capital
and the wear and tear of the apparatus, when the quantities consumed were
greater, the saving by burning gas was proportionably increased. The com-
parative cost of candle and gas illumination, when the gas is supplied at a
certain price per cubic foot, may be ascertained without much difficulty. A
jet of good coal gas, that burns half a cubic foot per hour, gives as much
light as a mould candle of six in the pound, which will burn about seven

i2

62

Artificial Illumination.

[March,

hours ; therefore, one pound of such candles gives light equivalent to that
produced by 21 cubic feet of gas. The cost of the latter, in London, is
about 2d., and the price of one pound of mould candles is Id. ; conse-
quently the illumination by coal gas is nearly four times cheaper than by
mould candles of six in the pound.

We have hitherto directed our attention to the nature of combustion, when
carburetted hydrogen gas is formed previously to its coming to the burner ;
we shall next consider the combustion of inflammable substances, under the
circumstances in which it ordinarily takes place in lamps and candles. The
principle that regulates the combustion is the same in both instances ; but a
difference in the practical arrangement is necessary in consequence of the
whole operation of gas-making having to be performed in the burner of a
lamp or candle ; for it must be borne in mind, that the oil or tallow is con-
verted into gas before it burns, and that the wick of a candle or lamp serves
as a retort for generating the gas. In proportion as the inflammable sub-
stance abounds in carbon will be its illuminating capability ; but the difficulty
of effecting perfect combustion will be increased. A tallow candle is but a
crude mode of effecting combustion ; for, owing to the want of a supply of
oxygen to the centre of the flame, and its exposure to the cooling in-
fluence of the surrounding air, a portion of the gas remains uneonsumed,
and a quantity of smoke is formed. When the wick is thicker and the heat
greater, the combustion is more perfect, and the light is proportionally
increased ; as may be readily ascertained by bringing the flames of two
candles into contact, when the light will be perceptibly augmented. The
defect in the combustion of common lamps was remedied by Argand, by
introducing a current of air into the centre of the flame, and by protecting it
with a glass chimney, which assists greatly in increasing the current of air.
The brilliancy of the flame depends much on the form of the chimney,
which was a matter until lately altogether overlooked ; but the subject has
been brought into notice by the Solar lamp, the efficacy of which depends on
the formation of the chimney, so as to make the current of air impinge on
the flame. The effect of a proper adjustment of the chimney may be easily
seen by holding it at different elevations above the flame of the lamp.
It will be found that when the bottom of the glass is a little above the
wick, so that the air in rushing in strikes horizontally against the flame,
a far more beautiful white light is produced than when the glass is held
either higher or lower. The same effect occurs when the contraction of the
chimney is made at the proper level ; but in the general form of glass
chimneys the wider part, which rests on the gallery of the lamp, is usually
higher than it ought to be. The late Dr. Robinson made many experiments
to determine the proper height of the contraction in all circumstances ; and
the rule he established was, that it should be at a point above the wick equal
to one half the diameter of the burner. The combustion is so much im-
proved by this simple alteration of the chimney, that oils of inferior quality
may be burned without any offensive effluvium or smoke.

The analysis of spermaceti oil shows it to consist, in each 100 parts, of
carbon 79, hydrogen 11, and of oxygen 10; it contains, therefore, more
carbon than is requisite to form olefiant gas with the hydrogen, and the
excess must be suspended in the flame of a lamp the instant the gas is
generated in the wick. Vegetable oils contain a smaller proportion of carbon,
hence we may assume that their illuminating power is less than that of sper-
maceti. One advantage derived from burning the gas at the instant it is
generated is, that the heat necessary for converting the oil into a gaseous
form becomes available in assisting the combustion, as the flame is not cooled
hy the influx of cold gas. The portability of lamps and candles also renders
them much more convenient for general use than fixed lights, and the danger
and annoyance from the probable leakage of gas-pipes is avoided. The
inconvenience experienced in common candles from the lowering of the light
as they burn, has been remedied by the candle-lamp ; and the plaited wick is
also a great improvement, as it not only saves the trouble of snuffing, but it
gives greater access of air to the flame, and affords more light, with a pro-
portionably less consumption of material. For general purposes, where a
moderate quantity of light only is required, such candles possess advantages
which render them, in our opinion, superior to all other modes of illumi-
nation yet invented.

The Argand lamps, for burning oil, are susceptible of great amendment ;
for, as at present constituted, they are liable to be soon clogged, and their
rather complex and unnecessarily inconvenient arrangement renders it difficult
to clean them. The liability to soil furniture, by spilling the oil, is also an
objection which requires to be remedied ; but for the purpose of general illu-
mination in large apartments, the suspended Argand oil lamps, including the
recent improvements of burners and with ground-glass shades, have not, we
think, been surpassed by any of the recently invented substitutes so promi-
nently brought into public notice.

The Camphine lamp, the most recent of these inventions, gives a more
brilliant light ; it is not liable to the objection of soiling, and it is also
cheaper than oil ; but against these advantages there are some serious draw-
backs. What is called camphine is in fact only rectified spirits of turpentine,
a liquid more rich in carbon than oil, and if its combustion be perfect the
illuminating power is greater. The difficulties to be encountered in the com-
bustion of turpentine are the prevention of evaporation by heat and the
consequent danger of its taking fire : also the prevention of smoke, which,
owing to the abundance of carbon, requires great nicety of arrangement to
guard against. In the camphine lamps the reservoir of turpentine is placed
at a considerable distance below the flame, and great precautions are taken to

prevent its heating. There is a disc of metal placed in the centre of the
circular wick, to cause the air rushing up the tube to be deflected and to
strike against the inner part of the flame, which thus assumes a butter-cup
shape. The glass chimney is conical, and provision is made for regulating
the supply of air, which, if too abundant, or deficient, or if it be not directed
in the right current, destroys the efficacy of the lamp, and produces volumes
of smoke. Should the glass chimney crack, for example, the room would
be quickly filled with smoke, and particles of soot would fall like a shower.
An anecdote is told, we know not how truly, of a gentleman and his wife
having been changed into negroes during the night by the accidental cracking
of a camphine lamp glass.

In a preceding number of the Artizan, we expressed our opinion on the
Pelletan light, as the apparatus and burner were then constructed. Since
that time a new burner has been applied to it, a description of which was
given in No. VIII. of the Apprentice, in the Analysis of Patents, by which a
more perfect combustion is said to be attained. The object proposed by
M. Pelletan is to facilitate the combustion of turpentine, by first heating it in
contact with boiling water. The steam carries with it a vesicle of turpentine,
and the inventor purposes by the decomposition of the steam in the burner of
the lamp to produce an oxy-hydrogen flame, to assist the combustion of the
olefiant gas and excess of carbon, generated and deposited by the decom-
position of the turpentine. Our objection previously expressed to this light
was, that there would be a quantity of steam escaping into the apartments
illuminated. Whether the new burner just patented will remedy this, we
have not had an opportunity of ascertaining. The principle of the invention
is ingenious, but even if it effect what the patentee contemplates, it will not
be available in private houses, in consequence of the expense of the boiler,
and the trouble of management.

Naphtha has for some time past been employed in street-illumination, but
the difficulty attending its use is greater than that of turpentine. It. is more
inflammable, consequently more dangerous than the latter ; and instances are
known of the explosion of naphtha lamps, when the vapour has been mixed with
atmospheric air. In consequence of the difficulty of effecting perfect com-
bustion in the lamps usually employed, the quantity of essential oil permitted
to come to the wick is limited, and though the flame is very brilliant it con-
stitutes little more than a line of light, and its illuminating power is conse-
quently inferior to that of a larger flame of gas. The arrangement of the
camphine lamp would, we conceive, be well adapted for burning naphtha,
and would admit of a larger flame.

A French lamp has recently been invented, the object of which also is to
overcome the difficulty of burning essential oils. In this lamp the reservoir
is placed farther from the flame than in the Camphine lamp, and the wick
does not rise within an inch of the burner ; it merely serves to attract a
portion of the essential oil so near to the flame as to become evaporated by
the heat, and the vapour thus formed rises through the apertures of the
burner, and is then converted into gas, and burns with a brilliant white light.
An adjustment of this kind promises to remove the objections to the Camphine
lamp, but the lamp has not yet had a sufficient trial to determine whether it
is practically available. It is so often the case with inventions of this kind,
that the advantages are merely specious, some radical defect being hidden
beneath the surface, that until'experience has tested their merits it is hazardous
to approve.

We have endeavoured in the foregoing observations to point out the theory
and practice of illumination. We have shown that the illuminating power
of flame depends on its communicating a white heat to solid particles sus-
pended in burning gas, and that in gas and oil lights the particles thus sus-
pended and rendered incandescent are those of the carbon of the carburetted
hydrogen, or of the oil. To increase the number of those white-hot particles
is to increase the brilliancy of the light ; but to effect this, it is necessary to
have an adequate supply of oxygen for combustion and intensity of heat.
Without sufficient heat the flame must be either small, or lurid and smoky if
large. The improvements effected by Argand and by the simple contrivance
of the solar lamp, show how much has been done by the application of
scientific principles to increase the brilliancy of flame without adding much
to the consumption of material ; and we may hope, from the efforts of the
many ingenious men now directed to this subject, to have further practical
improvements in artificial illumination.

Art. XI.— -MONUMENT TO MOLIERE.

There is something in the enthusiastic veneration with which the French
regard the memory and honour the genius of their illustrious countrymen,
which is not less admirable in itself and creditable to them, than worthy of
imitation in other countries, and most of all in our own.

The public papers have lately noticed the extraordinary zeal which most of
the cities in France are displaying at this time, in the erection of monuments
to their great men ; and as an example of one of the most interesting and
most recent of these events, we now present a short account of the monu-
ment to Moliere, and the ceremony accompanying its consecration.

Upon the basement are raised two coupled Corinthian columns, between
which is a circular niche ornamented at the top by a key-stone which
supports a marble tablet inscribed with the monogram of 1844. A rich
entablature whose frieze is ornamented with leaves and branches of laurel,

1844.]

Monument to Moliere.

63

surmounted by a circular front, in the centre of which is seated a genius in
the act of crowning the poet, completes this small monument. The lateral
faces correspond with those of the principal facade, which thus forms, as it
were, the frontispiece, behind which is raised the pedestal of white marble
which supports the statue of Moliere. This statue is of bronze. Moliere is
seated in a chair, and appears absorbed in deep thought. Below and on each
side of the pedestal are two figures, regarding the poet ; each holds a legend, on
which all the works of Moliere are inscribed in chronological order.

One of these figures represents the serious, and the other the comic muse.
There is an octagonal bason below to receive the water, which is spouted from
the heads of three lions. The monument is 16 metres in height by 6£
metres in breadth. It was composed by M. Visconti, an architect. The
statue of Moliere is by the elder Seure, and the two muses by M. Pradier.
The whole expense was nearly 200,000 francs, besides which 252,000 francs
were paid for houses, which it was necessary for the committee to purchase
to make room for the monument.

The inauguration of this monument, which took place on the 15th of January,
was attended by some of the most celebrated men in France. Besides all
the deputies for the department of the Seine, the mayors, and principal muni-
cipal officers of twelve cantons, the Institute of France lent the lustre of its
most distinguished names, in the persons of Arago, Mignet, Vernet, Etienne,
the president, the elder Dupin, and several others.

The eloquent harangues, delivered commonly by the first men and greatest
orators of the day, add much to the imposing inspiration of an inaugural
ceremony like the present. We cannot forbear a rapid sketch of the orations
delivered by two celebrated members of the French Academy. Thus spoke
M. Etienne, its president:

" On this day Paris consecrates a monument to Moliere, and all France unites
with pride in paying an homage acquired by two centuries of success.* The
triumph which was delayed so long is but more brilliant now. Happy our own
time, which cancels in one day the debt of six generations !

" Literature, science, and the arts are crowded together at this national solemnity,
and the Institute is proud to swell the corte'ge of civil magistrates who attend on
this occasion. The Academy of the great age would have added to its glory by
receiving Moliere into its bosom. His place should have been there by the side
of Eacine and Lafontaine ; hut prejudice in those times was powerful. Then
absolute monarchy raised invincible barriers. These are now destroyed, and a
monument of reparation is reared amidst the acclamations of a free and grateful

people In the hero of this monument, France salutes one of her

greatest poets and most famous philosophers. What strength can panegyric add to
the homage which is already universal? Behold Moliere! — what can I say more?
Behold the man, who sprung from the ranks of the populace, has surpassed in his
matchless productions all that antiquity has handed down to us, and has almost
condemned his successors to certain failure in the attempt to reach an eminence
such as his. Behold the grave thinker, who so well understood human nature, and
displayed with a hand so bold and skilful all the eccentricities of intellect and all the
weaknesses of the heart, the severe moralist who dethroned false learning, stripped
the cloak from false virtue, scattered the fashionable follies of the noblesse amongst
the vulgar, for their amusement ; and exposed in return the vanities of the vulgar
to the polite contempt of the great ! Behold the indefatigable author, who through-
out a painful and sickly existence, enjoyed no repose hut in the labours of his in-
tellect— no intermission of his sufferings, but in the excitement of his intellectual
production.

" The foremost rank is everywhere accorded to our hero — all schools respect, all
nations admire him,

" It is true that the monument reared by his immortal works would suffice for
his memory, but it would not suffice for France. It was for her to consecrate
another, which, though less durable, should yet testify before the eyes of all the
world the just pride with which she claimed the honour of his birthplace, and her
gratitude for the lustre which his genius has reflected upon bis native country.

" Formerly she decreed these supreme honours only to kings who had enlarged
her territories, and warriors who had led her armies on to triumph. To-day she
has crowns for glory of every kind ; and it is a characteristic of our epoch, not un-
worthy of notice, that the statue of the great man who unmasked the vices of the
hypocrite, should be raised not far from the statue of the great king who protected
him."

Thus spoke the distinguished Arago, in the name of the Committee of the
monument : —

" Not long since, a celebrated comedian asked, if at a time when the taste of the
statuary is prodigiously developed, when almost every city is recalling the memory
of her illustrious sons, reviving their features under the chisel of our best sculp-
tors, and exposing them with worthy pride to the admiration of France and of
foreigners, it was not marvellous that Moliere — the immortal Moliere, was for-
gotten.

" Moliere is not one of those whose equivocal celebrity is sooner or later demo-
lished by time, in spite of the elevation to which zeal, enthusiasm, and fashion may
have raised their favourite. Nearly two hundred years have closed over the earthly
career of the author of ' The Misanthrope,' of The Hypocrite,' of ' The Learned
Women,' of The Miser;' and each year, each day, has confirmed the sincere and
enlightened approbation of literary men, philosophers, and persons of every condition,
who derive their highest intellectual gratification from the reading of his works.

" ' Who,' said Louis XIV. to Boileau, ' is the greatest writer of the age ?'
' Moliere,' replied the poet, without hesitation.

* Moliere died Feb. 21st, 1673, at the age of 51.

" Lafontaine, in the epitaph which he wrote soon after the death of Moliere,
witnessed his esteem for his friend in the well-known lines, beginning —
' In this, the tomb of Moliere,
Lie Plautus and Terence.'

" Voltaire went much further : his enthusiasm for the author of ' The Misan-
thrope' prompted him to predict that the world would never he able to boast of a
genius equal to Moliere.

" Lahaipe, whom no one ever accused of an inclination for panegyric, even La-
harpe called Moliere the divine man,

" You will exclaim, doubtless, that it is impossible to add anything to the ad-
miring testimony of Boileau, Lafontaine, and Voltaire. Not so, gentlemen ; these
great writers have been surpassed by Moiver, the geometer, who was accustomed to
say, ' I would rather be Moliere than Newton.'

" You know with what natural zeal all nations contend for intellectual pre-emi-
nence. If we cite Descartes, Pascal, Racine, Bossuet, Voltaire, D'Alembert, Buffon,
Laplace, Lagrange, Lavoisier, &c, you will hear immediately the resounding names
of Bacon, Galileo, Newton. Leibnitz, Euler, Kepler, Linnaeus, Dante, Shakspeare,
Milton, Tasso, Ariosto, Priestley, Volta, and Cavendish. Moliere alone enjoys the
privilege of being considered without a rival : his superiority is everywhere acknow-
ledged throvighout the civilized world."

After a brilliant commentary upon the writings of Moliere, and their moral
tendency, M. Arago continued : —

" The ancients, and particularly the Romans, reared monuments in every coun-
try into which their victorious arms were carried, to transmit the memory of their
great men to future generations. In our time, the world has too much wisdom to
accord the foremost place to the events of war : the first rank now belongs to the
triumphs of intellect and reason. Let us, then, dare to hope that architecture and
sculpture will, in future, be more than ever called upon to consecrate those glorious
eras in which France has burst, one after the other, all the shackles with which
tyranny, prejudice, intolerance, and fanaticism, have attempted to restrain her. Then
shall this monument to Moliere, without losing that character of personal homage
which the ceremony of to-day will imprint upon it, occupy an eminent place (if I
maybe allowed the expression) amongst the chapters of that national history which
our artists will create in stone, in marble, and in bronze. The object and the date
of the monument, but above all, the place which it occupies, will then forcibly arrest
attention.

" Revert in thought, for one moment, to the 2 1 st of February, 1673. In this
very street there streamed a torrent of ignorant, infatuated people, bent upon insult-
ing and outraging the funeral obsequies of him whose monument is this day sur-
rounded by none but enthusiastic and grateful admirers of the immortal poet.

"In 1673, notwithstanding the avowed protection of Louis XIV., it was not with-
out great difficulty that his friends were able to obtain, for the interment of Moliere,
the modest corner of earth where his ashes repose in peace. In 1841 and 1842 the
powers of state, the municipal administration of Paris, several great corporations,
and a multitude of worthy citizens, have vied with each other in acquiring the site
for the monument before which we how at this moment.

" History has preserved the fact, less odious than ridiculous, that a prelate, sub-
mitting, with a bad grace, to the commands of a great monarch, permitted the re-
mains of so fine a genius to be buried in the common parochial cemetery of St.
Joseph, with the degrading condition that there should neither he pomp in the fu-
neral, nor service in any church of Paris, — in fine, that his burial should take
place in the night. Glance now at the contrast. Not only is it in open day
that the municipal authorities of the metropolis, that her scientific and literary soci-
eties, that the pupils of her public schools, and her citizens of all ages, are gathered
together before the house of Moliere; but I am sure, if one regret, one single
regret, mingles with the universal sympathy in which you share, it is this, —
that the space and the season have not permitted us to accompany this ceremony
with still more of pomp and splendour.

******
" Henceforth these columns — these statues — will proclaim, before the eyes of
all, that prejudice, sooner or later, must be conquered by public reason. They will
excite us to regard, with a disdainful smile, the pigmies who, stretching out their
little arms, would strive to stop the march of human intellect. From the height
of this splendid monument Moliere will incessantly urge us on, in spite of all dis-
couragement, inspiring us to march, with a firm and persevering step, towards that
glorious futurity which his genius had perceived, of which he himself cleared the
approaches ; and in the bosom of which humanity will find, in a sublime repose, the
reward of its loug and ardent struggles,"

Water-Power of Niagara. — Measurements have been made of the
volume of water of the Niagara river, from which it appears that " the
motive power of the cataract of Niagara exceeds, by nearly forty-fold, all the
mechanical force of water and steam power, rendered available in Great Bri-
tain, for the purpose of imparting motion to the machinery that suffices to
perform the manufacturing labours for a large portion of the inhabitants of
the world, including also the power applied for transporting these products
by steam-boats and steam-cars, and their steam-ships of war to the remotest
seas. Indeed, it appears probable that the law of gravity, as established by
the Creator, puts forth in this single waterfall more intense and effective
energy, than is necessary to move all the artificial machinery of the habitable
globe." — Silliman's Journal.

61

Internal Communication of France and Ireland.

[March,

Art. xil-

-INTERNAL COMMUNICATION OF FRANCE AND
IRELAND.

1. Discours de M. Magnier de Maisonneuve, Depute duBas Rhin, Di-
recteur du Commerce ExteVieur, dans la Discussion du Projet de Loi
relatif a. I' etallissement des grandes lignes de Chemins de fer. Paris.
April, 1842.

2. Observations on an important feature in the State of Ireland, and the want
of Employment for its Population ; with a Description of the Navigation
of the river Shannon, 8fc., 8fc. By C. W. Williams. Loudon.
Vacher. 1841.

3. Letter to His Excellency the Earl de Greg, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland,
on the ameliorated Condition of that Country, Hfc, Sfc. By W. W,
Simpson, Member of the Royal Agricultural Societies of England and
Ireland. London. Sherwood. 1842.

4. Annual Reports of the Shannon Commissioners. 1840 — 43.

The sudden stimulus which has been lately given to railway enterprise in the
two countries of Europe, the most deficient in the means of internal transit,
is remarkable. On the one hand, after half a century of inaction, a line from
Dublin to the south and east of Ireland, promises to open up to English
commerce a new path to the United States of America. On the other hand,
a line equally gigantic, is projected across the continent of France, from Havre,
via Paris, to Strasburg, the key to the united states of Germany. The extent
and bearings of this important line of railway communication will be seen by
a glance at the map placed at the head of this article, France, however, for
many years has been increasing in the means of happiness, if not in wealth
and commercial greatness ; and presents in many, in too many points, a
striking contrast to the state of Ireland.

We will not now stop to inquire into the causes of the wretchedness, igno-
rance, and poverty of the great mass of the population in Ireland. The fact
is undeniable, that the majority are less advanced in civilization than the in-
habitants of any other country in Europe ; and their poverty renders it more
than questionable whether a means of communication that is so admirably
adapted to facilitate the intercourse of a rich and commercial people, would
be suitable to the present condition of the Irish, since the traflic would be so
small, from the absolute want of means to pay the lowest possible fares, as
not, for many years, to pay interest on the large capital that must be invested
in the construction of railways.

Two years ago France had but a few miles of bad railway in all her domi-
nions ; while England, Belgium, and Austria, were intersected by railways in
every direction. Two years ago, before the Shannon Commissioners began
their duties in Ireland, the rich valleys, embracing a million of cultivable
acres, stretching along that magnificent river, the vena porta of Ireland, were
as deficient in the means of transport as the land of diligences on the other
side of the Channel. Yet is it now exactly fifty years since the high-sheriffs

and grand juries of the counties of Roscommon, Leitrim, Mayo, Galway,
Clare, Limerick, King's County, and Tipperary, resolved, " That the com-
pleting of the navigation of the river Shannon, and the great rivers adjoining
thereto, from Lough Allen to Limerick, will tend effectually to improve and
open the home and foreign markets to the produce of more than two millions
of acres of land in the heart of the kingdom ; and that the execution of this
great navigation will effectually advance the commerce, manufactures, agri-
culture, and population of this kingdom, and the consequent strength of the
empire at large." * What has been done since ? Nothing.

" It may be laid down as an indisputable point," says the writer on Ire-
land to whom we have just referred, " and it applies with the greatest force
to an agricultural country, that whatever may be the quality of the soil or
the extent of its population, no matter what the natural products may be,
without a facility of intercourse for persons and of interchange for produce,
they avail nothing — they are the gold in the mine. We need go into no re-
finements of political economy ; we need search for no hidden causes of pau-
perism or turbulence ; but, finding a region with a dense unemployed popu-
lation, yet wanting the necessary facilities of interchange for its labour, we
may pronounce at once that such district cannot make any progress in in-
dustry or capital, or even in civilization."

Within the last four years the way has been paved by a commission, which
has effected not a little good, for the developement of the great resources of
the west of Ireland. The Shannon Commission, to carry out our analogies,
has been to Ireland, and to this district in particular, what the " Projet de
Loi," of the 11th of June, 1842, has been to France ; both based on the
principle, that in such works Government must take the initiative, if it does
not indeed take the entire control. The Shannon Commissioners were
invested with powers to expend in public works, and in measures for the
improvement of the Shannon navigation, a certain amount of funds every
year. With the means at their disposal, they have, during the last year,
completed landing quays at several useful points on the river in the county of
Limerick, erected a commodious bridge at Plassey, crossing the Shannon
above Limerick, entered into contracts for immediately deepening the bed of
the river, and removing shoals between Shannon Bridge and Athlone ; and
in various parts of the river have, with dredging steamers, removed large
boulders, and buoyed the sailing course above Athlone ; besides opening
various roads, and thereby giving facilities to the agriculturists, and stimulus
to trade, in several counties, from Lough Allen to Limerick.

In France, the law of June, 1842, by which the state encouragement was
promised to certain national lines, has, in like manner, resulted in several
important undertakings ; in one in particular, the line from Paris towards
the English coast at Havre, which Anglo-French enterprise and capital are
now about to extend to the frontiers of Germany. The valleys of the
Shannon embrace ten of the richest counties of Ireland. The valleys of the
Sarre and the Marne, between Paris and Strasburg, embrace fourteen of the

* Williams's Observations, p. 16.

1844.]

Internal Communication of France and Ireland.

65

richest counties of France. Of the former it has been asserted, that " all
of them are abundant in population, and susceptible of receiving great
extension and improvement in their agriculture ; and, although many of them
are periodically exposed to the greatest distress and even famine, yet are without
the power of mutual relief or co-operation." Of the French provinces in
question, in like manner, we are informed, that they " abound in forests,
mines, collieries, iron works, mills and factories, as well as in rich vineyards
and various agricultural productions ; all of them import much of what they
consume, and have abundant surplus produce to export." Yet, as regards
facility of interchange, here also the analogy holds good — for with all these
national advantages, says M, de Maisonneuve, with all its mineral and
agricultural resources, France is yet indebted to foreign countries for a third
of the coal she consumes, and the expense and difficulty of transport he
regards as the main cause of her inferiority to England in manufacturing
power. " When we consider, for example," he adds, in illustration, " that
the manufacturers of Mulhausen are obliged to transport their cottons all
across the Continent of France, unseparated from the waste, and at the cost
of a long and incommodious conveyance, have them put in hand, and then
sent to the south or the west, or across the ocean, converted into those
beautiful fabrics with which you are acquainted, one cannot wonder too much
at the skill of the manufacturers, who have triumphed over such obstacles,
nor can we exert ourselves too much to remove them."*

The foreign trade of France already amounts to an annual value of two
milliards of francs, or 80,000,000/. sterling, and to an annual tonnage of
three millions ; and her greatest traffic is between the Zollverein and the sea ;
but while for many years her intertransit has been almost stationary, that of
Belgium increased in nine years to 1840, from 14 millions of francs to
55 millions, or was multiplied fourfold. Now the working of her mineral
wealth has given birth to a few railways ; these railways will re-act in the
further development of her mineral riches, acting and reacting till perhaps it
will be found, that of the 2000 miles of rail she requires, she will herself
supply the greater part from the bosom of her own soil, until, it may be,
France shall realize the anticipation of the member of the French parliament,
whose speech we quote from, when he says, " In the very vanguard of the
European Continent, and facing the two great seas, France, as has been well
observed, ought to be the intermedium of all the exchanges effected between
Central Europe and both the Indies. This is a prospect which her admirable
geographical position, combined with the establishment of our great lines of
railway and our Transatlantic steamers, which are, as it were, the extension
of these lines, authorises us to hope for her." France, indeed, with such
natural channels as the Rhine and the Rhone, formed to receive, as it is else-
where in this speech affirmed, the manufactures of Alsace, the metallic
products of Franche Comte, the dairy produce, the clocks and toys of Jura,
the wine of Burgundy, the cloths of Lyonnais and Dauphiny, the fuel of
Rive de Gier, Givors and Gran d'Combe, the rich industrial resources of
Avignon, Nismes and Marseilles ; added to the agricultural and mineral
wealth undeveloped in various other districts, ought to take the first rank as
an exporting and commercial nation.

Mr. Williams's view respecting the advantage of internal communication
in Ireland is confirmed by Mr. Simpson's practical experience. Mr. Simpson,
whose professional avocations as a land-valuator have brought him into con-
tact with both landlords and tenants in every part of Ireland, is justly
deemed good authority in matters relating to the physical wants of Ireland,
though perhaps somewhat biassed in favour of the class of proprietors.
Mr. Simpson describes the capabilities — the almost undeveloped capabilities
of a noble estate, in Connaught, of 200,000 acres ; we take his descriptions
cum grano salts, but, with all allowances, there is ample argument for his
favourable conclusions : — " Abounding in timber and plantations, in proximity
to, and yet not in. access to, abundant natural manure ; possessed of marble
and mineral wealth, of great value, and of lands fitted eminently for agricul-
tural and pastoral purposes, the want of easy communication with not dis-
tant markets, neutralises all natural advantages : yet, I believe that roads ge-
nerally might be made to intersect this estate (diverging from the main roads)
at an expense of 10*. per Irish perch of 21 feet, as the materials requisite
are found very near the surface of the ground, and more particularly so on
those lines where roads are most needed ; at any rate, the expense of road-
making would not exceed 150/. per mile. Thus an outlay of 4500/. would
create thirty miles of new roads, an inconsiderable sum compared with the
immense advantage that would accrue from their formation. It is thus
obvious, that the first and grand object to be attained is the making of roads,
as without them improvement neither in cultivation nor civilization will be
effected ; for whatever the natural resources and power of production of any
country may be, if that country be not intersected with roads, a population
and tenantry will be located without that stimulus to improvement, which
would eventually raise them in the scale of Society."f

The moral cannot be separated from the physical result of the great work
of intercommunication. In the Select Committee of the House of Lords,
on the state of crime in Ireland, in June, 1839,. Mr. Simpson, who at that
time had acquired some experience, having within a few years valued and sold
half a million's-worth of landed property in Ireland, exhibited well this close
connexion, and demonstrated that the progress of draining and improvement,
the abolition of the conacre and subletting system, the creation of an Irish

* Discours de M. Maisonneuve, p. 6.
j- Simpson, p. 67.

yeomanry must follow the construction of roads. Q. 14,750. " Do you not
also think that the great increase in the facility of communication with
England has had a great effect ?" A. " I consider that to be the main cause ;
and I noticed the circumstance in a speech which I made at Limerick, in
January last, when I remarked that steam communication would, by bringing
the two countries more closely together, and thereby creating a reciprocity of
feeling and interest, make Ireland become every day more identified with
England, to the great benefit of the two countries. Bringing the tenants into
contact with their landlords more frequently, will be of immense service.
The railway has brought London within a few hours' communication of
Liverpool; and Dublin is united to Liverpool, as it were, by a bridge of
boats. This expeditious transit must tend very much to the improved culti-
vation of Ireland, and the civilization of the minds of the people."

It is, we believe, a fact capable of demonstration (though the supineness of
the Irish landlords is the cause) that the head landlord, as a rule, obtains too
little, the intermediate landlord greatly too much for his lands. The crying
sin of Irish landlordism has been, that they have not yet united in some
systematic crusade against the pernicious system of middlemen. It is in their
power now to urge on the substitution of yeomen and hired labourers, for
that fearful mode at present in action, by which landlords within landlords,
ad infinitum, are found on every estate. Ireland has been ill-treated, not
because, as some allege, she has been treated as a British colony, but because
she has not been treated as a British colony — her elements of wealth are
scattered and lost — she has never been rightly colonised by the British —
by Anglo-Irish capital and labour.

It is not an easy thing to determine why Irish landlords have been back-
ward in encouraging by the investment of capital the means of transit.
Two reasons may be perhaps assigned ; first, he did not see his way clearly
how he was to be indemnified under the middleman system ; and second, the
stimulus to local improvement — national investment on a large scale — was
waited for as a commencement, during the progress of which middlemen
would probably have disappeared, or their leases expired ; and the real land-
lords would be enabled to reap the reward of their local investments by making
terms with bond fide occupiers. Thus Mr. Simpson observes, " Great cau-
tion should be observed as to letting the farms on leases which are now te-
nanted from year to year ; more particularly where roads and other improve-
ments are contemplated. Of course, where leases prevail, of extended terms,
there can be no inducement for the proprietor to invest capital in improve-
ments, for the advantages derived therefrom would not be reciprocal."

We have already, in our opening article of last month, enlarged upon a
principle which appears to us best calculated to meet the difficulty here
mooted in the way of physical improvement. That principle involves the
guaranteeing to experienced yeomen the ultimate freehold of property, im-
proved by a large preliminary outlay, on the condition of their repaying the
whole amount, with a large profit, by graduated instalments. Of course, we
referred mainly to corporate or joint-stock owners. Individual landlords, except
on portions of their lands, might not choose to part for ever with the whole
of their patrimony. At the same time, to the individual seller of land, the
principle obviously holds out the prospect of his finding advantageous corpo-
rate purchasers, whose operations, in their turn, would tend to create, out of
enterprising tenants, of sufficient capital, a new race of Irish yeomen, em-
ploying, as their remunerated labourers, the present cottier landlords. The
inducement would thus be secured to the present landlords, who are unable or
unwilling to invest in improvement, to dispose of their lands ; while the pro-
spect of such operations, by means of combined capital, would increase in
present value, and the benefit would act and re-act on all classes. We shall
not, however, now dwell upon this point, further than to note that it is cu-
rious enough that the French Government have acted upon a principle very
similar in their arrangement with those companies which have undertaken the
execution of the national railways. In these the crown and the company
make their respective investments ; the company pays the state a moderate
interest, and pays itself not only an interest but an annuity ; and, at the end
of thirty or forty years, the capital of the company being replaced with a pro-
fit, the whole investment becomes the property of the state. Reading, for the
state here, the English or Irish yeoman, the mode of tenure we suggested in
the process of settlement and reclamation and intercommunication, was al-
most identical with this.

To what extent England is called upon, in. the case of Irish railways and
Irish colonization, to imitate the example of France, and urge on the work by
legislative enactments and anational investment, is problematical.. A railway is
a monopoly which cannot safely be left entirely to itself, any more than a fac-
tory, or any other institution, in which power iscentred in one or a few hands.
National feeling is ever in favour of leaving all to private enterprise ; and thus,
while M. Berryer, in discussing the Paris and Strasburg Railway, in the Cham-
ber of Deputies, insisted on the advantage possessed by Belgium, in that, not
being leagued with privatecompanies, she was at liberty to lower, at discretion,
the tariff of rates for passengers and goods on her railways so as to regulate
the movement of commerce, Sir Robert Peel expresses, in the House of Com-
mons, his expectation, that although the forms of the House might throw
some impediment in the way, the projectors of the great Irish line would be
able to convince capitalists in England that it is in their power to construct a
profitable railway towards the south of Ireland.

We beheve that until the people of that country are richer, and have more
of the conveniences of life, railways will not be remunerative ; and though
such a consideration ought not to weigh with the Government, if the establish-

66

Stray Leaves from the Magical Reporter.

ment of a system of railway communication in Ireland would produce ade-
quate beneficial results, it seems to us that the money might be more advan-
tageously expended in directly stimulating the great national resources of the
country, than in providing the means of railway transit for produce and pas-
sengers before the wants of the country call for such an advanced state of lo-
comotion. In France, on the other hand, the case is different. The sources
of abundant traffic already exist ; and the formation of railways promises not
only to afford great convenience to the community, but to be remunerative to
capitalists , if the stability of the government and the maintenance of peace
could be secured. When, under these circumstances, enterprising monied
men will not engage in the formation of railways, it becomes the duty of the
government to take the risk and responsibility ; but friendly as we are to
railway locomotion in general, we do not think it a panacea for the present
evils of Ireland.

Art. XIII.— NEW DOUBLE CYLINDER ENGINE, BY MESSRS.
BOULTON AND WATT.

We give in the present Number a drawing of a new variety of marine engine,
designed by Messrs. Boulton and Watt, which professes to combine the ad-
vantages of the beam and direct action varieties, without the disadvantages of
either. The drawing, which is made to the scale of ^-inch to a foot, shows
a single engine of 325 horses power to be placed in a vessel in conjunction
with a similar engine, making the collective power 650 horses.

A A' represent two cylinders of 66 inches diameter, and 6 feet stroke ; one
placed at each end of the side levers B B. The steam acts upon the upper
side of one piston, whilst pressing upon the lower side of the other ; and the
power transmitted directly by the piston-rod E' from the cylinder A', and
by the side rods G G', and beams B B, from the other cylinder A, is concen-
trated in the cross bar C, and connecting-rod D, and thence communicated
in the ordinary way to the paddle-shaft. H H' are the nozzles, the slide-
valves of which are connected by the levers a a' and rod c. By this arrange-
ment they balance each other, and are worked by one eccentric rod J, from
the engine-shaft. K is the condenser, and L the air-pump, which is placed
in the centre of the engine, and worked by the wrought-iron lever M, mov-
ing upon the centre (m) by means of the side-rod N, from the main-beam B.
This is so arranged that the part (b m) of the air-pump beam acts as the
radius rod in the parallel motion, consisting of the side rods G and N, and
parallel rod (b d.) The piston rod E' works in guides.

Messrs. Boulton and Watt inform us that this plan of engine possesses the
lightness and compactness of the direct-action engine, with the equilibrium
so effectually attained by the beam-engine. We are at a loss to discover, how-
ever, where the lightness ;and compactness can lie, or in what way an engine
on this plan can take up less room, or be in any respect more eligible than the
common side lever engine, which it aspires to supersede. To us it rather appears
that the plan has the more serious of the defects of the " Gorgon" method,
without one of its advantages. It has, for example, the short connecting-rod,
the elevated shaft, and the slides for guiding the piston-rod, all of which are
objectionable peculiarities, while there is no saving in space accomplished,
that we can discover. This will never do : the plan is worse than that of the
" Virago," instead of being better, as we had been led to suppose, when our
former remarks on direct-action engines were written, but we had not then seen
the drawing. If Messrs. Boulton and Watt wish to support their reputation,
they must either produce something very much better than this or desist
from the attempt.

Art. XIV.— SOMETHING ABOUT TUBULAR BOILERS.

There is only one objection to the use of tubular boilers that we are aware
of, that can be said to be of any moment, and that is the difficulty of maintain-
ing the feed, and the destructive effects of suffering it to fall below the proper
level. The quantity of water that common boilers contain is so considerable,
that it serves as a compensation to any irregularity in the admission of the
feed water, and even should it fall so low as to leave some part of the flues
bare the injury is rarely such as to be of serious detriment. In the locomo-
tive plan of boiler, the quantity of water is so small, that the water-level will
be subject to perpetual fluctuations, unless the feed-cock be adjusted with
extraordinary nicety, and the brass tubes of the boiler, if they be of brass,
will be speedily destroyed, if left uncovered with water. It beoomes of
peculiar importance, therefore, that the water-level in tubular boilers should
be accurately maintained, and in the case of river vessels, where the stoppages
are frequent, a self-acting feed for accomplishing this object is, in our eyes,
almost indispensable. In sea-going vessels this expedient is of less impor-
tance, but we think every sea-going vessel provided with tubular boilers,
ought to be furnished with a lead plug or rivet so situated in the top of the
fire-box, that it may be melted by the heat, and give the alarm before the
water has subsided to the level of the tubes. The engineer of the " Tagus"
steamer has favoured us with the description of an arrangement he has
devised for accomplishing the desired object which we subjoin.

The insignificant quantity of water contained by tubular boilers makes the
maintenance of the water-level at a uniform height a matter of much diffi-
culty ; and the subsidence of the water below the tubes will, if they are of
brass, in all probability, be destructive to the boiler. To obviate an accident
so disastrous, the engineer of the "Tagus" steamer, into which tubular
boilers are now being put, has devised a plan, whereby timely notice will be
given of any subsidence of the water to such a degree as to threaten injury.
The expedient he proposes to employ is a lead rivet fixed in the top of the
fire-box, which will melt so soon as the fire-box is left uncovered ; and, by
the rush of steam which must follow, will apprise the attendants of the
danger. This will be better understood by a reference to the subjoined
sketch, where A is the rivet of lead, B a plug extending through the top of

r

FT

the boiler, kept tight by the stuffing-box C, and guided by the guard D. The
use of this plug is, that, in the event of the rivet being melted, the hole may
be stopped by the plug being pushed down so as to prevent the boiler from
being one moment disabled.

The use of plugs of lead, or rather of fusible metal, is common enough on
the Continent ; but their purpose there is to prevent boilers from bursting,
should the pressure and the consequent temperature of the steam become too
high. We are not aware of any such application as this being proposed
before for the same object, and we think of the plan most favourably. It is
a simple, and we believe, an effectual safeguard ; and the cost is too insig-
nificant to be worth consideration.

Art. XV.— STRAY LEAVES FROM THE MAGICAL REPORTER.

Montgomery. I hardly know whether a sensitive taste is to be esteemed
as a blessing or a curse. It no doubt heightens many of our pleasures, but
at the same time it afflicts us with pangs that are unknown to obtuser
mortals.

Sir Jonah. A discriminating taste is, no doubt, a blessing ; but a taste
that is over fastidious is a source of perpetual torment. It opens a thousand
avenues to disgust that are sealed up in ordinary natures, and sickens the
heart with those petty vulgarities that fall without effect upon robuster minds.
A man might as well be flayed alive as be endowed with a taste which turns
the most trivial disgusts into agony.

Montgomery. A fastidious taste is a taste inflamed.

Sir Jonah. It is ; and such a taste is in as morbid a state as an inflamed
eye or limb — the fault of the one, as of the other, being, that the sensation is
too active.

Montgomery (aside.) And the remedy must be blood-letting.

Sir Jonah. A taste of such a description shuts out its possessor from in-
numerable enjoyments that are patent to all the world beside, and embitters
his life with fictitious miseries.

Montgomery. A person who, by the indulgence of a fastidious taste,
needlessly contracts the range of his pleasures, and adds discomforts, unknown
to less squeamish appetites, must become a misanthrope.

Sir Jonah. Yes, such a one will become disgusted with the world ; or, in
other words, disgusted with himself. By degrees he will shut himself out from
all human sympathy, and will stand alone in the world, without one heart to
reciprocate his emotions, or a link to bind him to the human family ; — re-
finement, such as appears very like straining at the gnat and swallowing the
camel.

Montgomery, I vote for a liberty in taste as for liberty in other things.

Sir Jonah. No man has a right to narrow the enjoyments of others by
raising arbitrary distinctions between different tastes, and condemning some
of them merely because they do not happen to have his predilection. There!
is no taste that is bad, except in so far as it is peculiar ; and the bad taste of'

IS44.]

Encouragement to the Fine Arts.

67

one country may be the good taste of another. Look into that volume
of Jeremy Bentham, where the leaf is turned down, and see what he says on
the subject.

Montgomery (reads.) " Liberty of conscience, liberty of press, liberty
of opinion at large — all these are, in one place or another, established. The
last that remains to be established, and which yet in its whole extent is
scarcely so much as advocated, is liberty of taste."

Montgomery. These painters and architects will adhere to the notion
that beauty is a physical property.

Sir Jonah. That doctrine is not tenable. If beauty were a physical pro-
perty it would be measurable, and there could be no difference of opinion
among mankind as to what was beautiful and what otherwise.

Montgomery. Artists generally take a very narrow view of this subject.
They regard it merely in relation to their own particular art ; and however
well their notions may conform to facts in those petty cantonments of human
knowledge, they are almost always inapplicable in other quarters.

Sir Jonah. There can hardly be a doubt, among those who take a large
view of the subject, that beauty is the effect merely of association. It is the
significancy of some social or selfish affection ; and the varying opinions con-
cerning beauty become explicable on the supposition that certain symbols are
representative to different minds of opposite varieties of expression. The
beauty of colours and sounds, however, does not come under this definition :
•the impressions made by those varieties of beauty are, no doubt, organic.

Montgomery. The beauty of the human countenance is due to its signifi-
cancy of kindly sentiments and dispositions.

Sir Jonah. Yes, to the expression of youth and health — of innocence,
gaiety, and benevolence. There are, however, great varieties in the expres-
sion ; for all sorts of beauty are not the same. The beauty of Venus is not
the same as that of Minerva ; nor the beauty of Hercules the same as that of
Apollo. Some kinds of beauty are voluptuous, and others majestic — some
are graceful and simple, and others commanding and august. One of the
most fertile sources of misapprehension on this subject is the supposition that
beauty is a definite and immutable property ; whereas it varies with the
mental emotion of which it is the reflection.

FRIENDSHIP.

Sir Jonah. Life without friendship is like the world without the sun ;
yet how many there are who pass from the cradle to the grave without having
tasted the joys of that blessed alliance !

Montgomery. Such persons must be poor indeed.

Sir Jonah. Yes, they are poor, whatever be their worldly estate — and
despicable too ; for every one has a friend who is worthy of friendship.

Montgomery. With one true friend we may defy the world. However
fortune may frown, we are solaced by the recollection that there is one heart
left to us in which we reign paramount still — one sunny spot amid the storm,
where our affections may find a shelter, and expand to a rich maturity — one
spirit which bows with us in sympathy, alleviating our sorrows, and doubling
all our joys. True friendship believes no evil ; aud when the clouds of ad-
versity gather, it waxes to a brighter and benigner ardour, and dissipates the
gloom with the light of its own benignity.

Sir Jonah. We are told in holy writ, that " a faithful friend is the medi-
cine of life ;" and this, indeed, is the only medicine that is effectual in
relieving many of the cares and distresses to which humanity is heir.

Montgomery. To be able to pour out your whole soul before a sincere
friend — to show him all your faults and foibles, your fears, difficulties, and
secret aspirations — is one of the highest privileges an ingenuous heart can
desire. It takes a load of anxiety from the soul, and binds spirit to spirit
with a tie of holiest sympathy.

Sir Jonah. From a friend nothing should be hid ; for there cannot be
friendship unless there be perfect confidence and perfect sincerity. Faults
should be acknowledged without disguise, and merits without affectation.
There is no egotism more offensive than the egotism of mock humility.

Montgomery. Some friendships are most romantic. That case is known
to every one, in which one friend became answerable for the re-appearance of
another, and was on the point of suffering death in his stead, when his friend
returned. Such instances of affection are, I believe, by no means rare ; and
they certainly reconcile us to humanity, and redeem the sordidness of this
lower world. They are like oases in the desert, which refresh the parched
traveller with living waters and airs from heaven.

boiler furnaces.

Montgomery. There is more art in firing a boiler-furnace properly than
is generally apprehended. Some men will raise steam very readily, and keep
it up with ease ; while others will be unable to prevent the pressure of the
steam from declining, even with a larger consumption of coals and greater
labour to themselves.

Sir Jonah. The whole secret of firing well consists in spreading the coal
on the fire-bars evenly, and keeping the stratum thin. If there be too little

VOL. II.

coal upon one part of the grate, and too much upon another, the air will
ascend through the thin part, without entering into effectual combination
with the fuel, and the flues will be uselessly cooled ; while the air which
ascends through the thick stratum will be impregnated with an additional
dose of carbon, and the carbonic acid will be turned into carbonic oxide, at a
great expense of coal.

Montgomery. The thickness of the stratum of fire must have reference
to the intensity of the draught.

Sir Jonah. Undoubtedly. A strong draught will require a thicker in-
candescent stratum to ensure the effectual combination of the oxygen with the
fuel ; but there is a certain thickness which, in a certain boiler, and with a
given description of coal, will produce a maximum effect ; and the secret of
firing a furnace well lies in maintaining this thickness with uniformity.

Art. XVI.— PROMISCUOUS NOTES ON STEAM MACHINERY.

Overhung Paddles. — The method of dispensing with the ordinary outer
bearing of the paddle-shaft, and suspending the paddles beyond the shaft-
bearing, which is either on or near the ship's side, is now coming into ex-
tended use, and is found to have several advantages. For small vessels the
crank-beams are usually made of plate-iron, and are extended through the
ship's side, so as to furnish a support for the shaft. The paddle-beams have
then only to support the paddle-box. With this plan of wheel the arms of
the side-rims have to be deflected from the central one, so as to contract the
length of the centring on the shaft. Some wheels have had the arms of the
two outer rings deflected from the inner one ; but this is a bad plan, as the
outer arms are then, from the twist consequent on their great deviation from
the vertical line, very liable to crack at the neck.

New Bush.' — A new kind of bush, for engine and other bearings, has
been under trial for some time past, and promises well. The ordinary bush
is turned out to a certain depth, and a layer of metal introduced, consisting
of a mixture of tin and antimony, with a little copper intermixed. This
composition is so hard, and wears so well, that the bearings scarcely ever
heat, and rarely require tightening.

Art. XVII.— ENCOURAGEMENT TO THE FINE ARTS.

The cultivation of the fine arts is so closely connected with improvements in
many branches of the arts of manufacture, that it cannot fail to be a subject
of interest to most classes of the community to ascertain whether the progress
of England corresponds with that of the continental states. As regards the
encouragement given by the governments of different countries to the study
of the fine arts, England, we regret to say, is far behind her neighbours and
manufacturing rivals. Money is expended, by thousands and hundreds of thou-
sands, in carrying into execution any plan, however unlikely to prove prac-
tically advantageous, provided the party whose crotchets are indulged has but
sufficient influence with the " departments ;" otherwise there is a most rigid
parsimony observed when any plan is proposed for encouraging the arts and
manufactures of the country, by an expenditure of public money, however
trifling. We have been much struck with the backwardness of this country,
compared with nearly all the governments on the Continent, on perusing a
letter from Rome in a recent number of the Athenceum, in which this sub-
ject is particularly noticed. The article presents the matter in so forcible a
light that we are induced to extract the greater portion of the writer's
remarks : —

" Esteeming, as I do, the Fine Arts on their own account, as well as for
the influence which they are calculated to exercise over the morals and
manners of a people, I have taken some trouble, in my late rambles, ta
ascertain what encouragement is given by the different governments of Europe
to art in Rome. I now send you the result of my inquiries, in the hope
that it may interest some of your readers, and convince perhaps a few, that
it is a matter of national importance to the formation of the character and
taste of a people to extend our patronage to those arts which have hitherto
been so much neglected by us : of course I first speak of Rome, where, on
consulting some statistical papers which were given to me the other day, I
find that 1,522 persons are devoted to the profession of the fine arts — a con-
vincing proof of the advantages which a young artist must here enjoy of
pursuing his studies, as also of the united opinion of the different countries
of Europe on this point. The public galleries are, as you will readily
believe, the great objects of attraction ; but besides these, there is the
" Accademia delle Belli Arti," or of " San Luca," which, though its advan-
tages are, of necessity, limited to a few, is maintained by the government in
the most liberal spirit, and opens its doors to artists of every country and
religion. The students belonging to this useful establishment receive gra-
tuitously theoretic and practical lessons on the art of drawing, and are
instructed besides in painting, sculpture, architecture in all its branches,
geometry, perspective and optics, anatomy, history, mythology, and
costumes. Thorwaldsen and Tenerani are professors of sculpture in this

68

The Societies.

[March*

academy, and the other chairs also are filled by men of the highest celebrity
in their respective departments.

" On the road to Monte Pincio, the great winter promenade of the
Romans, stands a large handsome palace, to adopt the phraseology of the
Italian ; at the door may be seen a comely looking porter, dressed on gala
days in a rich livery ; around the palace are laid out large and beautiful
gardens, in the formal antiquated style, adorned here and therewith statuary.
If you are a stranger, the arms above the door inform you that it is a French
institution, — in fact, it is the French Academy. Here are maintained, by
the munificence and taste of the French government, twenty-five young
artists, sculptors, painters, architects, ornatisti, and musicians in equal
proportion, for five years. They have all their expenses paid. Living
models are provided for them, and the institution possesses a good library,
a collection of wax preparations, and an excellent collection of casts. The
whole is under the direction of a gentleman, who is liberally paid, and who
is appointed once in every five or six years. The young French artist,
therefore, whose fortune it is to be a member of this institution, on arriving
in Rome, finds himself free from all pecuniary anxiety and embarrassment,
provided with every facility for pursuing his studies, and instructed in the
most advantageous mode of pursuing them, by the experience of the director
of the academy. In addition to this regular encouragement extended by the
government of France to the fine arts, it not unfrequently dispatches eminent
artists to examine and copy the works of the most celebrated masters ; thus,
soon after the July revolution, Sigelou was sent to Rome to copy the finest
paintings of Michael Angelo and of Raphael, a handsome provision being
made him during his residence in Italy, and a pension for life being promised
him on his return. Unfortunately, be died during the time that the cholera
raged in Rome, but not before he had completed a splendid copy of Michael
Angelo's ' Last Judgment,' which is now in Paris, and which an eminent
English artist told me had given him the first clear conception he had ever
formed of that grand painting. Naples, like France, has her academy also
at Rome ; it is held in the Palazzo Farnesina ; there are many young artists
educated here ; and Baron Camuccini, perhaps the most distinguished living
painter, is the director. The other states of Europe have almost all of them,
if not academies, at least pensioned artists ; thus Russia has, at the present
time, nearly thirty pensioned, and well pensioned, artists ; some of them, I
am told, receiving as much as 300/. a year. From time to time, too, she
sends men of distinguished talents to Rome for specific purposes. Thus
Bruno, whose painting of the ' Serpent in the Wilderness' attracted so much
attention three years since, has just arrived in Rome, with orders to execute
for the government twenty-six paintings in a specified time. Her neighbour,
Sweden, maintains here four artists ; that is, an architect, a sculptor, an his-
torical and a costume painter, for six years each, with a pension of 600
Roman scudi, or 128/. a year. Prussia and Denmark have also their pen-
sioned artists in Rome ; the former has many with life pensions, and com-
missions are continually being sent to them to execute great public works.
Belgium, even the small state of Belgium, gives peculiar encouragement to
the arts ; the principal towns uniting with the government, as I am told, to
send young students to the eternal city. Lombardy has her pupils in the
Venetian palace. Turin and Florence have their pensioned artists also ; those
of Florence meeting in the palace of the Florentine ambassador. Spain and
Portugal, too, had their academies in Rome till lately, but political events
have, of course, for a time suspended their proceedings. Thus, every country
in Europe, of any consideration, with one great exception, gives proof of
her admiration and her sense of the importance of the fine arts — this great
exception is England. Possessed of enormous wealth, distinguished by com-
mercial and manufacturing enterprise above every other country, her govern-
ment does nothing, and her people but little, for the encouragement of the
fine arts, and that little maybe condensed in two lines. The Royal Academy,
to its honour be it said, sends a pupil to Rome once in three years ; and some
of our distinguished nobility and gentry, in conjunction with the Royal
Academy, have formed a fund here for the support of an evening model
school. This is something, indeed, but how little as compared with the
power of Great Britain and the importance of the object, and how defective
is that little ! it supposes the young student to have carefully trodden the first
steps of his art, that he has drawn long from engravings, bas-reliefs, then from
figures and busts, which is the course pursued in the academies of Rome, and
that he is enabled to enter on the most difficult branch of his study, that of draw-
ing from life, whereas the contrary is often the case. And what is the result ?
The drawing of our English artists is notoriously defective ; and I was yester-
day told, by one of the most celebrated sculptors in Rome, that of the six car-
toons sent some time since to London for the new Houses of Parliament, se-
veral of them were by men who had never in their lives before drawn a cartoon.
I take this as being not so much a proof of individual temerity and presump-
tion, as of the comparatively little importance which is attached by Englishmen
to a very important branch of a painter's study, and of the necessity of doing
something for the proper direction of the first efforts of our young artists. At
present, the comparatively few whose resources enable them to visit Rome, la-
bour under great disadvantages. With a sense of beauty as yet unformed, they
wander through the vast collections of the eternal city without counsel to direct,
or patronage to encourage and protect. Of the capabilities of my countrymen I
cannot think too highly. Celebrated as the English are for perseverance and
determination, not inferior to any people in that enthusiasm of character and
cultivation of mind which are so essential to grandeur or delicacy of concep-
tion, I am convinced, that, with proper encouragement, they would equal any

school, either in sculpture or painting ; but if any man doubt it, let him visit
the studii of Gibson or Wyatt, of Williams, Lane, or Desseulevy. I believe,
that one great reason why England has not given more direct encouragement
to the fine arts is, that she is too much in the habit of estimating every-
thing by its pound sterling value. Be it so then : I do not think it would be
difficult to show that such encouragement is of the highest importance to us
as a manufacturing people ; and that the reason why the French so far sur-
pass us in design is, that their government does so much for the encourage-
ment and diffusion of a fine taste. Of even greater importance is such en-
couragement in a higher point of view, since the influences of the fine arts
extend to the moral feelings and habits of a people ; giving grace and elegance
of mind, purity of feeling, elevation of sentiment ; and bearing the same re-
lation to the solid and substantial in intellect, that the capital does to a
pillar."

Art. XVIII.— CHIMNEY FLUES.

In the art of constructing chimneys, modern builders seem to have retrograded,
instead of having advanced, on the steps of their predecessors. Either they
do not know how to make chimneys that will draw properly, or they think it
a matter of insignificance ; for few modern houses are built with chimneys
that do not smoke. This is evidenced by the erection of innumerable dif-
ferently-shaped devices on the tops of chimnies, with the view of increasing
the draft of air so as to prevent the wind from blowing down the smoke.
There are few causes of domestic discomfort more annoying than a smoky
chimney, yet builders seem to care little whether the square shafts they erect
from fire-places of houses are fitted for the purpose intended ; and so long
as there is a vent for the smoke, they are regardless whether there will be a
draft to carry it away. The subject is, however, so practically important,
that we are induced to give publicity to a plan which appears calculated
effectually to remedy the evil, by the introduction of circular earthenware
flues as substitutes for square brick chimneys. It is well known to all prac-
tical men, that the draft up a circular chimney is much stronger than in a
square shaft, which may be attributed in a great degree to the smaller com-
parative surface which the cylindrical shape presents to resist the upward
current. By adopting earthenware in lieu of brick, the assistance is still
further diminished by the smoothness of the interior surface, and the ad-
hesion of soot is less. The inventor of these flues is M. Denley, whose
application of them in houses is delineated in our plate. One of the advantages
attending the adoption of his plan will be the avoidance of the unsightly
projections of fire-places, which usually occupy a considerable portion of
small apartments. The earthenware flues are made in lengths of about
twenty inches, and are built in the wall, consequently there is no necessity
for any chimney breasts. It will be seen from the section, fig. 1, showing
the flues from the basement upwards, that descending flues are connected
with the fire-places of each chamber, down which the soot may be carried in.
sweeping the chimney, so as to avoid the great inconvenience at present
experienced whenever the chimney requires to be swept. The same figure
also shows that by the introduction of these flues, chimney pots will be un-
necessary, and that the designs of the architect will not be disfigured by the
strange erections now so often considered necessary for the prevention of
smoke. Not having seen the plan in operation, we cannot speak positively
of its superiority in practice, but the principle on which it is based is sounds
and the conveniences it offers are unquestionable.

Art. XIX.— THE SOCIETIES.

Royal Geographical Society. — Monday, 11th March. R. I. Murchison, Esq.,
President, in the chair. Thomas Baling, Esq., Sir H. De la Becbe, F.U.S., and
Samuel Duckworth, Esq., were elected Fellows of the Society; and some valuable
donations, among which 100 Charts, published by the hydrographic department of
the Admiralty, within the last year, were announced; after which the following
papers were read, viz. — 1. An account of an excursion into Hadramant, by the
Baron de Wrede. Following the suggestion of St. Wellsted, the Baron assumed
the Mohammedan costume, and, under the name of Abd-el-Hud, quitted Aden oil
the 22nd of June of last year, for Burum, on the coast, where he disembarked, aud
proceeded by land to Makalla, whence, on the 26th, he struck into the interior,
under the protection of a Bedouin, and arrived at the celebrated Wadi Doan, after
a march of eight days and a half. The country passed over lay among granitic and
sandstone mountains, reaching to a height of from 4000 to 8000 feet above the sea..
From the foot of some of these elevations issued chalybeate springs, of a tempera-
ture of from 100° to 130° Fahr. The temperature in the valleys sometimes rose
to 150° and 160° Fahr., but was agreeably cool on the top of the plateau. The
vegetation was scanty, consisting chiefly of aromatic plants, and a few acacias. The
Wadi Doan is minutely described by the Baron. It is narrow and deep, and
abounds in date trees; the stream meanders through its bottom ; and the habita-
tions, which are numerous, rise in amphitheatres on its sides and terraces. The-
descent into the Wady is difficult and dangerous. At the town of Cboreibc the
traveller was hospitably received by the Sheikh Abdalla-Ba-Sudan. From hence-
tlio Baron went in search of some inscriptions in the neighbourhood, but was not
permitted to visit Nakab-el-Hajar, being stopped, when about six miles from that

1844]

Survey of the Periodicals.

69

place by a band of Bedouins, and forced to return to Wadi Doan. Five days1
journey from Wadi Doan is Wadi Haggar, which has different names at different
places : it is fertile in dates, and is watered by a continually running stream. The
Wadi Doan also changes its name several times. Having visited other Wadis, the
traveller arrived at Sava, in the Wadi Rachid, distant one day's journey from the
Desert of El Ahkaf. In this neighbourhood, he was informed, were some dan-
gerous quicksands, which had formerly proved fatal to the army of King Sam,
which was there swallowed up. The superstitious dread in which the natives hold
this place was such, that the Baron could get no one to accompany him to the spot,
and he therefore went alone. The scene is described as melancholy in the extreme.
Arrived at the interesting spot, he approached it cautiously ; and, throwing in a line
of thirty fathoms, with a weight of one pound at the end, it sunk instantly with a
diminishing velocity, and in five minutes had wholly disappeared. The sand was
extremely fine and dry; and the Baron declares himself unable to explain the sin-
gular phenomenon. Returning thence to Choreibe, other places in the vicinity
were visited. At Grein, in Wadi Doan, the Baron was seized, ill-treated, and
■carried bound and bleeding before the reigning sultan. He was declared to be an
English spy ; and an universal shout wa3 raised for his instant death. He was,
however, rescued from this peril by his guides and protectors, but remained for three
days with his feet in fetters. Ultimately, he was allowed to return to Makalla,
after being plundered of every thing except a few notes, which he contrived to
secrete. He reached Makalla on the 8th of September, whence he returned in a
boat to' Aden, after an absence of about eighty-two days.— 2. The second paper
read was an account of the Hume river, in Australia, by Captain Sturt, whose ex-
ploration enables us to lay down accurately a river whose real direction was befoie
unknown.— 3. Lastly, a paper, by Governor Gray, of South Australia, was read,
being a note on the dialects spoken by the natives along the southern sea-board of
New° Holland. Beginning from the south-west angle of the island, and proceeding
•eastward, five different dialects are spoken : the first, reaching to long. 124° E. ;
the second, thence to 137°; the third, extending to Lake Alexandria; the fourth,
spoken in a tract lying between 139° and 145° E. long., and reaching southward to
about lat. 35° S.; and the fifth, spoken in the western portion of Australia Felix.
These several dialects, from their radical and grammatical resemblance, appear to
be all derived from a common stock, and to have come from the north —The two
last papers were communicated to the Society by the kindness of Lord Stanley. —
The business of the evening being concluded, the Rev. Charles Foster addressed the
meeting on the interesting subject of the Himyaretic Inscriptions of Southern
Arabia"; the progress which had been made by otliers, and by himself, in decipher-
ing the same ; and their importance in throwing light upon the remote history of a
part of the world now so little known, but once the scene of great events.

Institution of Civil Engineers, March 19th, 1844.— The President in the Chair.

In the recapitulation of ,the conversation of the meeting of March 12th, there

were read some interesting remarks by Col. Leafe, on the knowledge possessed by
the Greeks of the properties of the arch ; he contended that numerous examples
still existed of their having used it, but from the solidity of their constructions, the
nature of the materials they employed, and the architectural character of the
edifices, which were chiefly temples, the arch was evidently less employed than
among the Romans, who used different and less solid materials.

A description was then read, " of the formation of the town-lands of Mussel-
burgh on the Firth of Forth," by Mr. James Hay. This was a curious instance of
an extensive tract of nearly four hundred acres of land, being formed by an alluvial
deposit, in about three hundred years. The river Esk, when swollen by rain, is
stated to brin^ down quantities of the detritus from the hills, which, with the soil
washed from the banks of the low lands, is arrested when it meets the tide, and is
thrown upon the beach ; this, being mingled with large boulder stones, becomes
fixed ; the sand is blown over it by the heavy north winds, to which the shore is
exposed, and thus this large tract has been formed. The diagrams showed the
several lines of high-water at various dates, and that nearly the entire town is built
upon land thus recovered from the sea without the aid of art.

The next paper read was " a description of an hydraulic traversing frame at the
Bristol terminus of the Great Western Railway," by Mr. A. J. Dodson, Assoc.
Inst. C. E. The action of this machine, the object of which is to transport the
railway carriages from the arrival side of the terminus, to the departure side, or to
any one of several intermediate lines, was thus described : an opening being made
in the train, the apparatus is pushed on to the line of rails, and the carriage
required to be moved, is run over it when the frame is quite down, it being then
sufficiently low to allow the carriages to pass freely over. As soon as the carriage
is brought directly over the apparatus, a man works a pump, acting upon four hy-
draulic presses, which raise the frame until both sides are in contact with the
axles of the carriage wheels, and raise the flanges of the wheel clear of the rails; the
•whole apparatus, with the carriage suspended upon it, is then easily transported to
any of the lines of rails, when, by unscrewing a stopper which allows the water to
flow back from the presses into its cistern, the carriage is lowered on the rails, and
the apparatus is rolled over ready for recommencing the operation, the whole tran-
sit not having occupied more than one minute and a half. The action of the appar-
atus (which was made by Mr. Napier, York -road,) was stated to be very satisfac-
tory, and its cost to have been about 220Z.

An account was then read of the land-slip, in the Ashley cutting of the Great
Western Railway, by Mr. J. G. Thomson, Grad. Inst. C. E. The cutting, which
■was described, is situated about five miles on the London side of Bath ; it was made
through a mass of detritus from the neighbouring high lands, consisting of sand,
oolitic gravel, vegetable matter, and stones of the great oolite, lying upon the blue
lias clay, and marl. The whole district was extraordinarily full of water, and
appeared to have defied all attempts to drain it ; this accumulation of water softened
the clay, turning portions into soft silt, and when, by cutting away a portion of the
foot, which was situated on a slope, the support was taken away, the whole mass
was set in motion, and every attempt to arrest it was fruitless. The details of the

attempts at driving water headings, sinking pits, which collapsed and were obliged,
to be rilled up with stones and faggots, and all the engineering devices that were
adopted, were given with .great minuteness, and being aided by some well
executed drawings, gave an interesting account of a good specimen of one of the
difficulties to be encountered by the railway engineer, in the ordinary course of
his labours.

The paper was an example of that which has been so frequently insisted upon at
the meetings of the Institution, namely, the advantage to the civil engineer of a
knowledge of geology, by which his progress would be safely made under such cir-
cumstances.

The following papers were announced to be read at the meeting of March 20th : —

No. 668. " On railway cuttings and embankments, with an account of some
slips in the London clay ;" by C. H. Gregory, Grad. Inst. C. E.

No. 661. " Account of the railway from Amsterdam to Rotterdam, and of the
principal works upon it;" by Le Chevalier F. W. Conrad, M. Inst. C. E.
Translated from the French, by C. Mauhy, Secretary.

Art. XX.— ANALYSIS OF BOOKS.

SURVEY OF THE PERIODICALS.

The Repertory of Patent Inventions. No. XV.
The London Journal, and Repertory of Arts, Sciences, and Manufactures.

No. CXLVII.
We take up these publications every month in the vain hope of finding some-
thing new in the repertories of " New Patent Inventions" that may interest our
readers, but as usual we see few inventions noticed that are not comparatively
old ; many of the patents having been taken out in 1841, and not one has
been specified so recently as those noticed under the head " Analysis of
Patents," in the Apprentice. There is an apparent exception, however, to
this collection of old matter in the London Journal, for there is a specification
given of a patent for improvements in the ventilation of houses, which was
sealed so recently as the 18th of October last; and according to the usual
practice, it need not have been specified till the 18th of April. The paten-
tee was, however, so fully prepared with his invention, that he specified it in
December, and surely enough he might well be so prepared, considering that
it forms one of the plans long ago described by Dr. Reid, for ventilating the
New Houses of Parliament. This notable invention purposes to introduce
pure air into the crowded streets of smoky towns by building a ventilating
shaft, and drawing the air down from the top by mechanical means. The
air thus drawn down, it is proposed to conduct in pipes to the houses. It
is probable that the patentee may not have seen Dr. Reid's plan of ventilat-
ing the Houses of Parliament from an upper atmosphere ; or at least, he seems
to differ from him very materially in the quantities of fresh air considered
requisite. The doctor is a regular Sangrado practitioner in the supply of air;
the patentee, on the contrary, seems to have adopted the homoeopathic
system, and would administer it only in doses infinitesimally small.

Fraser's Magazine, No. CLXXI. The first article in this number draws
a parallel between the collections of science and art in London and in Paris.
We are so often told of the great liberality of admission to the exhibitions of
works of art in Paris, that we are apt to take for granted the fact is so. In
the parallel now drawn, it appears that the accommodation offered to the
public in London surpasses that in the metropolis of France. The Louvre,
for example, is open to the French public only on Sundays, during the
hours of Divine worship. Foreigners and artists may, indeed, obtain ad-
mission on five other days of the week, but in this country such exclusive
indulgence to foreigners would be viewed with considerable dislike. As to
the respective merits of the exhibitions of works of art, the writer is disposed
to give the palm to the English collections in the aggregate, including the
National and Dulwich Galleries, and Hampton Court Palace, and Windsor
Castle ; though in no one building have we collected any paintings equal in
number or excellence to those of the Louvre. The freedom of access to the
Royal Library in France is not practically so great as that to the library of
the British Museum. The public are indeed admitted indiscriminately two
days of the week, but a general admission for two days does not afford
nearly equal accommodation to those desirous of reading, as the scarcely
restricted admission to the British Museum ; and the hours during which the
library is open are also more limited. The catalogue at the British Museum
is very badly compiled, so as to be of little use excepting in searching for
books the exact titles of which are known, and sometimes even with the cor-
rect title, the absurd classification, where an attempt at classification is made
renders it difficult to find the work, or to guess at the class of publications
among which it may be arranged. But even such a catalogue, mystified as it
is by antiquaries, who reject common sense as a modern innovation, is
better than no catalogue at all, and in that state of want is the Paris student
placed at the Royal Library. It is some satisfaction, amidst all our grumb-
ling, to find that we are not worse off than our neighbours, and that they
really do not " manage these things better in France." — There is also in.
Fraser, a very good article on the " Chemists of the Eighteenth Century,"
in which the progress of chemistry during that eventful period, when it was
taken from the hands of empirics and dignified as a science by eminent phi-
losophers, is traced in a succinct and popular manner. The progress, from the
empiricism of alchemy to the little less delusive phlogiston theory, and the
arguments by which that theory was supported, affords an extremely inter-
esting study for the philosopher, and should teach a lesson of diffidence

K 2

70

Survey of the Periodicals.

[March,

even in the most assured conclusions from supposed facts. The article ter-
minates with a sketch of the character of the eccentric Mr. Cavendish ; but
the subject is not concluded.

The London Polytechnic Mayazine. No. III. — This periodical is a
decided improvement on the defunct Polytechnic Journal, and contains much
interesting matter of a scientific character in a popular form. The principal
articles in this number treat of the Arts and Manufactures of the Esquimaux
— On the Internal Heat of the Earth — the Study of Ethnology — the Mines
in Spain — and the Carriage Ways of England. The latter is by far the most
practical treatise ; it is by Mr. W. Lee, Assistant Surveyor of Highways ;
and was lately read before the Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society.
Mr. Lee considers the merits and defects of the different kinds of pavement in
the manner of one well acquainted with the subject on which he writes, and he
mentions many curious facts in confirmation of his opinions. The Macadamis-
ing plan of road-making meets with no countenance. The mode of construc-
tion he pronounces to be unscientific, and not durable. Broken stones for
road-making, even when of the best quality, have many disadvantages, among
which must be reckoned their rapid wear, and the great annoyance from
dust, which renders Macadamised roads seriously inconvenient in towns, and
injurious to health. Granite paving is considered far the most economical
where there is a great traffic ; and in proof of this it is stated, as the result
of experiment, that to wear down four inches of such paving in the Commer-
cial-road, would require, when Guernsey granite is used, 90 years. The
Peterhead and Aberdeen granites are far less durable, the former would in
similar situations last but 43 years, and the latter only 25. The advantages
of wood-paving are considered, and the various plans and their relative merits
are examined ; but it is evident, that though the writer cannot deny their
great superiority, from the avoidance of noise, that he leans towards the
granite paving as the most desirable for the horses, and the most economical.
— In the article on the " Internal Heat of the Earth," the writer undertakes
to show the formation of our globe, as well as to indicate its internal tem-
perature ; and though many of his speculations are fanciful and without solid
foundation, they are at least as plausible as those of any other world-builder.
Volcanoes and earthquakes are very shortly disposed of, if we grant that the
materials of the earth are liquified by heat at a depth of twenty or thirty miles;
and that the water from the surface has access to the molten mass. The
force of the steam, we are told, presses the volcanic matter through the rents
previously formed, and the pressure of such steam on the square-inch is cal-
culated to be 400 tons ! Earthquakes, on a similar supposition, are produced
by occasional escapes of the pent-up steam, either through the rents of vol-
canoes, or through the bottom of the sea !

The Nautical Magazine. No. III. — The article on the Mariner's Com-
pass, which we alluded to in a former notice of this magazine, is still in
progress, and in this number the writer mentions a circumstance which
materially affects the oscillations of the compass that appears to have been
overlooked both by philosophers and instrument makers. It is well known
that the needle affixed to its card, though balanced on the pivot horizontally
before it is magnetised, has its north pole afterwards drawn down, in what is
called the magnetic dip of the needle. To overcome this additional attraction
it is usual to affix a sliding brass weight to the south pole, by which the card
is again balanced ; but it seems to have been forgotten that by so doing the
centre of gravity of the needle and card is removed nearer to the south pole,
and no longer rests immediately on the pivot. The effect of this arrangement
consequently is, that when the ship is in motion, the card which would remain
stationary if balanced on its centre of gravity, oscillates as a pendulum, and
produces errors in the compass which it is difficult to calculate. The mode
adopted to restore the horizontal position of the needle without removing the
centre of gravity is not very clearly explained, but it appears to consist of an
alteration in the suspending cap that will prevent the dip mechanically. The
subject is of considerable importance, and now that attention has been directed
to this source of error in the mariner's compass, we have little doubt that
means will be found to rectify it, even should those proposed not be effectual.
The list of instances of damage done by lightning in the British navy from
the want of conductors, is concluded in this number of the Nautical. They
are not arranged in the order of dates, but one of the instances recorded, we
observe, occurred so recently as 1842 in Plymouth Sound. A brief summary
should have been appended, to have enabled the reader to see at a glance the
number of ships struck by lightning, and the damage sustained owing to
the dilatoriness of persons in authority in adopting scientific discoveries.

Literary Gazette. — The last monthly part of this literary, scientific, and
miscellaneous publication contains an announcement of a " most important
discovery," set forth with typographical distinctions, resulting from the
expedition sent by the King of Prussia to examine the antiquities of Egypt.
It appears that Dr. Lepsius has discovered, at Meroe, another copy of the
inscription on the celebrated Rosetta stone ; the characters of which are
legible ; and as the three-lingued inscriptions on the stone have been ascer-
tained to be three versions of the same subject, one of them being in Greek,
by thus obtaining a perfect copy, the hieroglyphic characters can be com-
pared with the Greek text ; and a key is afforded to the deciphering of in-
scriptions that have hitherto puzzled the linguists and antiquaries. The
Gazette is in raptures at the discovery, which we are told is " likely to create
a great revolution, by avast accession to our means of knowledge in the litera-
ture and history of the country so truly called the cradle of mankind." — The
Gazette undertakes to dispel the alarm which some persons have felt that the
proposed Artesian fountain in Trafalgar-square would drain the wells in the

neighbourhood. There is certainly no cause for alarm on that account, but
the statements and reasonings of the Gazette on the subject are neither cor-
rect nor conclusive. It is stated that the Artesian fountains cannot drain the
wells, because a metal pipe will be placed down the bore ; and it is also
affirmed that the wells which supply the London breweries are not sunk
below the London clay. Now the fact is, that whether there were a pipe
sunk or not, the subterranean reservoir of water could not be drained by an
upward current from a source still deeper ; neither is it correct that the
breweries are supplied by the surface drainage collected by the London clay.
The wells of the breweries penetrate below the clay into the chalk, and
below Vie source of the Artesian wells. The vicinity of such a well might
drain the source of an Artesian fountain, and prevent the water from rising,
but the deeper well cannot be drained by the upper reservoir. We explained,
in a recent article in the Artizan, the principle on which the flow of water
from Artesian wells depends, and the peculiar formation of the strata in the
vale of Thames, which gives probability but not certainty of success in such
undertakings ; and, before the Artesian fountain in Trafalgar-square is com-
menced, it would be advisable to ascertain whether there are in the neigh-
bourhood any deep wells likely to affect the supply of water, and render the
attempt abortive.

Westminster Bevieiv, No. LXXX. — There are four articles on Art and Archi-
tecture in the recent number of this quarterly publication, which we are rather
surprised to see crowded together in such close companionship. The first of them
is ou the progress of art in this country ; and it is evidently written with more con-
sideration than the others, and deserves therefore more especial notice. The writer
condemns, with just severity, the servile practice of copying the ancient models on
subjects altogether inappropriate to such a style, and ludicrously inconsistent with
modern customs. The study of the ancient statues is not discouraged ; but artists are
recommended to view them, not as subjects for copy, but as models of beauty, and as
aids in copying nature. The ridiculous practice of dressing modern statesmen and
warriors in Roman togas, laurel wreaths, and armour, aud of placing our kings almost
naked on horses without saddles or stirrups, is very properly held up for reproba-
tion. English artists are strongly recommended to throw aside all such mimicking
of ancient statues, and to establish an English school of art, freed from the tram-
mels of a bygone age, of comparative barbarism. The present dress of gentlemen
may not he so graceful as the folds of a toga, but it is the dress of the persons whose
resemblances are presented, and as such it ought to be preserved; for it would he
no less ridiculous to sculpture Cicero in a dress-coat and trowsers, than it is to pre-
sent George the Fourth riding naked on horseback. The same incongruity per-
vades our architecture ; for, instead of adopting a style suited to our present wants,
and the advanced state of the arts and sciences, the styles of Greece and Italy are
copied, though the difference in climate renders them altogether inapplicable for
residences in an English climate ; or we resort to a bastard kind of Gothic, in which
the windows are made to exclude light, rather than in a manner to take ad-
vantage of our improved manufacture of glass. We are accustomed to laugh at the
anecdote of the Chinese tailor, who, in making a coat from a pattern, copied all the
patches of the old one ; but our architectural designs are little less absurd copies of
the ancients. A contrast is presented between the state of English art and of Eng-
lish engineering; and the writer contends that our superiority in the latter is owing
to our having had no ancient models to copy, and being obliged to found a system of
our own. He recommends the exercise of the same original genius in the fine arts
and predicts a similar successful result. — The second article is principally confined
to the architecture of the Etruscans, to whom is given the credit of being the in-
ventors of the arch, long before the Romans applied it in any of their structures. A
third article, on the Basilica style of architecture, recommends the adoption of that
style in the building of churches, as peculiarly suited to Christian religious worship.
The fourth article is illustrated by numerous wood-cuts, taken from Gwilt's Ency-
posdia of Architecture, from Mr. Loudon's works and others, the text principally
serving as introduction to the engravings.

Philosophical Magazine, No. 158. — This number of the Philosophical contains
few original articles of interest, many of the papers being copied from the printed
transactions of learned societies. Among the minor articles there is one by Professor
Moser, in which he attempts to deduce the latent heat of the metal mercury from
its effects on au iodised silver plate. When a plate is prepared according to a pro-
cess indicated by Professor Moser, the action of light turns it grey ; and such a plate,
when placed in the dark above heated mercury, becomes affected iu the same manner
by the metallic vapour as if it were exposed to light. This effect is ascribed entirely
to the latent light of the liquid metal, though such a deduction seems scarcely war-
ranted by the facts. The analyses are given of two new mineral substances, named
from their discoverers, Beaumontite and Sismondine ; the former having been found
in the United States of America, and the latter in St. Marcel. The peculiar pro-
perties of these metals are not stated ; but as they are found but in small quauti-
titics, neither of them is likely to be of much practical value. We cannot, how-
ever, avoid noticing the continuance, in this instance, of the senseless practice of
giving names to substances which afford no indication of their character, and are
merely complimentary to the discoverers.

Blackwood's Magazine, No. CCCXLL— The first article in this number
is occupied with a review of Major Harris's recent work on Ethiopia ; and with
speculations on the probable effects of British influence in civilizing the present
barbarous hordes of Abyssinia. The mission of Major Harris to the court of the
King of Shoa, about 400 miles from the coast of the Red Sea, for the purpose of
forming a " commercial treaty" with the half Christianised king, is, indeed, a re-
markable event; and the effects produced by the exhibition of some European ma-
nufactures, and by the presents taken, were as great as could have been anticipated.
By the efforts of Major Harris, thus aided, many of the previous customs, altoge-
ther prohibitory of intercourse with strangers, were relaxed ; and such facilities
were afforded by the king as are within his power ; but the arid desert, of fifty

1844]

Marvels of the Day.

71

miles in ler.gth, which the expedition had to pass over, presents as formidable a bar-
rier as prohibitive laws to commercial intercourse. The persons composing the ex-
pedition were all but lost, owing to the want of water ; and had they not received a
supply of a skinful, brought to their aid by a wild Bedouin, in all probability but
few of them would have survived. The country around Aden, the steam-packet
station, and for many miles inland, exhibits the appearance of unmitigated sterility ;
and it has all the marks of a country recently exposed to volcanic action, many dis-
tinctly marked volcanic mountains having been passed. The land in the mountain
valleys, on the contrary, is luxuriantly fertile, and the face of the country resem-
bles that cf the rich valleys in England, even the vegetable products being of the
same character. At the royal feast given to Major Harris, hydromel, beer, and raw
flesh constituted the principal part of the entertainment. Though nearly one half,
amounting to one million, of the population of the kingdom of Shoa, professes
Christianity, many of the customs are those of savages. One of the despotic acts of
policy is, to imprison in dungeons all the brothers of the reigning king ; but the
expedition took advantage of the illness of the king to procure a promise that, if he
recovered, his brothers should be all released ; and their liberation was effected after
having been immured thirty years. The products of the country with which we
have thus formed commercial relations are gold and gold dust, ivory, ostrich fea-
thers, peltries, spices, wax, gums, cotton, and coal ; and it is said that the tea-plant
grows wild, and might, by cultivation, be rendered fit for European consumption.
Blackwood has an article on free trade and protection, in which, as is its wont, it
inveighs against the principles of free trade, and maintains that the free importation
of corn must necessarily effect the ruin of the agriculture of this country, in the
same manner as the importation of corn from Egypt was the ruin of the agriculture
of ancient Rome, and the cause of the final destruction of the empire. This is not
the place to enter into the merits of such an important question. The article serves
to show the very different conclusions drawn from known facts by individuals
equally professing to have the interest of the country at heart ; and it tends fur-
thermore to show the necessity, in all such discussions, of establishing some funda-
mental principles, by which the good or evil of any proposition may be tested.

Art. XXI— MARVELS OF THE DAY.

Mesmeric Wonders. — Sceptical as the present age is generally considered
to be, there is no absurdity, however great and contrary to common sense,
that will not find numbers of patrons, especially if it claim to rank among
scientific phenomena. The old and exploded practices of animal magnetism
have been renewed under the cognomen of " Mesmerism," and though the
more scientific of the new philosophers affect to disbelieve many of the
wonders attributed to metallic tractors, they profess to perform^wonders far
exceeding those they discredit, and by causes, if possible, less inadequate.
A Mr. Verncn is now lecturing in different parts of London on mesmerism,
and exhibiting its effects, some of which we will now briefly mention. A
boy is introduced, and after Mr. Vernon has held his hands, and looked in
his face for a few seconds, the pupils of his eyes turn up, the eyelids close,
and he becomes (as is asserted) insensible. When in this state of "mesmeric
coma," the mesmeriser possesses most extraordinary influence over the
nervous system of the patient. By holding out his arm and moving his
fingers over it, the muscles become rigid and it remains stretched out. By
extending the manipulations to the body and other limbs, the patient becomes
like a stiffened corpse. In this condition he is placed horizontally on two
chairs, his head resting on one, his feet on the other, and as the mesmeriser
breathes or moves his fingers, the muscles relax or resume their rigidity. A
paper is subsequently placed before him, when his eyelids are held down,
and he reads from it by the power of internal consciousness alone, as we are
told. With his eyes closed, he follows the lecturer about the platform
wherever he beckons him, whether the lecturer stand behind or before him.
A female patient shows still more extraordinary sensibility to the influence of
the magnetiser. When in a state of coma, the lecturer holds her hand, and
tastes different substances that are given to him, and such is the girl's com-
munity of feeling and of taste, that she tells what the substance is. In
arousing this patient, she sang very sweetly, but whether she had ever sung
before was not stated. She also followed the lecturer about the stage with
her eyelids closed. Another female patient shows the influence of the lec-
turer's will by awakening whenever he wills it, even when he is in another
room. This " experiment," though generally successful, failed on the
evening we were present. With all these wonderful facts before us, and we
have stated nothing but what we saw, who can refuse to render up his faith,
and become a believer in mesmerism ? Verily, though we saw the " experi-
ments," though all the wonders we have mentioned were performed, we
came away confirmed sceptics, and only marvelled the more that any rational
being could witness such an exhibition without being disgusted with the
trickery. The " Wizard of the North," or even any conjuror at a fair,
could show more marvellous " experiments ;" and without directly charging
the lecturer with being in collusion with the performers, we must say he
afforded them every possible facility for carrying on the deception, and when
any test was proposed of a less suspicious character, he invariably made an
excuse to prevent the trial. Is mesmerism then a delusion and an imposture ?
Neither the one nor the other, altogether. Effects no doubt are produced in
many cases on nervous patients by the force of imagination, and most of the
practisers of mesmerism we cannot question are more dupes than deceivers.
But when we perceive such evident attempts at deception, as were exhibited
in the lectures we allude to, received as facts conclusive of mesmeric influence

— when we consider the inconsistency of the phenomena as well as the in-
adequacy of their causes — we think that it is degrading science to consider
such tricks as experiments, and though the demand for investigation, which
mesmerisers boastfully make, sounds like a desire to elicit truth, some
plausible excuse can always be found for evading detection whenever a
searching test is proposed.

Gelatine not Nutritious. — The French Academy of Sciences have fre-
quently directed experiments to be made to test the nutritious quality of
gelatine; which substance has been, by many, considered the most nourishing
portion of animal food. The results of some recent experiments were re-
ported at the sitting of the Academy, on the 11th of March, which confirm
those previously made, in the conclusion that gelatine is of no use as food.
We are not in possession of the particulars of these experiments ; but the for-
mer ones we did not consider' conclusive, as the dogs, the subjects of experi-
ment, were fed on gelatine alone, to the exclusion of all other food. The ani-
mals, after some days, became so nauseated with the gelatine that they died
of hunger rather than taste it.

Proposed Iron Bridge at Westminster. — Mr. Barry has brought out a
design of an iron bridge, as a substitute for the stone structure at Westmin-
ster, respecting the repairs of which there has been much controversy. Mr.
Barry's proposed bridge spans the river with five arches. Its structure is in
the gothic style, to assimilate with the Houses of Parliament ; and its esti-
mated cost is 185,000?., " be the same a little more or less." Mr. Walker's
repairs, it is affirmed, will cost more than a new bridge, and make but a
patched-up affair at the best ; whilst Mr. Barry's new iron Gothic structure
would be more durable, as well as more ornamental. We leave it for the
advocates of a by-gone style of architecture, applied to all modern purposes,
to reconcile the juxtaposition of stone and iron structures with notions of
antiquarian similitude. An iron bridge we should have imagined to be more
incongruous with Gothic architecture than the present; and, to be really
consistent, Mr. Barry should make the arches as small as his windows, in-
stead of adopting the modern innovation of permitting the water to flow
through unobstructed. A facsimile of old London bridge would, in this re-
spect, be a more appropriate structure.

Self-regulating Ventilator. — At the recent soiree of the President of the
Royal Academy there was shown, among other inventions, a new self-regu-
lating ventilator, which operates by the expansion and contraction of spirits of
wine and mercury by heat. The instrument is so arranged that, as the heat
of an apartment expands the fluids, they open the ventilator, which is again
closed as they contract. The apparatus, we should fear, is too delicate to' be
applicable for general use, but it has the merit of considerable ingenuity.

Large Expenditure and small Returns. — Among the Navy Estimates just pub-
lished, we perceive one item of 33,000?. for the " scientific department;" and we
believe that grants of nearly similar amount have been voted annually, for some
years past. What has the "scientific department" done for the money thus libe-
rally placed at their command? Last year we were told of experiments being
made, on an extensive scale, with Mr. Smith's screw propeller; but the results of
these experiments have not thrown much light on the matter, excepting that we
believe they have induced a trial of the propeller in Government steam-ships. We
do not object that money should be liberally granted for scientific experiments, but
we would recommend a more extensive and better arrangement of scientific inves-
tigations, for the purpose of testing the efficacy of inventions that require greater
funds than individuals can command. The niggardly manner in which science and
literature are generally treated by the Government, renders so profuse an expendi-
ture in the scientific department of the navy the more marvellous.

" Waterman, No. 1 1."— Diameter of cylinders, each 2ft. 5in. Length of strobe,
2ft. 3in. Diameter of air-pump, .; length of stroke, 2ft. 3in. Diameter

of feed-pump, 2iin. ; stroke, 2ft. 3in. Length of cylinder-port, 1ft. 2in. Depth
of steam-port, 2in. Depth of eduction-port, 3-^m. Throw of eccentrics, Sin.
Travel of valves, Sin. Distance between centres of cylinders, 4ft. 6in. Distance from
centre of cylinder to centre of slide-valve spindle, 20Jin. Distance from centre
of slide-valve spindle to centre of cut-off valve spindle, Sfin. Diameter of slide-
valve spindle, lfin. Two piston-rods to each cylinder, diameter, 2fin. Two
guides for each cross-head, diameter, Sin. Diameter of air-pump rod, brass, lfin.
Diameter of paddle-wheel, 12ft. Length of floats, 5ft. 9in. Depth of floats, llin'.
Thickness of floats, lfin. The number of floats, 18. Thickness of arms, lfin

by -Jin. Large rings, 2in. by

Small rings, 1-J-in. by fin.

Centre of Spindle.

lfi.7/6 ;

1

I

£§

■Hf

i

72

Marvels of the Day.

[March,

French Improvements in the Atmospheric Raihvay. — A French engineer, named
Hallette, has submitted a plan to the Academy of Sciences, whereby it is intended
to make the slit on the top of the pneumatic tube of the atmospheric railway more
air-tight than it is conceived can be done by the method now adopted. It is pro-
posed that the connecting-rod should traverse between two elastic tubes filled with
compressed air. We imagine, however, that, even allowing the slit could be thus
made air-tight, which seems very questionable, the friction of the travelling-rod
would soon wear out the substance of the elastic tubes. One advantage of the pre-
sent continuous valve is, that, as it is lifted up by the connecting-bar, it affords an
entrance for the air to act upon the piston, and propel it along the tube. Had the
air no admission but at the end of the tube, much power would be lost.

Art. XXII.— SOUTHAMPTON TO CONSTANTINOPLE.

{The following journal of a voyage from Southampton to Constantinople has not
been sent to us by our Constantinople correspondent, but by a distinguished naval
officer, who takes a great interest in the Artizan, and whose name, if we were at
liberty to mention it, would add the force of authority to its statements. The
voyage was made in the steamer Tagus, which vessel left England for Constanti-
nople on the 5th of last May.]

Mav 6th. Cold raw wind from N.W. At 11 P.M. abreast of Ushant, steering
S.W. by W.

7th. Weather rather finer, but still very cold ; wind W.N.W.

8th. Latitude observed 42° 12' 10". Breeze increased, with swell from west-
ward, the vessel rolling easily. Engines increased in speed to twelve revolutions;
squalls of rain. Speed by log from 8 to 8-j and 9. At 11. 30 p.m. abreast of
Cape Finisterre. High white cliffs at the northern side of Crcpe Toriano, which lie
a few miles N. of Finisterre.

9th. Moderate weather; little wind from the S.E. Shaped course for Barlings.
The smoke of a steamer to the N.W., standing to the southward. A large steamer
to the northward, supposed to be the " Great Liverpool." She was beyond signal
distance to the westward. Saw the smoke of a steamer inshore, supposed to be
the " Lady Mary Wood," from Lisbon, standing in the direction of Oporto. She
was hull down, and so much nearer to the shore that all thought of speaking her
was out of the question. The steamer to the N.W. brought a good breeze with
her, and so gained on us that the head of her fore-topsail was out of the water.
Engines inci eased to 13-J revolutions, going nine knots. At half-past 11 p.m. passed
between the Barlings and the main.

10th. A.M. moderate breeze. At 4 abreast of the Rook of Lisbon. A steamer
entered that port from the northward, supposed to be the " Oporto." The strange
steamer to the N.W. lost ground during the night, and increased our distance
apart. She appears bound further westward than we are, — probably to Madeira for
passengers. Her consumption of coals must have been very great, judging from
the unceasing volume of dense smoke that issued from her chimney. The breeze
more steady from the northward, and very fine temperate weather. About 4 P.M.
passed Cape St. Vincent, about a quarter of a mile outside the lowest rock that
lies off it. The strange steamer to the N.W. not visible ; at 7, however, she hove
in sight to the N.W., being right aft ; and had so far wind of us that the head of
her square-sail was above the horizon. She must have passed outside the Barlings.
The land along this coast is very remarkable, and the points rarely to be recognised.
The Rock of Lisbon, on which stands a lighthouse, and the range of the Cintra
mountain (fourth or fifth rate height), are very handsome ; the latter a narrow,
sharp ridge, indented like the teeth of a saw ; a most romantic castle or tower upon
one point of it. Saw the new palace and Fort St. Julian at the point, which latter
is low. At one part, under Cintra ridge, is a fine sandy beach, with a smart stream
of fresh water, running down and discharging itself into the sea.

11th. Fair weather. A smart breeze from the N.N. W. all night; steering S.E. ;
going Q\ knots; speed of the engines 15 revolutions. The smoke of the strange
steamer, which was astern of us yesterday evening, was this morning on our star-
board quarter; neither hull or sails above the horizon. The vessel, however, ap-
proached us as we neared Cape Trafalgar, which we passed about 11 A.M.
A. 1. 40 p.m. passed into Gibraltar Bay, and made fast to the coal hulk, being
139h. 8m. from Southampton. The strange steamer, which hoisted Prussian co-
lours, passed straight into the Mediterranean, without stopping. She is a fine ves-
sel, with two masts, and a fast one. She had approached us within two or three
miles. Found riding in the bay H. M. ship " Formidable," and the "Liverpool"
peninsular steamer ; also the " Friedland" French three-decker, and the " Marengo,"
French two-decker, a great number of merchantmen, and several lying near Alge-
siras, said to be wind-bound by the late prevailing westerly gales.

Gibraltar. — This is a fine deep bay, closed in by the opposite Barbary shore,
distance about ten of eleven leagues, and no part of it exposed to the Pacific or the
Mediterranean sea. A very heavy sea, however, sometimes sets in, and drives ves-
sels from their anchorage upon the beach of the neutral ground, which is a fine
sand. The approach to this bay is very fine, the appearance of the rock imposing,
and the numerous gardens with which its south-western face is covered relieve s
the monotonous appearance of the rock. Landed, and Mrs. Smith conveyed me in
her open carriage, to the lighthouse of Europa Point by one route, and we returned
by another. The views delightful ; and some of the villas of the southern side
beautiful, and the situations enchanting. The aloe and prickly pear, and nume-
rous flowering shrubs, grow wild among the works. The main street of the town
is wide and well paved, with flag-way, and quite clean. The roads leading from
the town are excellent; the barracks and all public buildings most respectable in
appearance ; the houses in the town all through clean and neat. A most com-
mendable degree ofdiscipline and regulation exists throughout the entire, for the
preservation of cleanliness, and which affords the best assurance of continued health.
The markets are well supplied— with fish in profusion. Turbot, red mullet, and
other varieties, at a very cheap rate ; excellent poultry, from Barbary, at 3s. per

couple ; good beef at 5d. per lb. ; but mutton is very indifferent at 4d. per lb.
Indeed the latter is rarely used, except by the lower orders. The rural and
romantic beauties of the southern district, with the neatness and apparent comfort
of the numerous villas, render Gibraltar, in my opinion, the most beautiful place I
ever met, so far as those attributes can render it so. As a residence it takes the
lead. Some situations in: Italy may equal it in scenery, but none of them possesses,
to an equal degree, that character which stamps them, in the eye of an English-
man, as " elegant, neat, and comfortable." Upon the apex of the southern part
of the ridge, which crowns the Rock of Gibraltar, stands an old tower, which has
been several times struck by lightning, and nearly demolished. On that of the
northern part of the ridge is a signal tower, which notifies the approach of men of
war, and of the steamers carrying mails, &c. The eastern side, facing the Mediter-
ranean, is nearly precipitous; that upon the western shelves down more gradually to
the bay ; and upon its lower brow, elevated, however, thirty or forty feet above the
water, is built the town. An abrupt cliff, of from thirty to forty feet high, faces
the sea upon all this lower part of the island ; and such places as may not naturally
reach that height have been built up so as to render that portion of the island inac-
cessible to escalade. Batteries meet the eye in all directions. Those perforated
in the rock face the Neutral Ground, which consists of a sandy narrow isthmus,
reaching from the main land of Spain to the rock; which I think might be easily
cut across, so as to allow the sea to pass through, and thus render Gibraltar an island.
I should imagine that a breakwater, similar to that in Plymouth Sound, would ren-
der Gibraltar Bay one of the finest harbours in Europe. Perhaps a floating one
would answer the purpose, as the sea into the bay has nothing like the same
drift as that running into Plymouth Sound. The construction of a breakwater would
afford healthful employment to the garrison, at diminished expense; as the pay of
the soldiers, when working, would of course be much less than that of ordinary
labourers. And a further advantage might be gained, by giving a precipitous face
to that portion of the southern and western face of the island that is now sloping, by
quarrying stones from it for the breakwater. If this work was done by England
exclusively, an impregnable fort might be erected by her on the western extremity
of the breakwater, without range of shot from Spain, and still commanding the
entrance on the Spanish side ; or even if that should be objected to by them, Eng-
land would possess as much facility to the occupation of every part of the bay as she
has at present; whereas, although Spanish ships might enter the bay at their own
side, the superior height of the guns at Gibraltar would give them a superior com-
mand over its waters, exceeding that which could be attained from the Spanish
side. English vessels would, therefore, derive greater advantage from the shelter
afforded to ships than those of Spain could do.

12th. At 25 minutes past midnight, having completed coaling, fifteen tons of
which were kept upon deck, rather than put the vessel out of trim by the head, it
was stowed in the fore-reserve. Cast loose from the hulk, having received two
passengers to Gibraltar, a French gentleman and an officer ; and passed round
Europa Point, on which is fixed a brilliant white stationary light. Engines going
13£ revolutions ; speed 8 knots. The wind died away, and the weather beautiful.
At 7 abreast of Cape Gator, about four or five leagues distant. Course by compass
E. by S.

13th. After midnight the breeze freshened from the east. At 6 A.M. saw the
Barbary land on starboard bow ; Spanish land not in view : engines barely 18-J;
the speed of the vessel decreased to 7k. 4f. and 7k. 6f. Struck lower, fore, and
top-gallant yards. Fresh breeze all day, and hazy ; land visible all along on the
starboard hand. No vessels in sight this day. Engines 13 revolutions ; steam
abundant, but soft woolly, in consequence of the low pressure.

14th. Wind from the larboard. It moderated during the night, and blew a
moderate breeze. At 3, saw Algiers to the S.E. At sunrise saw the town on the
starboard quarter ; but being five or six leagues off, could not trace particular ob-
jects. The town is on the face of a fifth or sixth class mountain, facing the N.E., in
which line and the S.W. the town runs, coming down to the sea. The mass or
body of the town is considerable, and its limits are definable from this distance;
being much wider at the bottom, near the sea ; and narrows gradually, as it
ascends the face of the hill. A vast number of detached white houses are spread
over the hill, facing the sea, on both sides of the town, and impresses the observer
with the belief that much improvement has taken place, and of comfort and civili-
zation. The distance off shore was too great to allow of my distinguishing whether
the improvement comprised the beauty of flourishing and other shrubs. At 8 A.M.
more moderate ; speed increased to 8 knots. The mountains that bound the Me-
diterranean on the south side are of the fifth and sixth class in height. East of
Algiers, some of the mountains behind those bounding the shore are somewhat
more elevated, and portions of their summits capped with snow.

15th. Fresh breeze right ahead, and hazy ; speed of the vessel 7^- to 8 knots, —
of the engines 13 to 13^ revolutions. The coast high and bold ; and our course
has been all along parallel to it, at four or five leagues' distance. Soon after mid-
night the wind drew further to the southward ; made sail. Saw the island of
Galita on the larboard bow ; at noon passed about midway between it and the
shore. The metallic rocks or islands ahead ; passed to the southward of them. The
wind again headed us ; light winds and hot sun ; took in the sails. The height of
the Barbary mountains much diminished compared to those further westward.
Many of those verging the water are of a sandy nature, and many sand-hills. The
surface of these mountains covered by something having the appearance of heath,
with occasional patches of green pasturage. Not a house to be seen, or a fishing
boat or coasting vessel. A brig in the offing, standing to the larboard ; and a zebec
standing on a wind to the southward. Light breeze from the southward; very !
fine weather. Passed inside the Cave rocks, which consist of three or four, one of i
which may be considered more as an island — perhaps the length of a cable and a ;
half, and about fifteen or twenty feet above water ; part of the surface being sandy,
with sprinklings of green upon it : the others mere rocks, extending to the eastward
and the westward about half a mile from the main one. These islands being low,

1844.]

Marvels of the Day.

73

■would be difficult to make at night. These islands reminded me of St. Marcon, on
the coast of Normandy. Shaped a course for Zembra Rock, to the northward of
■which we passed at half-past 10 P.M., about three or four mileB off. Steered
S.E. by E. for Pantalaria ; the breeze ahead, parched, and disagreeable ; sea got up,
■which retarded our progress ; engines declined from 14 -J to 13 ; heavy rain in the
night.

16th. Fresh breeze from the S.E. At 5. 30 A.M. the island of Pentalaria S.W.
by S., about three miles off. This is a high island, two or three miles long, covered
with a greenish shrub or heath, and having rather a pleasing appearance. Several
white houses upon the slope of the hill. The ground is said to be clear of outlying
rocks on this side. Several turtles were seen lying in the water yesterday, when
the weather was fine, apparently asleep. The light said to be seen at Tunis was
not visible to us, the distance being great. The swell this day from the S.E. has
retarded the vessel a good deal. The speed by log from 65 to 7 knots. At half-
past 6 saw Gaza S.E. by E. seven or eight leagues ; wind and hazy. At 10 saw
Elmo light E. by S. At midnight passed into Malta Harbour, and made fast to a
mooring buoy.

(To he continued.)

From our own Correspondents.

Calcutta. — Since my last letter, nothing particular has been done relative to
the then all-engrossing subject as to the manner in which European intelligence is
to be henceforward conveyed to India; nor do I imagine that there will be so much
energy shown on the part of the Calcutta people, be the subject what it may, until
a reply be received to the memorial forwarded to the Home authorities by the last
mail. Besides the memorials that I have already mentioned as having emanated
from Calcutta, the Trade Association of this place have forwarded a most excellent
one to the Commissioners for the Affairs of India, and to the Directors of the East
India Company, praying that the direct line of communication be continued, and
that the community would be glad to submit to an additional rate of postage, rather
than forego such great advantages. In showing to the Directors of the East India
Company how much more important, in every respect, this side of India is to the
opposite coast, they state that they, the Trade Association, represent a body of 800
men ; being more than equal to the whole population, European and East Indian
(understanding by this latter the half-caste portion) in the town and throughout the
presidency of Bombay, excluding those who are either in the civil, military, or
marine services; that, while there are upwards of 500 Europeans engaged as
planters, &c, to the north and east of this presidency, there are not more than jive
or six Europeans engaged in trade or manufactures throughout the west of India,
save those within the town and precincts of Bombay, and the servants of the Com-
pany; while the latter amount to, in the various presidencies, as under — viz.

Civil Servants.

Bombay 130

Bengal 447

Bengal, Madras, and Ceylon . 738

European Officers. European Soldiers.
1460 8000

3400 18,400

6100 30,900

Ceylon is included in the above, although it is not under the rule of the Honour-
able Company; but, as it may be said to be on the Coromandel side of India, its
statement of resident Europeans is added to those of Madras and Bengal, to show
the importance of this coast of Hindostan to the Malabar side; because, upon this
circumstance, much of the disputed question will hang. The inhabitants of Madras
have also held a public meeting, petitioning the Home authorities against any in-
terruption being instituted in the direct line. This subject does not appear to have
roused the public mind at Madras to the extent that it has done here, where so
much excitement has not been brought forth for a considerable time. The Bengal
British India Society has also held a special meeting, to memorialise the House of
Commons and Court of Directors to the same effect. The petition is chiefly signed
by natives ; but to this, however, I should attach but little weight, as I know that
the documents have been sent round to most of the public and mercantile offices, in
order that the native writers therein may attach their names thereto; and, as they
can subscribe in English, it may " tell " strongly in favour of the cause, that sheets
of parchment are crammed with jaw-breaking names, supposed to belong to " intel-
ligent'''' natives, some of whom, I have good reason to know, understood but little
of the question at issue, to judge from the answers I received from them after they
had subscribed their names. The/eiv intelligent natives who take an active part in
the business of this society, appear to be entirely swayed by one or two individuals,
who would fain bring themselves and their eloquence into notice in a higher spheie ;
but finding this impossible, fall back upon such supports.

A letter has also appeared from certain shareholders here in the Peninsular and
Oriental Company, to the Directors in St. Mary-Axe, stating their wish that the
direct line of communication should be continued ; and that all they " beg is — (do
what you will with the branches) you leave the trunk and heart alone" — the
more especially as it is from this side of India alone that funds were obtained for
steam communication. They enclose a memorandum from a Mr. Greenlaw, a
most zealous advocate for overland mails, who, in stating the grounds upon which
the shareholders of Mr. Curtis's Company transferred their shares to the Peninsular
and Oriental Company, comes to the conclusion that he " can nowhere trace any
express mention of the direct line; but that the establishment of the direct com-
munication between Calcutta and Suez was an essential to such union, there can be
no doubt :" and, in support of this, states that •' shareholders are expressly told that
agents alone are required in India, at Calcutta, Madras, Galle, and Aden."

The following particulars, referring to the Madras lighthouse, lately so far com-
pleted as to be illuminated, I extract from one of the local newspapers : —
Height from the ground to the ram ...... Feet 125

Ditto of light above the ground . . . . . . . ,117

Ditto of light above the sea, about ....... 130

, .

16

.

11*

.

84

.

16*

55

£6000

1500

Diameter at base of column .....

Ditto at neck of base of column below the capital
Height of shaft of column ......

Breadth of each corner buttress of the base, not including cornice .
Total breadth of base, including these buttresses

Cost of material and building, in round numbers, say .

Ditto lighting apparatus, reflectors, and lamps . . .

Total cost . £7500
Some of your readers may, perhaps, not be aware that there is neither harbour
nor pier at Madras — merely an open roadstead — and that the town itself ranges
along the beach. Not a boat, except the native masullah, can approach the shore,
owing to the heavy surf that continually rages there; and thus the landing or ship-
ping of goods is attended with much difficulty, and that of passengers often with
great danger, and generally with a ducking. It has been long proposed to construct
a pier, the extremity of which to be without the reach of the surf; but this sugges-
tion has gone no farther than being the subject of sundry meetings; although it is
to be hoped that, for the good and welfare of this presidency, it may ere long be
carried into effect. Had there been a pier in existence, it undoubtedly would have
been best to have erected the lighthouse at the one end of it; but, as there is no
pier or quay, the present lighthouse has been built on shore. The old lighthouse
was in the interior of the Fort St. George; but this has given place to the "flash-
ing" lighthouse on the beach. It is built of granite from Palaveram. The first
stone was laid on the 15th of September, 1838, but the building was delayed from
October in that year to April, 1840, awaiting the authority of the Directors for the
adoption of granite. The base is not yet completed, but will be in the course of a
few months.

A meeting was lately held at the Mechanics' Institution established in Calcutta,
of all those interested in its welfare, for the purpose of taking into consideration
what were the steps necessary to be taken in order to place it in a flourishing con-
dition, and as to how it could be placed upon such a footing, substantial and firm,
as would render it a benefit to the community at large. But the community in
India are a proud, dignified race, and objections have actually been taken to the
Mechanics' Institution, because it was so named. As this meeting, however, was
only held preparatory to a great public assemblage, I shall postpone my remarks
upon it and its history until the public meeting takes place, which will probably be
before the departure of the next mail. The " Hindostan" has not yet arrived, but
is anxiously looked for ; and, I suppose, in all likelihood she will arrive before the
express from Bombay reaches us. It is now the 19th of the month; and, in her
last trip, the "Hindostan" came in on the 16 th. The " Bentinck" has had a
famous run to Madras. You will learn from the newspapers the particulars of the
battles that have been fought in Gwalior, and Lord Ellenborough's treatment of the
treacherous and dishonourable Baee and her followers. It contrasts strangely with
the summary punishment bestowed upon the Ameers of Scinde, who, although
they, like the Baee, broke the treaty that they had previously signed, yet did not
do it after so flagrant a fashion. But I must stop. Mac.

Art. XXIII.— TO OUR READERS AND CORRESPONDENTS.

We have many apologies to offer for the tardy appearance of the illumina-
tions announced by us some time ago as intended to be begun with the new
volume. The cause of the delay is simply this, that, between the time of
the announcement and the time intended for their appearance, our circu-
lation had so much risen, that the machinery prepared for their production
was found insufficient in power to give the requisite number of impressions
in the time to which the printing has to be restricted ; and more powerful
machinery has, therefore, had to be prepared. We trust to be in a con-
dition to begin these illuminations shortly, but will not do so until we feel
assured that we can carry them on without interruption.

The State Trials. — We have had a myriad of letters relative to the
article on this subject which appeared in our last Number ; and most of
them, we must say, have been condemnatory — some blaming us for going
too far in the road to Repeal, and others for not going far enough. We
think we may safely allow these objectors to settle between themselves the
measure of our delinquency ; and would merely beg leave to suggest, that
the antagonism of our imputed faults is some evidence of our moderation.
But there is another class of correspondents, who blame us for the intro-
duction of any article of a political complexion ; and we are bound to give
them a patient hearing, as we really fear there is some ground for their
animadversion. We have no disposition to evade any portion of the blame
which may attach to us upon this or any other subject, and shall best
expose the extent of our criminality by some extracts from the letters that
have been sent to us. We select that of Colonel Jackson as the most for-
cible in its arguments, and, at the same time, the one which, from the
character of the writer, is the most likely to influence our opinions.

" Holding in utter abhorrence those political bickerings which are at
once the disgrace of the country and the bane of that happiness we might
otherwise enjoy, and deprecating that abuse of the popular press which,
with the fascinating cry of freedom, seeks to rouse the country to anarchy ;
sick of the captious and selfish doctrine of right eternally preached by every
would-be politician and vain declaimer, while the more generous, more
social, and only true doctrine of duties should be inculcated, I have long
since ceased to take the slightest interest in a newspaper. Placing in ore
and the same category those who, entrusted with power, abuse it to the

74

To our Readers and Correspondents.

detriment of the governed, and the contemptihle demagogues who, calcu-
lating on the unhappy credulity of the ignorant, stir up the worst passions
of the multitude while they preach order, I loathe alike the adulation he-
stowed by their partisans on either.

" For one subscriber the Artizan may lose by the introduction of poli-
tics, it may probably gain many ; nevertheless, I cannot withhold my
opinion, that political partisanship should find no place in a publication
destined to instruct artizans in those branches of science and art, the know-
ledge of which is calculated to better their condition, and the study of
which exercises that quiet and beneficial influence so diametrically opposed
to the baneful excitement of inflammatory writings.''

To the most of this we cordially subscribe. We look with quite as much
displeasure as our correspondent can do on the hot and angry contentions
which agitate the political world ; and despise, as sincerely as he does, the
sordidness by which this vehement zeal is commonly instigated. We think,
too, that the introduction of these feuds into the peaceful abodes of philo-
sophy would be one of the greatest misfortunes that could fall upon man-
kind ; hut believe it quite as pernicious to suppose that philosophy is the
only subject to which men are bound to give their attention. There are
■certain great principles of political science on which hang the misery or
happiness of .millions, and which no man with the least pretension to phi-
lanthropy should omit to consider, and, if necessary, to defend. One of
these is the right of free discussion — the right of giving expression to griev-
ances, whether real or imaginary, provided they be sincerely believed in,
and of seeking for their redress by any method which appears most feasible,
provided it be consistent with fairness and honour — in this right the ele-
ment of human progress is enshrined ; and it was because we thought it
invaded in the case of the Irish Trials, that we were roused to speak on that
exciting topic. It was not, however, by a love of party that we were actu-
ated, but by a love of human nature: and whatever political livery the per-
secuted might wear, they would equally engage our sympathies. The fact
is, we look upon these trials as a procedure full of danger to the dominant
party in this country, not merely by stopping up the channels through
which discontent might otherwise evaporate, but by furnishing a precedent
which may he used against themselves in the revolution of the political
wheel ; and it is precisely on account of this danger, and of the dread we
have that force and clamour may one day put down reason, should other
parties gain an ascendancy, that we desire to entrench ourselves in a posi-
tion from whence we may aid in arresting that destructive movement.
Those see not far who do not perceive that we must of necessity exert an
influence over the opinions of that great class by which the keys of political
power must eventually be held : for those who are accustomed to look upon
us as oracles upon scientific and practical points, will naturally think our
opinion of some weight upon other subjects. To forfeit this influence by
any needless exasperation, would be a loss, we conceive, to the cause of
peace and sobriety ; and those little comprehend our aims who imagine that
we are ever to be enlisted on the side of turbulence and disorder. It is
impossible, however, for us to go into this subject further ; and we have,
perhaps, said enough to enable our more perspicacious readers to discover
motives that were previously invisible, and which will be a better excuse
for our imputed misdeeds than any we could offer. We have higher func-
tions to perform, as we have often before said, than the mere communica-
tion of technical information, and we trust to perform them creditably ;
but the means must he of our own choosing, and the manner in our own
way. Of the manner in the present instance, indeed, we cannot expect our
readers to be very tolerant ; for the article to which our observations refer
was, we fear, too declamatory, or, as Colonel Jackson has it, too " inflam-
matory " — a fault which would probably have been corrected had the Club
been in town at the time. We feel, indeed, that the temporary absence of
that fraternity is no apology for the Artizan's imperfections; but that
charity must be small indeed which cannot overlook such a defect on such
an occasion.

The Club presents its compliments to E. H. Law, M.D., and begs to
inform him that the Artizan is not a scientific work — never was, and
never will be. The Club has a considerable contempt for mere men of
science, and therefore does not wish to increase its acquaintance with Dr.
Law, or to consult his antipathies.

We have a letter from Longford, in Ireland, which is to the following
effect : —

" Having subscribed to your very able periodical since its commence-
ment, I hope I may take the liberty of regretting your hostility to the rail-
way system ; which you are well aware must now be still more extended, in
obedience to the call of the public, who will not be satisfied to go at the old
m;iil-coach rate of ten miles an hour.

" The people of this country are not so entirely engrossed by their poli-
tical agitations as to overlook the very great advantages they might derive
from the judicious construction of railways in Ireland. The present time,
when money is so abundant, and the public have so long had before them the
excellent Report of the Railway Commission, appears to be peculiarly fa-
vourable to the advancement of the railway system. But the circumstance
that, in the opinion of very many intelligent persons, gives most encou-
ragement, is the perfectly successful trial of the atmospheric method of
transit on the Dalkey and Kingstown line. The merits of this method might

very fairly be occasionally treated of in your journal ; promising, as they
do, so great a reduction of the cost both of making and working railways.
The Cashel line, laid out primarily with a view to the use of locomotives,
proposes to pass several important towns, at a distance of.two to three miles;
but the atmospheric plan, allowing of the use of curves and the ascent of
declivities altogether impracticable to locomotives, could approach towns
in any direction approved of. The papers of this day mention the exhibi-
tion, at the soiree of the Marquis of Northampton, of a new motive power,
the invention of a Mr. Reinagle ; of which, I hope, you will give us, in due
time, an account superior to that referred to."

We are not hostile to the railway system, as our correspondent supposes,
hut are hostile to the manner in which it has been applied inEngland — throw-
ing the public, into the hands of monopolists, who exact exorbitant fares, and
subject passengers to every indignity and inconvenience which may appear
conducive to augment their guilty gains. The fares of the English rail-
ways are three times greater than those of the Belgian ones ; nor are the
higher fares of the English lines attributable to the greater expense of their
construction ; for the rates exacted have no reference to the cost of con-
struction, but are determinable merely by the consideration of what rate
will yield most profit. If the rates be too high, the income will be di-
minished ; and the same will be the effect if the rates are very low, so that
some point between these two extremes is sought for, which will make the
receipts a maximum; and this point is so far up in the scale that railway
travelling in England is three times dearer than in countries less favoured
by nature. We do not say that there should be no railways in England,
but we say that the English railways should either be put under some go-
vernment board, as in Belgium ; or that some other plan of administration
should be introduced, by which the public, and especially the poorer classes,
would have all the benefits of steam locomotion of which the system is sus-
ceptible. Of railways in Ireland, however, we totally disapprove, simply
on the ground that they cannot pay ; and that any commercial scheme by
which capital is absorbed without yielding a return, cannot be for the ad-
vantage of the community. The locomotive wants of Ireland are not of so
urgent a nature as to justify the formation of railways ; and if railways are
introduced in that country to any considerable extent, we have no hesitation
in predicting that they will be ruinous investments. They will just be what
the canals connecting Dublin with the Shannon have turned out to be, in.
spite of the equally brilliant expectations entertained at one time relative to
those undertakings ; and we need hardly remind our correspondent that the
fate of the canals has, as a commercial scheme, been ruin and utter
failure. Nor have the canals benefited the country, but, LOn the contrary,
they have damaged it materially ; for the money squandered in those works
would, in all likelihood, have otherwise found an eligible investment in
drainage, reclaiming waste lands, and other similar improvements, which
would have not only enriched the speculators, but have provided food and
employment for the people. The formation of railways would, indeed,
open a new field for labour, and would therefore be so far a benefit ; but
this benefit could only last while the railways were in progress, and after
that there would be greater misery than ever. Indeed, the objections to
railways in Ireland are so many and so great, that we hope sincerely they
will not be carried into effect until the circumstances of the country are
such as to justify the measure ; and then we trust they will be so adminis-
tered as to secure the public against the tyrannies and exactions of which
railway companies, for the most part, stand convicted.

With regard to the atmospheric method of locomotion, to which our cor-
respondent adverts, we entertain a favourable opinion of the plan, as we
have said, we believe, on several former occasions ; and we should be in-
sensate indeed, if we did not admire the ingenuity and perseverance by
which it has been brought to its present perfection. But we do not think
the atmospheric railway more applicable to Ireland than any other ; our ob-
jection being, that a railway of any kind is too powerful and expensive an
instrument to he answerable to a traffic so insignificant. It is like building
a mill to grind a bushel of malt.

Our correspondent refers to the Report of the [rish Railway Commis-
sioners in terms of commendation, which we willingly reciprocate. He will
find, however, that his opinions are by no means borne out by that Report ;
but, on the contrary, that, in spite of the natural partiality the Commis-
sioners might be expected to entertain towards Irish railways, they acknow-
ledge such undertakings would not be eligible investments for capital. The
soundness of this conclusion the working of the Drogheda Railway will, we
have no doubt, before long, demonstrate. It may, indeed, while the stimu-
lus of novelty lasts, yield a considerable revenue ; but this element of pros-
perity cannot be kept alive long ; and after this transitory glow of success is
over, it will sink into hopeless degradation. The projected line to Cashel,
should it ever be made, will be equally unprofitable, notwithstanding the
expectation that it will be the means of making Ireland the highway to
America. Of what account can the fifty or one hundred passengers, carried
twice a month by the American steamers, be to any railway ? Besides, the
expectation that Ireland will ever be the highway to America, though tra-
versed by fifty railways, is vain and puerile, — so much so, indeed, that we
disdain to say another word upon the subject.

"A Subscriber, Dublin," we thank for his civilities. We shall endeavonr
to provide that he shall receive the Artizan in better time. His second
letter is replied to in some of the foregoing observations.

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THE ARTIZAIV.

No. XVI.— APRIL 30th, 1844.

Art. I.— ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.

THE LIAS FORMATION AND ITS MINERAL .PRODUCTS.

This formation, which is interposed between the lower oolite and the new
red sandstone, occupies an irregular belt of country thrown into numerous
undulations of hill and valley. Crossing the plains of the new red sandstone
at any point between the mouth of the Tees and the Bristol Channel, we
come upon the rich pastures of the lias ; and, from any of its inconsiderable
elevations, the eye may readily trace the irregular pinge of its eastern boun-
dary, where it passes under the bold escarpment of the lower oolite. The
lias commences on the coast of Yorkshire, where it occupies a considerable
segment between Robin Hood's Bay and the estuary of the Tees, whence it
may be followed through the North and East Ridings of Yorkshire, by York
and Hull. Then passing through the counties of Lincoln, Leicester, War-
wick, and Gloucester, its course is continued through Somersetshire and
Dorsetshire, to Lyme Regis, on the coast of the latter county.

The principal minerals yielded by this clay are, cement-stone, alum, and
limestones possessing strong hydraulic properties. The cement-stone is
commonly found in a great number of layers dispersed through the upper
part of the lias shale, for a depth of about 25 feet. It is extensively quarried
from the Rock-cliff near Whitby, in Yorkshire, and manufactured, in large
quantities, into Roman cement. The brick-earth excavations, north of the
town of Lincoln, where the junction takes place between the lias and the
lower oolite, expose large quantities of these cement-stones, which are sent
to the Yorkshire cement-manufacturers at Hull. The alum shale imme-
diately succeeds the cement-stone stratum, and at Whitby is about 40 feet
in thickness.

The beds at Whitby, for the first 200 feet, are classed under the name of
the upper lias shale ; a term which Mr. Murchison also uses in describing
the lias of Gloucestershire, Worcestershire, &c. The next, 160 feet in depth,
contain the marl-stone beds ; in the upper part of which are several bands of
hard ironstone, sometimes upwards of a foot in thickness within, thin seams
of shale intervening. These bands of ironstone occur at intervals through
about half the thickness of the marl-stone division ; the lower half consisting
of calcareous sandstone and sandy shale, alternating with each other.

In executing the great Kilsby tunnel, on the Birmingham Railway, great
quantities of ironstone nodules, very similar to those of Whitby, were
brought to the surface ; and some of the miners employed in that work, de-
ceived also by the appearance of the lias shales, were firmly of opinion that
these were the true ironstone measures of the coal-fields. A very recent
instance of a similar misconception has led to considerable expense in the
county of Salop, where sinking for coal has been undertaken at a place which
is now proved to be an outline of the lias, and therefore separated from the
coal measures by the whole thickness of the intervening new red sandstone.

The beds of marlstone in the lias afford several strata of calcareous grit,
containing a variable proportion of clay in combination with the lime ; in
consequence of which they are valuable for making lime capable of setting
under water. Such is the lime made from the lias of Lyme Regis, in Dorset-
shire ; Barrow, in Leicestershire ; and Aberthaw, in Glamorganshire. Be-
sides limestone of this valuable kind, the marlstone division yields a calca-
reous grit, which is used in many parts of the country for making troughs.
It also contains beds of stone, which are extensively employed for building
walls, and even houses ; as well as some harder beds, which, for want of a
better material, are made use of for repairing roads. This, however, is one
of the worst purposes to which any stones from the lias can be applied,
because they contain so much lime, and absorb so much water, that the frost
invariably splits them : and even wet so much softens them, that they are
readily grouiid into mud and slime under the ordinary traffic of common
roads. These lias limestones answer very well, however, for the under-
pitching of roads, which are most economically made through a lias district
by pitching them with the soft stones of the neighbouring quarries, and
covering the pitching with a few inches of the quartz gravel of the adjacent
formation, or with a still less thickness of broken basalt, a material which
can often be procured within a short distance of the lias clay. There is ano-
ther product of the lias shale, which, although not possessing any interest in

VOL. II.

the constructive professions, may deserve notice on account of the great em-
ployment which it affords to the makers of ornamental ware. We allude to
the jet-rock of the lias cliffs at Whitby.

This is a very compact and bituminous bed, from 20 to 30 feet in thick-
ness, and is met with about 150 feet below the surface of the formation. It
furnishes almost all the jet used in this country in the manufacture of rings,
beads, crosses, and other ornaments.

The lower lias shale is a finely laminated deposit, containing a good deal
of calcareous matter, and, occasionally, nodules of the argillaceous limestone,
which is obtained so plentifully from the upper lias.

Art. II.- NOTES ON BUILDING.

MORTARS AND CEMENTS.

It is highly mortifying to confess, that a great proportion of what has been
lately written in this country upon this subject, has been shamelessly copied
from French works, with scarcely a word of acknowledgment to point out
the source of the plagiarism. Indeed, a species of robbery has been prac-
tised, worse even than direct plagiarism from books, inasmuch as the results
of experiments have been pompously paraded into public notice, and have
been accompanied by entire concealment of the fact that for many years the
French have manufactured on a large scale, and with perfect success, those
very artificial mortars and cements which were recommended to practical men
in this country on the faith of puny and trumpery experiments with a few
handsful of clay and chalk. It is within the knowledge of the writer, that
English engineers, misled by the books here alluded to, have most unjustly
roused the national pride of the French, by unguardedly remarking on the
English origin of their admirable artificial hydraulic mortars and cements.
All those to whom this remark was addressed were unanimous in declaring
that these artificial compositions had been the regular hydraulic mortars, both
of civil and military constructions in France for many years, and that nothing
could be more absurd than to impute their introduction either to the English
or any other foreign country.

We should have been content to pass by in contemptuous silence the mean
and paltry evasions of the truth which are here alluded to, were it not that
they have seriously contributed to retard the progress of real improvement
in the building arts of this country. It is one thing to be presented with a
set of prosy experiments on the blue clay of the Medway, and the chalk of
the neighbouring district, and it is quite another to be told that there are
hundreds of manufactories in France which have long been engaged in fabri-
cating those very artificial mortars from the very same materials which were
used in these experiments. It is one thing for engineers, architects, and
builders to be treated with a most laborious specimen of book-making,
crammed with the most childish and ignorant pettiness and conceit — the pro-
duction of a man who glories in the incongruous combination of the drum-
mer with the pedagogue ; and it is quite another to be informed, that in a
neighbouring country, teeming with industry, ingenuity, and intelligence, this
very subject has been successfully treated in actual practice by practical men
like themselves — by men of attainments and of sound professional educa-
tion.

We leave our readers to judge which of these two modes of introducing
the subject of artificial cements in this country would have been most likely
to bring them into use, and have most readily induced persons to embark in
the manufacture.

Now, however, that most of the trash written on this subject has been
forgotten ; now that the book itself, which has in reality prevented the adop-
tion of this important manufacture, has been long since laid on the shelf, it
may still not be too late to entreat the attention of our most intelligent lime
and cement burners to this interesting subject of artificial cement. At a
time when the country abounds with some of the most wretched specimens
of cement, and when even the most important works executed in cement are
suffering to an alarming extent from the action of moisture and frost, it is
surely necessary to exercise all the skill and judgment in our power, for the

76

On Life Assurance.

[April,

purpose of producing an efficient material. We do not pretend to define the
proportions of clay and chalk, or of clay and calcined lime, which should be
mixed together in order to form a perfect artificial cement. This is a matter
so easily determined by experiment, that no difficulty could possibly be ex-
perienced from this cause ; and again the proportions must vary so extremely
according to the peculiar nature of the argillaceous and calcareous ingredi-
ents which are employed, that a general rule could scarcely be laid down.
We especially invite the attention of landed proprietors to the facilities they
enjoy for making artificial cement at a very cheap rate, when they possess
estates which contain any kind of lime-stone rock beneath a stratum of clay.
In such a case, the same pit or quarry will furnish both the materials required,
and we need scarcely point out the remarkable advantage of securing a ce- .
ment which, if properly made, will resist the most violent atmospheric in-
fluences.

CONCRETE.

There is a very hard concrete substance called the Blackwall Rock, which
is frequently dredged up by the ballast engines working near Blackwall. It
is a stratum varying from 6 to 18 inches in thickness, and is in reality a con-
crete of gravel and the oxide of iron derived from the land springs which
flow through the gravel-beds.

CONCRETE SEA-WALL AT BRIGHTON.

This is one of the most extensive applications of concrete to the purposes
of exterior building which has yet been made in this country, and its condi-
tion at this time, after the lapse of about six years, and consequent exposure
to the frost of as many winters, amply justifies all the favourable recommen-
dations bestowed on this method of building massive and heavy walls. The
whole surface of this concrete wall is now as regular and perfect as that of a
newly-finished structure of stone, and it is impossible to detect, at any single
spot, the slightest appearance of scaling off or decomposition. The front of
the wall is an excellent stone colour, and the whole surface is so hard as to
resist any ordinary effort to scratch it by a metallic edge.

The wall is everywhere formed of such a thickness that a batter on the
face of 3 inches in 1 foot, vertical, shall bring it to a thickness of 4 feet at
the top. As each layer or course of concrete was filled in, there was a line
of planks shifted in front of it, so as to preserve the front of the wall in a
correct plane of the required batter. The junccion lines of the planking are
now visible along the face of the wall, which is thus made to resemble a
building of regularly coursed stone.

The specification for this work directed that the concrete should be com-
posed of shingle from the beach, and of mortar, to be mixed in equal pro-
portions, and passed through a pug mill. The mortar was made from the
best grey lime, burnt, from the lower or grey chalk, and contained one
bushel of lime to three bushels of sharp grit sea sand. The concrete, after
being passed through the pug-mill, was cast into casses or caissoons, made of
movable boards or pianks, and roughly formed to receive the masses of con-
crete in layers not exceeding 18 inches in depth.

The contractor for this concrete wall was paid at the rate of 21s. Ad. per
square of 100 reduced to the standard thickness of 14 inches. This price is
equal to 2\d. nearly per cube foot, or 5*. Id. nearly per cube yard, a rate
which must have paid extremely well, considering that the beach supplied an
inexhaustible supply of sand and shingle close at hand, while the lime itself
had only to be carted a few miles from the neighbouring chalk-pits, with
which the country abounds all round Brighton.

Art. III.— ON LIFE ASSURANCE.

The Hand-Book for Life Aisu ranees : being a popular Guide to the Know-
ledge of the System of Life Assurance; also, a General Directory of
Insurance Companies in Great Britain and Ireland. London. John
Mortimer. 1842.

We have long intended to say something regarding Life Assurances ; and,
meeting the other day with this " Hand-Book," or " Popular Guide," we
judged it well to take up the subject at once, and seize upon the opportunity
thus afforded of bringing into the pages of the Artizan a matter so well
worthy the attention of most of our readers.

An Assurance, in the ordinary sense of the term, is a contract entered into
between two parties — the one who takes upon him the risk, being called the
assurer ; the other, who receives the protection, the assured. The former
binds himself by the deed of contract, or policy, to pay a certain sum at the
decease of the assured ; the latter engages to make certain yearly payments
or premiums ; which yearly amounts vary according to the age of the party
whose life is so insured. This is the definition of Life Assurances : with An-
nuities, and the other branches of this science, we have not at present to do.
The first section of this Hand-Book is appropriated to the " Rise and Pro-
gress of Life Assurance." The first attempt to establish a system bearing
analogy to the modern practice, originated in the middle of the seventeenth
century, in the proposal of an Italian, of the name of Tonti, whose system
has since been known by the appellation of the Tontine. It consisted in a
number of individuals forming themselves into a body, each paying a certain

sum at the commencement ; the interest of the whole being divided among
those surviving at the end of each year. This plan, while it gave to the sur-
vivors, as they became fewer and older, a proportionately greater income, did
not provide for the disposal of the capital, which would eventually pass into
the hands of the Crown. It was, therefore, so far modified, that the Tontine
should only be for a fixed number of years ; the yearly dividend being such,
that the principal and interest would, at the expiration of the period, be totally
annihilated, and, upon the death of any of the members, his share should be
divided among the survivors. Luckily this system failed, as the greater
number of individuals died without having received advantages at all equal to
what they had contemplated, and a few of the latest survivors received, in one
year, more than the original subscription. It is said that " a woman of the
name of Barbier, a subscriber to the Tontines of 1689 and 1696, in France,
possessed, at the time of her death, an annual revenue amounting to 245
times the sum she had subscribed; but she was the last survivor of her class."
Tbis system was bad, inasmuch as it fostered the principle of selfishness, and
weakened that of accumulation, all the benefits desirable being centred in the
parties themselves, the originators of the scheme, who consumed their pro-
perty during their own lives, or at least placed it beyond their reach, without
caring for the interests of their successors. This plan, indeed, although it
may be said to be the origin of Life Assurance, has the very opposite result
to the mode practised in the present day, where it is for the benefit of the
successors alone that any contract is entered into. But while the Tontine
system was so erroneous in its principles, and ruinous in its results, one great
advantage followed from its adoption, wholly uncontemplated by the author
of the scheme, and that was, that as registers were kept of the ages and deaths
of the contributors, tables of the duration of human life, or, as they are more
generally termed, tables of mortality, were furnished to the world, founded
upon an accurate, and, in some measure, satisfactory basis. From these
originated tables of Life Annuities, which, being calculated upon the average
duration of life of people of every age, determined the amount that, at a cer-
tain period of his existence, a man should pay to insure his receiving a fixed
annual income until the day of his death. This was, indeed, a step in the
right direction, but still open to the objection we have urged against the
Tontine scheme, viz., that of only benefiting the present generation: and
although it may be urged that there are few men who do not feel an interest
in their families, still it cannot be denied that this interest is not at all likely
to be strengthened by such extraneous stimulants to the selfish principle, as
Life Annuities or Tontines. It may, indeed, be applicable in many cases,
wh^re persons have no relatives that have strong claims upon them, and who
can thus receive a competent income, by placing their capital for ever beyond
their reach : but, although serviceable in individual cases, it may with great
propriety be questioned how far the prevalence of such insurances would be
advantageous to the public at large. The Amicable Insurance Company, the
first established in this country, was originated, in 1706, by the then Bishop
of Oxford. Its plan was similar to the Tontine ; and it was not until 1807
that the Society apportioned " the contributions to be paid by the several
members hereafter to be admitted, according to their respective ages and cir-
cumstances." The Equitable Society was established in 1762 ; and after it
had been in existence ten or fifteen years, adopted as its principle, and basis
of its transactions, the Northampton Tables of Mortality, which appeared
about that time, compiled by Dr. Price, an Independent clergyman, from
the Register of Births and Deaths kept in that town. It may at first sight
appear strange, nay, almost incredible, that the number of births and deaths,
and the average continuance of man's life, could be reduced to rule — indeed,
shown to obey certain laws ; but so it is ; and, with a wide enough field for
observation, the number of all these respectively will be found to be nearly
equal in an equal number of years. All that is required to enable us to come
to correct conclusions upon this point is, that our experience should extend
for a lengthened enough period, that we should not generalise too rapidly ;
and by paying sufficient attention to this, it has been found that the most
accidental and anomalous events, such as the number of houses burned ; the
number of ships wrecked ; the number of suicides committed ; the number
of deaths by accident ; the proportion of male to female births ; the number
of marriages that take place, at and after any age, in any particular society ;
form, respectively, very regular series. Some years after the publication of
Dr. Price's tables, Mr. Joshua Milne published a Table of Mortality, com-
piled from observations in the town of Carlisle. These two sets of tables do
not exactly agree, neither being founded upon extensive enough observation,
as both were confined to particular towns. It has been found, however, that
the latest set, (those of Mr. Milne,) not only from the comparatively recent
period of the observations, but from the remarkable healthiness of life expe-
rienced in Carlisle, approach very nearly to the average duration of healthy
life in England in the present day. The average number of deaths amongst
the inhabitants of a town must differ from that of the residents in the coun-
try ; and, indeed, the average amongst different classes of the community
cannot be the same ; while the improvements not only in medical science, but
in many of the other sciences, must tend, at least indirectly, to diminish, and
undoubtedly have already done, the rate of mortality in Great Britain. Tables,
too, that may be correct when applied to England, can scarcely be expected
to apply equally to another country, differing not only in climate, but also in
the habits and modes of living of the people. The following table, from
M'Culloch's Commercial Dictionary, article "Annuities," will serve to
show the disparity of observations made in different countries, and also that
between the Northampton and Carlisle deductions : —

1844.]

On Life Assurance.
Table, No. 1.

77

By Dr. Price's

By the first

ByM. Deparcieux's

By Mr. Milne's

By Mr. G. Davies'

By Mr. Finlaison's Table, founded
on the experience of the

Table, founded on
the Register of

Swedish Tables,
as published by

Table, founded on
the mortality in

Table, founded on
the mortality

Table, founded on
the experience of

Government Life Annuities.

For both sexes —

According to his

Births and Burials

Dr. Price : for

the French Ton-

observed at

the Equitable Life

First Investigation,
as mentioned in

second Investi-
gation, as men-

at Northampton.

both sexes.

tines, prior to 1745.

Carlisle.

Insurance Office.

his evidence in
1825.

tioned in his
evidence in 1827.

Of 100,000 persons aged ^
25, there would be >

34,286

43,137

51,033

51,335

49,330

53,470

53,950

alive, at the age of 65 j

Of 100,000 persons aged^
65, there would be >

28,738

23,704

29,837

31,577

37,267

38,655

37,355

alive, at the age of 80 )

Expectation of life at the ^
age of 25 ... 3

3035

34-58

37-17

3786

37-45

38-35

38-52

Kxpeetation of life at the )
age of 65 ... £

10-88

10-10

11-25

11-79

12-35

12-81

12-50

Note. — Mr. Davies'

Table is " foundc

d on the experience of the Equitable; in which office, from the practical objects of Life Assurance, it is

evident the male sex mu

st have composed

the vast majority of lives subjected to mortality. But

as it is agreed on all hands that the duration of life

among females exceeds th

>t of males, it follows that the results of Mr. Davies' Tables fall materiallj

short of what they would have been, if the facts on

which he has reasoned had

comprehended an

equal number of each sex." The first two lines have r

;ference to a body of 100,000 persons; but cut that

number down to 10(1, ai

id the several an

wers will be fouj

id, by using the last three figures in those lines as decimals, and the first two as whole

numbers.

We also extract, as likely to prove of interest, a table showing the number
of persons alive, at the termination of certain periods of life, from 1 to 100
years of age, out of 1000 individuals born together in the different places,
and according to the authorities undermentioned : —

Table, No. 2.

<

England.

France

Swe-
den.

Vien-
na.

Ber-
lin.

Swit-
zer
land.

Sile-
sia.

Hol-
land.

VI °

a, -;

S 3
35-1

c

0

J a

if

is

I'M

,
. 3

a ~ •
o c c

.. 3
■a a
■— 0 •

rt n. C

.5 a
3 0 -

t 0 rt

3

<Z1

1
to

-3
3

«">

« T3

0 c i2

1

6S0

743

846

745

731

768

780

542

633

811

769

804

10

373

487

646

600

489

551

611

327

356

653

508

639

15

347

465

630

57S

472

529

590

306

341

631

483

611

•20

325

441

(09

556

449

502

570

288

324

610

461

584

25

299

409

588

529

419

471

546

269

297

587

436

551

30

272

376

564

500

388

438

519

247

269

563

409

508

35

242

344

536

474

355

404

488

226

243

539

377

467

40

212

312

508

449

314

369

459

199

209

506

342

432

45

180

279

473

424

279

334

422

176

182

476

307

400

50

147

245

440

396

242

297

385

147

157

431

267

362

55

120

210

407

368

212

258

340

123

132

388

224

318

60

96

175

364

319

168

214

293

96

103

314

1S6

273

65

74

140

302

267

135

166

285

72

80

250

147

225

70

52

106

240

211

90

11s

175

4S

55

168

109

175

75

32

71

168

148

52

72

108

3H

35

109

69

125

80

17

40

95

81

23

35

56

16

20

46

32

72

85

7

16

45

33

10

12

19

7

10

17

12

31

9(1

2

4

14

8

3

4

5

2

4

5

1

7

95

3

1

1

98

1

100

The Northampton and Carlisle Tables were constructed upon very different
principles ; Dr. Price adopting, as his data, the actual deaths which happened
amongst a floating population; Dr. Milne, the deaths of a stated number of
individuals as they occurred. Some Assurance Companies adopt the former
as their guide. ; others, the latter : and this circumstance alone materially
affects the rates of premium charged, which are, of course, higher or lower,
according as the table shows a greater or lesser probability of deaths. It is
highly advantageous for a company to be guided by the Northampton Tables
in the assurance of lives, but not in the granting of annuities ; i. e. in cases
of ordinary mortality. And again, with reference to Mr. Finlaison's deduc-
tions, it must be remarked, that annuities are chiefly held by one class —
those who have any concern with pecuniary transactions depending upon the
tenure of life : and it is, perhaps, chiefly the healthiest portion of the com-
munity who do purchase annuities.

So much for the expectation of life — the foundation of the rates of pre-
mium charged by the Insurance Companies ; but, as the Hand-Book has it,
" Any one who has happened to look through the advertisements of an As-
surance Company, must have observed the continual occurrence of the

words, 'With Profits' and 'Without Profits,' 'With Participation' and
' Without Participation,' as applied to the figures or monied values ranged
in columns," it may not be out of place to state how those companies differ
from each other, so that the intending assured may be enabled, in some
degree, to decide which company is the safest and best, and carefully to
examine the long prospectuses of each. And first, (to use Adam Smith's
general proposition,) it is plain, that, for the Insurance Company to be a
perfectly fair one, (if such ever could be the case,) the losses by premature
deaths should be exactly balanced by the payments received from those whose
lives extended beyond the mean duration at which they were insured ; or, in
the words of Professor De Morgan, the company ought to fulfil " an agree-
ment, by which those who have more than average success, resign the over-
plus in favour of those who have less." It cannot fail to have attracted the
attention of almost every one, that Life Assurance establishments are, in the
present day, much more numerous than formerly ; and that, indeed, hardly a
day runs by without some new company starting into existence, and blazing
forth its amount of capital, list of directors, and prospectus, in every news-
paper ; holding out prospects more tempting than the one of the previous
day, and declaring that its plan is incomparably superior to any one that has
preceded it ; propounding some new scheme, and plentifully interlarding
their programmes with crude observations touching bonuses, and divisions
of profit. When there are so many Insurance Companies, with agents
planted in every town in the kingdom, each working upon a different scheme,
it becomes absolutely necessary that every person should be aware of the
particular merits attached to each, before he enters upon so serious a con-
tract, the perfect fulfilment of which is of so much importance to his suc-
cessors. We find that, since the Amicable Society was established in 1706,
up to the year 1810, the number of offices did not exceed twenty; but, from
1810 to 1840, a period of only thirty years, the number established exceeds
sixty : and this has reference to Life Assurance Companies alone. These
companies may be divided into three classes — mutual, proprietary, and
mixed. The first is, where the assured are also proprietors, and receive
their proportion of the profits of the concern. The second is, where these
two bodies are distinct — the proprietors reserving for themselves all the
profits, and only engaging to pay a certain amount at the decease of the
assured. The third is (as the name implies) a compound of the two pre-
vious, inasmuch as the proprietors agree to share the profits with the assured
after a fixed plan. According as the Insurance Company belongs to either
of the above classes, the rates of premium differ ; and not only should atten-
tion be paid to this circumstance, and to the general tenor of the policy, but,
also, as to whether, by insuring in that particular office, a party is involving
himself in any responsibility, or not. Thus, while in the Mutual Insurance
Companies the insured receive all the profits, it must not be overlooked,
that, being partners in the concern, they are part insurers of the lives of all
the other members, and are responsible for any losses that may occur. Con-
tentions, too, are continually arising as to the conditions upon which new
members should be admitted ; for they certainly are not entitled to an equal
share of benefits with those who have been for years members of and contri-
butors to the society ; and thus may the affairs of some of the mutual asso-
ciations of the present day become at last so complicated, that they can only
be cleared up in a court of law. In the first investigation of the conditions

78

On Life Assurance.

[April,

of the Equitable, it was seen that, from various causes, such as charging the
rate according to the Northampton Tables, the number of individuals who
retired from it without receiving any return, or allowed their policies to ex-
pire from non-payment of the premiums, there was a large amount in favour
of the society, in the form of surplus funds, which had to be divided among
the members ; so that the class who had been longest in connexion with the
society should receive more than those who had more lately joined it. It
was resolved, in 1816, that, while the same mode of dividing profits, as then
existed, should be followed, " the division should be confined to those poli-
cies already existing, until the number of them should decrease below 5000 ;
when, for every policy lapsing, or being paid or surrendered, and thus re-
ducing the number entitled to profits below 5000, a policy not previously
admitted to share in profits should now be added, so as to keep the number
of policies among which profits are divisible always 5000." These are the
conditions now adopted, in respect of the division of profits, under which
new members are admitted into the Equitable. There are many modes now
in practice for dividing the profits realized by Insurance Companies ; and as
we perfectly agree with the following, that " to go over all the schemes of
division of profit, and state the minute differences that exist in the various
modes, would not only extend this treatise to a length not contemplated, but,
from the insupportable tediousness that would attend the following out of so
many small ducts from the main stream, would exhaust the patience of the
general reader," we shall, therefore, only instance one or two of these many
schemes, which will serve to give a general idea of the advantages derivable
from each. According to the plan adopted by the Equitable, the share of
the profits was added to the amount of each policy, so that the holders of a
policy received more than what the assured had originally bargained for,
to the extent of participating in one-third of the surplus profits allotted
at intervals of ten years. The next mode of division that came into
notice was founded upon an objection to this plan, and proceeded upon
the principle that a reduction of premium would be of greater benefit to
the assured than an addition to his policy. It was also agreed that the
profits were to be divided every seventh year ; no policy being entitled to a
participation unless it had existed for the whole period of seven years ; at
the end of which time, one-seventh of the profits " is applied to the reduction
of the premiums payable by each insurer, and is shared in proportion to the
present value of their respective policies. By this mode, the profits of six
years, with their accumulation from interest, are always kept in the hands
of the office, as a fund to provide for any unfavourable change in the rate of
mortality, accumulation, or other cause ; which it is expected will never be
so great, as that the six years' premium and interest shall not be. more than
adequate to meet it." Another plan is, where one-fifth of the profits are
divided every seven years ; and the assured share these profits in proportion
to the amount of the premiums paid by them, without any accumulation of
interest thereon being taken into consideration ; and not, as in the former
case, in proportion to the present value of the respective policies. " In suc-
ceeding divisions,the whole premiums from the commencement of the policy,
and consequently beyond the period of the latest division, are reckoned. In
dividing the surplus fund of the society, it is not the present value of that
surplus that is divided, and then applied in correspondingly larger sums to
the respective policies, according as a party is younger or older ; but the
reverse is done. The surplus fund increased to that extent which it repre-
sents when considered as not payable till the average period of the deaths
of all the parties is elapsed, is divided among these parties in proportion to
the amount of their premiums." In other companies this is so far modified
as to take into account the interest that has accumulated on the paid-up
premiums, and the present value of the policy ; the profits being divided
accordingly, and applied either as a bonus payable at death, or as a reduction
in the annual payment. In many of the insurance offices this is at the option
of the assured, either upon enrolment of membership, or at the periodical
division of the surplus. And we may here remark, that, in some of these
establishments, the principle upon which the allotment is made is not re-
vealed, except to those who become partners in the concern. There are
many sources of profit in an assurance office, but the principal arise either
from the rate of interest at which the funds have improved being greater, or
the amount of mortality among the members being less than they had pre-
viously calculated upon. But we have dwelt long enough upon the prin-
ciples on which insurance offices are founded, and, in conclusion, shall merely
mention, that it appears to us the most advisable offices in which to effect
insurances are the proprietary ; for this simple reason, that the assured incur
no responsibility whatever ; and that they see their way so far clearly before
them, that they know what amount must be paid yearly to the company, and
what amount will be handed over by the company at the death of the assured.
The security is as unquestionable, in most of these societies, as securities can
be, both from the large paid-up capital, and the private wealth of the pro-
prietary body.

The annexed Table, No. 3, (page 81,) will show at a glance the conditions,
peculiar advantages, comparative rates of premium, &c, of some of the chief
insurance offices now in existence.

Supposing that it is finally determined which is the most eligible Company
in which to insure, although we do not pretend to have given much insight
into minutiae, having merely touched upon general principles, it may now be
proper to say a few words as to the procedure in effecting a life insurance.
On application to the agency, a blank form of declaration will be received, in
which the party is required to state his age, general state of health, what dis-

eases he has had, if he has ever resided abroad, &c, &c, all which particu-
lars to be stated most carefully and accurately ; for, if any wrong declaration is
found afterwards to" have been made, whether accidentally or not, the policy
is rendered null and void. With this declaration it is necessary to lodge the
names of parties, to whom the Office can confidentially refer, as to the health,
habits, &c. of the party desirous to insure his life. These referees are either
the ordinary medical attendant, or some other friend (not relative), who has
known the party long enough to enable him to answer the queries proposed
by the Insurance Office. Upon these two statements — those of the principal
and referee being found to coincide, the next step, which is generally looked
upon as a disagreeable, but which is, in fact, a very simple one, — is the refer-
ence made to the medical officer who is attached to every establishment. This
examination is nothing more than the proposing a few questions, from which,
and the general appearance of the party, the physician reports. If his cer-
tificate is satisfactory, the policy is drawn out, which binds the one party to
make an annual payment, and the other to pay a certain sum after the decease
of the former, under certain conditions, usually printed on the back of the
policy ; and upon the payment of the first annual contribution, and of the
stamp duty, the transaction is completed. The regulated rates of premium
of each Office, on lives in this country, can be easily ascertained ; but, as
many of our readers may, at some period of theit existence, sojourn in a dis-
tant land ; which, in itself, may be urged as an additional motive for provid-
ing a life assurance, as a residence in foreign climes seldom proves so favour-
able to longevity as one in our native country, we think it well to extract the
following

RATES OP EXTRA PREMIUM TOR FOREIGN CLIMATES, CHARGEABLE IN
ADDITION TO THE ORDINARY PREMIUM.

America. — For all parts north of 38° of north latitude.

The extra rate per cent, upon the amount insured for the first year, includ-
ing the voyage out, and permission to return, is 1/.

And thereafter, during residence, the annual rate is 10*.

N.B. Parties going for less than twelve months to be allowed a return of
10s. per cent., on producing evidence of having returned in good health.

For all parts between 33° and 38° of north latitude, the annual rate per
cent, is 31.

All parts of the Continent, oetween 33° north, and 20° south latitude.
The rates of extra to vary according to the particular place, and other spe-
cial circumstances of the case ; but, generally, all places between these lati-
tudes (on the Continent) to be reckoned as rather more unhealthy than the
West India Islands.

Australia, New Zealand, and Cape of Good Hope.
The rate per cent, for the first year, including the voyage out, and per-
mission to return is 1/. 10s.

And annually thereafter, during residence, 10s.

East Indies.
Throughout the whole British possessions, including Ceylon.

For military service, the annual rate per cent, is 41. 4s. ; for civil service,
31. 3s.

N.B. This extra includes the voyage, and all other risks, while the party
remains in the East Indies.

West India Islands.

These islands are divided into three classes. The first class consists of the
most healthy islands, and includes Montserrat, Nevis, St. Kitt's, Barbadoes,
Antigua, St. Vincent, Grenada, Tortola, and the Bahamas.

In this class the minimum extra rate for civilians is 31. 3s. per cent, at and
under the age of twenty ; and rises progressively to 51. 5s. at and above the
age of fifty.

The second class consists of the less healthy islands, and includes Jamaica
and Trinidad ; also, Demerara and Berbice.

In this class the extra rate for civilians rises from hi. 5s. per cent, to
11. Is.

The third class is composed of the least healthy islands ; and includes To-
bago, St. Lucia, St. Domingo, and Dominica.

In this class the extra rate for civilians rises from 71. Is. to 9/. 9s. per
cent.

No additional charge to be made for the voyage.

In all the three classes, military men, and practising medical men, are to
be charged 1/. Is. per cent, in addition to the above rates. Naval and medi-
cal officers, cruising on the station, are to pay the same rates as those for
civilians in class first.

We have given the rates of the Scotch Offices ; and although they have not
been finally agreed to, it is believed that little, if any, alteration will be made
upon them. This is, indeed, the more to be regretted; for we believe that
the very high extra rates deter many of our countrymen in the colonies from
insuring at all. This has happened in some instances which have come under
our own knowledge; when civilians in the East Indies have, rather than pay
the extra 31. 3s. per cent., not insured at all. For instance, a middle-aged
man, living in India, in order to take out a policy for 1,000/., has to pay 60/.
a year, and this is a large sum to be deducted from an annual income. We
have little doubt, that were the rates for colonial residents lowered, many
more would insure their lives ; and we question whether, in the long run,
the Offices would have to complain of serious losses.

1844.]

On Life Assurance.

79

Let us now glance at the various modes of applying Life Assurance ; and
first we shall take as example what is generally termed a simple or common
insurance ; which means that a party may, either by paying a certain sum
annually, or a single amount at any period of life, insure a certain payment
after his demise, to be made to his wife or family. The rates of premium
in the Assurance Offices are so different, that it is somewhat difficult to select
appropriate examples ; but, looking at the lowest and highest rates, we may
say, that a man of the age of thirty may insure his life to the amount of 100/.
by a yearly payment of from 1/. 19*. 10tf. to 21. 19s. In looking at the tables
of the rates of premium, it must be understood, that although it maybe
stated that, at the age of thirty, the premium is 21. Is. bd., and, at sixty,
61. 17s. id., that it is not meant that when the assured reaches sixty years,
he must pay yearly the latter amount ; but, that if he enters the society at
the age of sixty, he contributes 6/. Vs. Ad. ; and, if at thirty, 21. 7s. bd.
per annum, until the day of his death.

The following table, calculated to a mean premium, will show very nearly
the cost per week of an insurance of 100/. on a single life, commencing at
different ages : —

Table, No. 4.

Age.

Amount weekly.

Age.

Amount weekly.

20

£ s. d.
0 0 8

40

£ s. d.
0 1 1

25

0 0 91-

45

0 1 2f

30

0 0 10§

50

0 1 6£

35

0 0 llf

55

0 1 11 J

36

0 10

60

0 2 bi

Assurances can also he effected for a short period ; so that a certain
amount may be made payable, if the death of the party occur within a cer-
tain number of years. This is chiefly used by parties who have lent money
to others, payable at a fixed period, and who insure the life of their debtor
up to the termination of that time. Assurances can likewise be purchased
by a definite number of payments, when it is not desirable to pay the requi-
site amount either by yearly instalments or by one payment ; and when it is
so arranged that the sum insured shall be paid, whether the death may happen
within the period fixed for the payment of the premiums, or beyond it.
Arrangements also are made in cases of assurances on single lives, where the
premiums are made payable either by ascending or descending scales.

The next example we shall take of the application of this science, is in
what is known as endowments. This is, where a person wishes to insure a
sum payable to himself on attaining a certain age ; or, as it is more gene-
rally practised, where a father wishes his child to receive a certain sum on
arriving at a certain age ; and again, it may be so far modified, that the sum
may be made payable to the assured himself, should he reach a certain time
of life ; but, should he die before attaining to that period, his representatives
are entitled to the amount. As we deem it necessary merely to give an out-
line of the uses to which Life Assurances may be turned, we pass rapidly
over our examples, and now come to Assurances on joint lives, which are
often effected, but chiefly by a husband and wife, or by two persons residing
together, whose separate incomes would not be sufficient for either, but
which, jointly, suffice to maintain a respectable establishment ; and they
therefore insure a certain sum payable on the death of either ; or, as in
Survivorship Assurances, a third party may insure an amount payable at the
death of the survivor of other two.* These are the principal modes in prac-

* As it may be well to give some further explanation cf probabilities, that we
have had so often occasion to refer to, we adduce the following simple mode of illus-
trating it : — Suppose that the number of persons dying in one year out of 1000
just born, is 10, or 1 in 100, it may be said that the probability of the death of

any one of the 1000 in one year was — — one-hundredth; meaning one-hun-
dredth part of absolute certainty. To take the simplest case, now, of the proba-
bility of either out of two individuals, fixed upon among a number, dying — we
shall say that the whole number of individuals is 3, and hold it fixed that one shall
die in one year. We wish to ascertain the probability of the joint existence of any
two of them being terminated by the death of either of them in one year. The
parties we shall call a, b, c; and shall represent the case of any two surviving to
the end of the year by ab, ac, be ; and the case of any two ceasing to exist together
to the end of the year, in consequence of the death of either, by Ab, (meaning that
a dies and b lives to the end of the year), Ac, Bo, Be, Ca, Cb. From a consideration
of the circumstances, there are evidently nine cases that can occur : — 1. ab jointly
surviving to end of year ; 2. ac doing the same ; 3. be ditto ; 4. Ab, that is,
a dying, and b surviving; 5. Ac, that is, a dying, and c surviving; 6. Bo ditto, ditto ;
7. Be ditto, ditto; 8. Ca ditto, ditto; 9. Cb ditto, ditto. These being all the pos-
sible events, let us examine how many of them embrace the case of a particular
individual, say a, not surviving conjointly with another — these are (1) be, (where
neither of the two that survive is a) ; (2) Ab, (where a is included, and dies ;)
(3) Ac, where a also dies; (4) Be, (where a is not included) ; (5) C6, where a is
also not included— or five cases in all of a not being found as surviving (or being

tice for parties insuring either their own lives or those of others ; and as it
would be out of place, in giving a general view of the science of Life Ass-t-
rance, to dwell longer on the details, we shall merely say a few words on the
subject of Annuities.

Annuities may be purchased not only from private offices, but from Go-
vernment ; and the requisite forms to be gone through are much simpler than
those for life assurances ; arising chiefly from this reason, that as it is for the
interest of the parties granting the annuity that the life should not be a good
one, no medical examination or references are required, excepting in the case
of an annuity being made payable to one party on the decease of another ;
and which only differs from a so-called Life Assurance in this, that, instead
of one large sum being made payable at death, yearly payments are payable
to the party surviving. The simplest form of annuity is that where a person,
by paying a certain amount, receives a yearly income until his decease.
Other modes in practice may be comprised under the head of reversions,
where an annuity is payable to a survivor on the death of another party.
These contingent annuities are always saleable in the money market — that is,
the fund which was originally sunk for the annuity may be partly recovered ;
the purchaser taking upon himself the risk of the reversion turning out pro-
fitably. This, in some respects, resembles Life Assurance, inasmuch as
money may be raised by depositing a policy on the life of the borrower in
the hands of the lender : but we need hardly say that such proceedings had
better be avoided than otherwise. We would caution those who intend to
effect insurance upon their lives, to be particularly careful in the filling up
of their declaration ; as, if it should afterwards appear that there has been an
erroneous return made, the policy will be vitiated, and all the prospective
benefits will be scattered to the wind. We may briefly state what are the
chief causes that may render a policy null and void, without entering into
abstruse points, or adducing legal evidence. First, misrepresentations of
facts or statements, whether wilfully or accidentally committed; second,,
omissions of material facts, whether arising from inadvertence or not; third,
where either the drawing out or assignment of the policy has been done with
the intent of, or has any affinity with, a gambling transaction; and, fourth,
when the assured die by suicide, duelling, or the hands of justice — unless i he-
policy has been previously assigned to third parties for value received. To
the last it may be objected, that many offices state in their policies that the
sum assured will he paid whether the death is so caused or not : but the
truth is, that such amount could not be recovered at law, if the office chose
to resist the claim, although it would evidently be against their interest to do
so. The following examples from the Hand-Book, of the benefits derivable
from, and the various modes of effecting insurances, may prove of inte-
rest : —

" A young married man, in the medical profession, opened a chemist's shop in
the suburbs of London, and was induced by his wife's friends to insure his life for
1000/. Shortly after this the cholera made its appearance in the metropolis, and
the party in question fell a victim to that disease. The assets of the deceased were

found as not surviving) conjointly with another. The whole possible cases are 9;
and 5 being the number of these adverse to a's surviving, we therefore say that the
probability of a's not surviving conjointly with another,( or, which is the same
thing, the probability of their joint existence ceasing,) is 5-9 ths. The probability,
found in the ordinary way, would have been thus : — for, 2 surviving out of the 3,

out of the 3 is -|-, 2 events out of 3 being favourable ;

the probability of 1 surviving

and the probability of 2 surviving out of the 3 might be found in the same way;
since, taking a. for survivor, he survives with 1st b, 2nd c, and 3rd lives when b
dies, and 4th docs so also when c dies, to be 4 out of the whole number of cases 9,

or 4-9ths.

This, it will be observed, is the square of ^- = ■§■ x ■§• = 4-9;

and,

3 3 3

however we may vary the number of individuals involved, the square of the proba-
bility of one surviving, always represents the probability of two jointly surviving.
Consider now that it is a certainty that any two should either have their joint ex-
istence terminated or not within the year, and the probabilities of these sepa-

5 4

rately being —and— ; when we add these together, we have 1, which represents

that certainty. Thus, if we have the probability of any two jointly living, then by

deducting it from certainty, or 1, we have the probability of their ceasing jointly

to exist, by the death of either. So that the probability of a child just born sur-

990
viving one year, is represented by , or the number surviving divided by the

3 ' ' 3 iooo ° '

number alive at the commencement. The probability of 2 jointly surviving would thus

be represented by — multiplied by itself, or — , and deducting this from

1 ' 10U0 10001)00

1, or certainty, we have the probability of their joint existence terminating in one

19900

year, or . If 100/. were to be insured in the event of either of two chil-

10U0U00
dren just born dyin

multiplied by the sum insured, 100/.

in one year, the sum required would be this last probability

1990000

and the premium would thus be-

1000000

nearly 21, or exactly 1/. 19s. \0d. Thus, since 1 9,900 die, the sum to be provided,
by the million, is 1,990,000, or nearly two millions; and hence the 21. premium.
For the single life, the premium would only be 1/. In a similar manner we might
find the piemium for succeeding years.

80

On Life Assurance.

[April,

little more than sufficient to pay his creditors ; and, had it not been for the insu-
rance on his life, his -widow and family would have been left destitute : as it was,
however, they received from the office 1 000Z.

" A father, in respectable but not opulent circumstances, insured 1007. on the
life of his son, who was one year old ; the money to be payable on his son's attain-
ing fourteen years of age. His son attained that age, and the money was paid,
which enabled the father to bind him to a respectable tradesman. He is now in
business for himself, and doing well. The premium paid was 61. per annum, and
this the father easily saved from his income. Had he laid it apart annually for
that purpose, it would have only amounted to 78/. ; and at simple interest, at the
rate allowed by a bank, it would have been only 2/. increased ; whereas the Insu-
rance Company paid 207. more than could have been obtained in any other mode.

" A young man had an eligible opportunity presented to him of entering into
business as an ironmonger. He assured his life for 300/. : his friends became his
sureties, and he obtained the necessary sum. By means of this he took a shop,
and stocked it; is active and prosperous in business, and most punctual in his
periodical payments."

To those who are acquainted with the " cask credit" system adopted by
the Scotch Banks, it will be seen what advantages this mode possesses, as
regards the sureties, over the former practice : for, as here, the sureties lie
under hardly any responsibility whatever, as compared to those who lend
their names to a bond given to the Bank ; which is so nicely managed, that
every man's name is interwoven with that of his neighbours ; so that when
one house of business fails, three or four appear in the Gazette within a
week of each other. But to continue : —

" A master cooper, in thriving business, requiring additional capital in conse-
quence of its increase, assured his life for 500/. ; and having responsible friends to
offer as guarantees, obtained a loan of 250/. for four years, repayable by quarterly
instalments. In the course of that time his business so improved that he repaid
the loan, and now continues the assurance for the benefit of his family.

" A cleric in a public office, married, and requiring an advance of 100/. to pur-
chase furniture, he obtained the accommodation by insuring his life for 200/., and
getting his father-in-law, and another respectable friend, to become his sureties.
His intention is to pay off the loan by instalments out of his salary, and to con-
tinue the insurance on behalf of his wife.

" A young man obtained a situation in Glasgow, and removed there with his
mother, who depended on him for support. He required 50/., to furnish a com-
fortable lodging for her, and to provide himself with a respectable outfit. He got
two responsible friends to be security, and obtained the loan by taking out a policy
for 200/., and engaging to repay it in two years, by quarterly instalments out of his
salary, which he receives four times a year."

This latter plan should only be resorted to in cases of absolute necessity,
(and in the one before us a very praiseworthy spirit is exhibited), as it is
unpleasant, and often occasions much embarrassment. To stand in the po-
sition of a debtor, let the debt be ever so small, may serve as a germ for
something prodigious.

" A cabinet-maker wished to increase his stock, by a temporary loan of 150/.
He also had for several years been intending to take out a policy for the benefit of
his family. It occurred to him that he might advantageously accomplish both his
objects at once; so he got three friends to become security for him, effected a policy
for 500/., and obtained the loan for two years, repayable by four half-yearly in-
stalments.

" A debtor, who is unable to satisfy the demands of his creditors immediately,
but who may have the means of liquidating the amount in a certain time, should
he so long live, may, by the aid of a temporary insurance on his life, offer a satis-
factory arrangement; or, should his views fail in discharging his debts in the given
time, and he or his creditors continue the insurance, the amount will, by that
means, be realized at his decease. The ruinous consequences of insolvency may,
in this way, frequently be averted.

" Post obits. — Persons having issued post obit bonds, may realize their amount
at the time they become payable, by insuring the life or lives on whose failure
they become due."

We have extended our remarks on Life Assurance to a greater length
than we had intended, and, in conclusion, would wish to impress upon our
readers, more especially those who have families dependent upon them for
support, the great benefits which are derivable from it. It is admirably
adapted to all classes ; and it would, indeed, be a boon to society if it was
oftener acted upon, or even, perhaps, more generally understood. To this
cause we are inclined to attribute the neglect which Life Assurance receives,

rather than to any predominance of the selfish principle which could so
actuate a man as to render him totally callous to the welfare of his suc-
cessors. Often do we hear the conduct of men deprecated in no measured
terms, who, perhaps, driven to despair by an unfortunate career, desert their
families, and leave them to the mercies of the world, to seek aid from the
parish, or, perhaps, from passers by. But, if we give it a little considera-
tion, it will be perceived that there is not so much difference after all, be-
tween the man who wilfully leaves his family in the most destitute condition,
and he who, with the means at his command, neglects to provide for them in
the event of his death, when they would be deprived of their natural protector.
Man's life is but short ; the tenure by which he holds it is but frail ; and as
he knows not what a day or an hour may bring forth, and is incapable of
reading the miseries his widow and his children might have to undergo, were
he suddenly cut off, the more does it behove him to exert himself to the
utmost to avert any such calamities, and gladly seize any opportunity afforded
him to do so. It is his bounden duty, not only for the benefit of his kin-
dred, but for the benefit of society, so to act ; and it is, indeed, but a sordid
and selfish principle on which the argument is founded, " I have alone been
the founder of my wealth, and therefore I alone will spend and enjoy it : let
those who come after me work their own way in the world, and build their
own fortunes : what have I to do with society at large?"

Life Assurance is a powerful stimulant to habits of accumulation. An
individual who has insured his life, knows that, if he does not save as much
from his yearly income as will liquidate the premium required, his policy
falls to the ground, and no advantage is gained from it ; and thus are habits
of saving contracted and strengthened. It relieves a person from all anxiety
as to the pecuniary resources of his family, should he chance to die before he
could otherwise have amassed a sufficient amount ; and, indeed, while it may
prove of incalculable benefit to his successors, it greatly, though indirectly,
benefits himself — relieving his mind from any apprehension, and forming
habits which in themselves will contribute much to his present comfort.
Habits of accumulation thus fortified, strengthen, in their turn, those of fru-
gality and industry, the practice of which cannot be too highly recommended,
as they indeed may well be regarded as the foundation of many kindred vir-
tues. An artizan will not be the less thought of because he exercises a little
self-denial, and lays by, from his earnings, a provision for the future wants
of his family; and, indeed, as the sentiments which give rise to this manly
and becoming conduct are closely allied to the best feelings of the heart, a
man who can exhibit such a pattern of prudence and self-denial as would do
honour to any class of individuals, will not readily stoop to participate in
mean or dishonourable actions ; but, feeling that sense of true dignity inse-
parable from a virtuous career, the spirit of independence which he has at
first shown, in struggling to provide for unseen exigencies, will soon exhibit
itself in a more exalted tone of thinking, and of acting too, and he will soon
appreciate the superior comforts and advantages which will imperceptibly
close around him. We have heard artizans object to Life Assurance ; and
urge as their inability to form any connexion with a company, that the pre-
mium demanded yearly is too great for them to pay : but surely few mecha-
nics would find it inconvenient to pay into a savings' -bank such weekly or
monthly instalments that, at the end of the year, would amount to the equi-
valent of the premium. Savings'-banks are safe depositories for money,
when established under the authority of Government ; and how much better
would it be to deposit in their hands small amounts, which would accumulate
at a good rate of interest, instead of becoming members of those benefit or
friendly societies that hold their monthly meetings in the public-house, that
are not enrolled under that Act of Parliament which requires that the officers
in such societies produce satisfactory security before they are installed in
their situations. We need hardly caution artizans from entering friendly
societies that are not so constituted, as examples are continually coming
before them of treasurers absconding with the hard- wrought earnings of the
members, or of societies being got up by dishonest individuals for the pur-
pose of obtaining money ; or tell them that their contributions are always
lessened by the expenses of management ; or that their periodical convivial
meetings serve only to confirm vicious habits. But we must stop, as we are
wandering from our subject, although to these topics we should like to
return. Again would we earnestly recommend the practice of Life Assu-
rance, convinced as we are, that, were its principles more generally known,
and more generally adopted, distress and misery would be less prevalent, the
tenants of the workhouose would be fewer, and the claims of the many cha-
ritable institutions would require to be less seldom urged than they now
are.

1844.]

On Life Assurance.

81

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82

Electric Printing Telegraph,

[April,

Art. IV.— NAVAL STATISTICS.

LOSS OF LIFE AND PROPERTY BY SHIPWRECK.

The number of persons who annually perish by shipwreck can never be ac-
curately ascertained, because there are many vessels which are reported as
wrecked, with the loss of all hands ; in which case the loss of life can seldom
be ascertained with certainty, and must therefore be guessed at. Then there
are annually between thirty and forty vessels which are reported as missing ;
and in these it may be supposed that the entire crews and passengers have
also perished ; but here, again, no means exist of ascertaining the numbers
with accuracy.

From the returns presented to the Committee by the Secretary to Lloyd's,
the following results are drawn as to the loss of life by shipwreck : —

In the years 1833, 1834, and 1835, the average number of ships annually
wrecked is 610 ; of which number, 27 are known to have been wrecked, with
the entire loss of crews and passengers ; 43 are reported as missing, and all
the crews and passengers are supposed to have been lost ; while, in the
remaining number of 510 vessels, it is ascertained that 591 lives have been
lost.

In the years 1841 and 1842 the average number of ships lost annually was
611 ; of which, 28|- are known to have been wrecked with entire loss of
crews ; 33 are reported as missing ; and it is ascertained that 613 lives have
been lost in the remaining number.

Collecting these results into a tabular form, and estimating, on the average,
12 lives to each vessel in which all hands are known to have perished, and
15 to each vessel reported as missing, we have the following statement for
the two periods mentioned above : —

Average of the years 1833, 1834, and
1835.

Annual number of ships lost
missing

"}

In 27 ships, the whole crews of
which were known to have been
lost, reckoning 12 to each ship .

In 43 ships missing, reckoning 15
to each

Lives ascertained to have been lost
in the remaining 540 ships . .

610

324
645
591

Total loss of life

. 1560

Average of the years 1841 and
1842.

Annual number of ships lost and "
missing

611

In 28^ ships, the whole crews of
which were known to have been
lost, reckoning 12 to each ship . 342

In 33 ships missing, reckoning 15
to each 495

Lives ascertained to have been lost
in the remaining ships . . .613

Total loss of life

. 1450

It further appears, by the returns from Lloyd's, that the average tonnage
of the ships lost, as far as can be ascertained, is 210 tons ; and the value of
property lost is estimated at the rate of 20/. per ton for ship and cargo.

During the years 1833, 1834, and 1835, therefore, the average annual
loss of property by shipwreck, will stand thus : —

610 ships, at 210 tons each, = 128,100 tons, at 20?. = 2,562,000/. ; and
during 1841 and 1842, the average annual loss will be

611 ships, at 210 tons each, = 128,310 tons, at 20/. = 2,566,200/.

The preceding statements of course refer to British vessels only, and in-
clude only those in the merchant service. The results may be thus taken in
round numbers : —

At the present time, the annual loss to this country by shipwreck, is
610 ships; 2,500,000/. of property ; and 1500 lives.

Art. V.— ELECTRIC PRINTING TELEGRAPH.

The Artizan was, we believe, the first publication to notice and give an in-
telligible account of the discovery made by Mr. Bain, that an effective voltaic
battery may be formed by employing the moisture of the earth as the exciting
fluid, and that, at whatever distances apart the generating plates may be
placed, an electric current is formed when communication is made between
those plates by an external conducting-wire. It was stated aiso, at the same
time, that it was Mr. Bain's intention to apply this interesting discovery to
work his electric printing telegraph, and we have, within the last month, had
an opportunity of witnessing the complete success of the invention, on a
scale that leaves no doubt of the efficacy of these telluric, never-ceasing,
currents of electricity in telegraphic communication. A printing electric
telegraph, worked in this manner, has been placed experimentally on the
South-western Railway, from Nine Elms to Wimbledon, a distance of six
miles, and for that distance, with a single pair of plates of zinc and copper,
of but one square foot surface, the electricity generated is more than suffi-
cient for the purposes required. The importance of this invention in facili-
tating the internal communications of the country, whether applied directly
for the transmission of information, or as an auxiliary to locomotion on rail-
ways, is so great, and it is pregnant with future improvements of such mighty
consequence, that we shall endeavour to explain as intelligibly as we can the
modus operandi of the newly evoked agent in Mr. Bain's extremely ingeni-
ous apparatus.

The application of electricity as a means of telegraphic communication,

though but recently brought into use, was conceived and effected twenty-seven
years ago, by Mr. Ronalds, of Hammersmith, who so far succeeded as to work
his telegraph by a single circuit through eight miles of wire. He also em-
ployed the means adopted by Mr. Bain, of trains of wheels worked by weights,
and used the electric force principally for setting the apparatus in motion at
the required times. In fact, though the name of Mr. Ronalds seems to have
been forgotten in the history of this invention, he may be considered as its
founder ; but, as too often happens, defects in the details of the construction,
and want of encouragement, prevented him from bringing the electric tele-
graph into practical operation. M. Ampere, in 1830, suggested the applica-
tion of the power which a current of voltaic electricity possesses of deflecting
magnetic needles to the purposes of telegraphic communication, and upon
that principle most of the electric telegraphs since constructed depend. The
plan at first adopted was to fasten small screens to the ends of nicely-balanced
magnetic needles ; and, by employing several such needles, and by having
wires from the voltaic battery to each, when the electric current was made to
pass over any one of the needles, on completing the communication between its
governing-wire and the battery, the consequent deflection of the needle re-
moved the screen, and exposed the required letter or symbol underneath. The
many wires necessary in this plan, and the liability to get out of order, were
ruinous obstacles to its efficiency. The telegraph of Professor Wheatstone,
laid down on the Great Western Railway, from Paddington to Slough, de-
pends, however, essentially on the same principle ; but he obtained great
advantage by employing a dial-plate with symbols, to which the deflected
needles point, instead of using screens with the symbols beneath. By im-
proved arrangements of the dial-plate and the mode of working, the Professor
was enabled, after the telegraph was perfected, to diminish the number of
wires, and instead of using six, as at first, we believe that one wire now is suf-
ficient, and that he employs the conducting property of the earth to com-
plete the circuit.

It is not our intention, on the present occasion, to enter into the angry
controversy between Professor Wheatstone and Mr. Bain, respecting their
competing claims to various parts of the invention of electric telegraphs.
Even granting to the Professor all the merit he claims, and which Mr. Bain
disputes, those inventions and discoveries of the latter respecting which there is
little room for cavil, are sufficiently distinct to warrant our giving him the sole
claim to the contrivance and practical application of the printing electric tele-
graph now in operation, the principal features of which we will endeavour
to explain.

The superiority of a printing telegraph over a mere signal telegraph con-
sists in the former printing the communication at both stations at the same
instant, thus affording the person communicating the opportunity of seeing
whether he has transmitted the symbol correctly; and it prevents any mistake
from misapprehension by the party with whom he communicates. It has the
advantage, also, of secresy ; for the apparatus at the distant station may be
locked up, and the information transmitted will be found printed when it
is unlocked, without the necessity of any attendant in waiting to watch its
movements. This is the leading feature of Mr. Bain's invention ; and he
accomplishes it by a series of ingenious contrivances, that exhibit the most
fertile resources in overcoming obstacles by the application of mechanism.

The apparatus of the printing telegraph is worked altogether by the gravi-
tating force of two large weights, electricity being employed merely as the
agent for setting the apparatus in motion, and for stopping it at the points
required. This is effected by the deflection of a permanent magnet, which,
as it turns, releases a revolving straight piece of wire that rests against a small
notched cylinder, attached to the magnet. The machinery continues revolv-
ing so long as the magnet is deflected ; but when the electric circuit is broken
the magnet returns to its former position, the revolving piece of wire can
then no longer pass through the notch in the cylinder ; and its progress being
thus arrested, the machinery is brought to rest. When it stops, the arms of
a small governor, fixed to an upright revolving shaft, collapse, and release a
spring, which, by striking against a small wheel, whereon several projecting
figures are fixed, one of those figures is forced against a piece of paper, and
the letter opposite the paper is printed upon it. For the purpose of stopping
the apparatus at the exact time that the figure required is opposite the paper,
there is a dial with figures corresponding to those on the type-wheel ; and
when the hand of the dial, which turns round when the machinery is in
motion, points to the figure, a small spring is pressed that completes the
electric circuit, and the apparatus stops ; and, on stopping, the figure is
printed ; a bell, or copper gong, is struck, and the paper is shifted, to leave
room for the next impression. The lathe operations are very admirably per-
formed, and are effected without much complication. The paper whereon
the message is printed, is fixed on to a small cylinder covered with cloth,
and, as the type is withdrawn from the paper, the cylinder is moved slightly
by means of a ratchet-wheel. The motion of the cylinder leaves a blank
space for the impression of the next letter ; and, as the cylinder turns on a
spiral, the paper is elevated as it makes its gradual revolutions, and thus the
figures or letters are printed on spiral lines. To make the impression of the
figure visible on the paper, a ribbon saturated with dried printers' ink is in-
terposed, against which the type presses, and leaves a very legible mark. It
is of essential consequence, in such an apparatus, that means should be pro-
vided for ascertaining that the two communicating telegraphs are printing
correctly ; otherwise the greatest confusion would prevail. Mr. Bain has,
therefore, made an arrangement in the dial-plate, by introducing at one part
a deviation from the other portions of the circle traversed by the hand, which

1844]

The Equilibrated Arch considered in reference to its Practical Construction.

83

enables the operator at each, station to tell when the hands are passing over
that part of the dial, and thus to know exactly whether the two correspond.

One great advantage in employing the electric currents of the earth in
working such a telegraph, independently of the saving of expense, is the con-
stancy of the power, by which means the current of electricity is always
passing through the apparatus when it is at rest ; and it is by breaking the
current that the telegraphic apparatus is set in motion. Should any accident
occur to the wires, therefore, or to the generating plates, it is indicated di-
rectly by setting the machine in motion ; and thus affords the opportunity
of remedying the defect before the telegraph is required. The mode of work-
ing the telegraph by electricity generated by the earth itself, is, perhaps, the
most important feature of the invention, as the principle is capable of exten-
sive valuable applications for other purposes. The small surface of metal
required to excite sufficient electricity to work the telegraph, is truly sur-
prising. In the course of experiments to determine the extent of metallic
surface which would be requisite, Mr. Bain ascertained that four square
inches of copper and of zinc would be sufficient to work the telegraph be-
tween Nine Elms and Wimbledon. The current, it is true, was too feeble
for practical purposes ; and the surface of metal actually employed is one
one square foot at each station. The extreme sensitiveness of the apparatus
to the action of feeble currents of electricity, is owing, in a great measure, to
an ingenious arrangement made by Mr. Bain for augmenting the effect on
the permanent magnet. This part of the invention is quite novel, and we
shall take an early opportunity of laying it before our readers.

Art. VI.— THE EQUILIBRATED ARCH CONSIDERED IN
REFERENCE TO ITS PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION.

One of the most important practical applications of the curve of equilibrium
is to the construction of arches that are rigid in all their parts, and which
have straight or horizontal road- ways, such as those that occur in the line of a
railway. The formula by which the properties of the curve are expressed
involves three constant quantities ; one of them general, constituting an
element of the equation, and the others particular, depending upon the dimen-
sions of the arch immediately under consideration. The general constant
exhibits itself in numerical form, and is equivalent to the base of Napier's
system of logarithms, or the number 2'718282, which must retain its value
unaltered, whatever may be the magnitude of the arch to which our inquiries
are directed, while the particular constants, by entering the equation dissimi-
larly, must have their values depending upon the magnitude of the parts to
which they respectively refer, one of them being given by the conditions of
the question, and the other requiring to be calculated from the general
formula modified for the purpose. The given quantity enters the equation
as a coefficient, and is called the parameter of the curve, while that which
has to be calculated enters as an exponent, and is termed the modulus.

It would be foreign to our purpose to exhibit the investigation of the
formula by which the curve is calculated, our object being wholly practical ;
it will suffice to give the expression in a specific form, and to illustrate its
application by the resolution of a few numerical examples, for in this way the
practical man becomes familiar with the principles of reduction, and by being
so, he feels a desire to apply the same principles to all other cases of a similar
nature whenever they present themselves to his consideration.

Let ABD in the annexed figure, represent the curve of equilibrium, and
AFEDBA the superincumbent equili-
brating mass ; then is AD the base of
the curve ; CB its rise or versed-sine ;
BG the thickness or depth of the
balancing materials exactly over the
middle point of the curve, and FGE
the road-way ,being parallel to the hori-
zon, or to AD the base or span of the
arch.

Through the points A and D, the ex-
tremities of the base, draw the vertical
lines AF and DE respectively parallel
and equal to CG, meeting the road-
way FE in the points F and E ; then,
in the straight line GF, take any point H, through which draw HI parallel
to GB and meeting the curve in the point I, and through I draw IK parallel
to the road-way or horizontal line FG.

Upon CG as a diameter describe the semicircle CLG, and on G as a centre
with the distance GB as radius, describe the circular arc BL meeting the
■semicircle CLG in the point L, and draw the straight lines CL and GL,
meeting each other perpendicularly in L, and forming the right-angled tri-
angle CLG, in which the angle CGL has to be calculated from the given
sides CG and GL. The construction being thus effected, the several parts
of the figure may be defined in the following manner : —

AD = the base or span of the arch, which is also equal to FE the
road-way or extrados,

AC = the semibase or semispan, which is also equal to FG the semi-
extrados,

BC = the versed sine or rise of the arch,

BG = the thickness at the crown or least ordinate, which is also equal
to the parameter of the curve,

VOL. II.

P H C-

E

f

D

^-

K.

CG

the distance between the base of the arch and the road -way, or the
greatest ordinate, which is also equal to AF or DE,
GH = any distance estimated from the crown of the arch towards F,

which is also equal to IK, and called the amplitude,
HI = the corresponding ordinate, which is also equal to GK,
GF = the greatest amplitude, being equal to the semibase or semispan
AC,
CGL = 9, the angle of condition by which the modulus of the curve is
calculated.

This notation being adopted, the first step of the solution is to calculate
the modulus of the curve, which is a necessary element in the determination
of the ordinates, and for this purpose, we are in possession of two different
formulae, one of them involving the angle of condition and the other not; but
in order to render the solution as simple and perfect as possible, we shall
make use of both the methods, and illustrate their application by the resolu-
tion of one or two appropriate numerical examples.

1st. When the angle of condition is not considered, the formula for deter-
mining the modulus is

modulus =
log.

0-4342945 x great, amp.

(1)

(great, ord. + "< great ord.2 — parameter2")
\ parameter J

parameter

To those who are in the habit of reading equations expressed in the con-
cise language of algebra, the form here given will be perfectly intelligible ;
but for the accommodation of those who are not, we think it necessary to
give a verbal description of the steps of reduction.

Rule. — Multiply thesum of the greatest ordinate and parameter by their
difference, and extract the square root of the product ,■ to the square root
thus found add the greatest ordinate, and divide the sum hy the parameter ;
then find the logarithm of the quotient and reserve it for a divisor.

Multiply the semibase or greatest amplitude by the constant decimal
0-4342945, and divide the product by the reserved logarithmic divisor for
the modulus of the curve required.

2nd. When the angle of condition is taken into account, the equation for
the modulus expressed specifically, is as follows, viz. : —

modulus =

0-4342945 x great, amp.

(2)

log. tan. (45° + -|0)
This equation is much simpler in its form than the preceding, and will always
be adopted by those who are familiar with the elementary departments of
plane trigonometry ; but for those who are not, the following rule, drawn up
in words at length, will be found useful.

Rule. — Find the angle of condition CGL equal 9 by the rules of plane
trigonometry ; to half the angle thus found, add 45 degrees or half a right
angle; then find the logarithmic tangent of the sum and reserve it for a
divisor.

Multiply the semibase or greatest amplitude by the constant decimal
0-4342945, and divide the product by the reserved logarithmic tangent for
the modulus of the curve required.

These two equations, with the rules derived from them, are easily applied
in calculating the modulus of the equilibrated curve, and since this element
is necessary in determining the ordinates for an arch of equilibration with a
straight extrados or road-way, we shall, in the next place, show the method
of applying the rules to one or two numerical examples, as follows : —

Example I. — The span of an arch is 150 feet, its rise or height 30 feet,
and the thickness at the crown 9 feet ; required the modulus of the curve,
supposing the arch to be built on the principles of equilibrium with a horizon-
tal road-way ?

Comparing the data of this example with the parts of the preceding figure
to which they respectively refer, we have AD = 150 feet ; CB = 30 feet,
and BG = 9 feet ; consequently, by substituting those numbers in the first of
the above formulae, it is

CG = CB + BG = 30 + 9 •= 39 feet, the greatest ordinate, or the distance

between the base and the road-way,
BG = 9 feet, the least ordinate, or parameter of the
curve, being the same as the thickness at
the crown,
GF = 75 feet, the greatest amplitude, or semibase.
And from these, the formula expressing the value of the modulus in known
terms becomes

modulus =

0-4342945 x 75

log. {(39 + V39^- 92 )-f-9}
The operation here indicated, when performed by common arithmetic,
is rather tedious ; in order therefore to abridge the labour as much as possible,
we shall employ the logarithms, presuming that the reader is acquainted with
the ordinary applications of those numbers to all the common purposes of
calculation. By the rule it is

CG + BG = 39 + 9 = 48.... log. 1-6812412
CG — BG =39—9 = 30.... log. 1-4771213

CG2 - BG2 = 392 -9- = 1440 .... log. 3-1583625 = sum of

84

The Equilibrated Arch considered in reference to its Practical Construction.

[April,

the logs., one half of which is 1 '5791813, and the natural number correspond-
ing to this logarithm, is 37-947= a/1440 = 12 V10. Wherefore by addition
and division as expressed in the rule, we get

37-947 + 39 = 76-947 log. 1-8861917

9.... ar. co. log.0-0457575

sum of the logs. = 0-9319492 log. 9-9693923 subtract

Constant decimal 0-4342945. ..log. 9-937784.1 \ „„„ , _ ,..,,„,,,.,.

Semibase 75 log. 1 8750613 1 sum log. 1-5128456

Therefore the natural number corresponding is 34-95 feet, the\ , ,.rm,„
modulus of the curve required J 10g- ' °"*Bi>a

To determine the same by the second formula, and the rule derived from it,
we have first to find the angle of condition CGL = 0 ; and for this purpose

BG 9
the rules of trigonometry give cos. 9 = p^r — ~on = 0*23077, which being

found in the table of natural cosines, gives 0 = 76° 39' 28'' ; the half of this
is 38° 19' 44" ; which being added to 45 degrees, or half a right angle, the
sum is 83° 19' 44"; and by the rule we have (45 + -J0) = 45 + 38° 19' 44'' =
83° 19' 44" .... log. tan. 0-931 94U2 . log. 99693923 subtract
Constant decimal 0-4342945 log. 9-6377843 ) , ,,r„0,«

Semibase 75 ... log. 1-8750613 {sum ' IoS- i'5128456

1-5434533

The natural number answering to this is 34'95 ft., ? .

the modulus of the curve, the same as before. . f °'

By comparing these operations with each other, it will be seen that the lat-
ter is by far the easiest ; and, consequently, in all cases of practice it will be
preferable to apply it. Indeed, it was chiefly with the view of bringing this
method into notice that the present paper was determined on; but, since it
implies a knowledge of the principles of trigonometry which is not generally
possessed by practical men, it is not unlikely that the other method will be
more frequently resorted to, as being better understood, notwithstanding that
the labour in one case is much greater than in the other.

By the foregoing example we have seen with what ease and facility the for-
mulas apply when the semispan of the arch is greater than its rise ; but in
rugged and precipitous localities, it often happens that the rise is greater than
the semispan ; and it now remains to be shown that the formula? are equally
applicable when this is the case, without change or modification of any kind
whatever.

Example 2. — The span of an arch is 96 feet, its versed sine or height 54
feet, and the thickness at the crown, or the length of the keystone, 6 feet ;
it is required to determine the modulus of construction, supposing they
are to be built on the principles of equilibrium, with a horizontal extrados ?

Assimilating the data of this example with the parts of the figure to which
they refer, as in the foregoing case, we have AD = 96 feet, CB = 54 feet,
and BG = 6 feet : hence we get —

CG = CB + BC = 54 + 6 = 60 feet, the greatest ordinate, or distance be-
tween the base and road-way.
BG = 6 feet, the least ordinate or parameter of the
curve, being the same as the length of the
keystone.
GP = 48 feet, the greatest amplitude or semibase.
And from these the formula expressing the value of the modulus in known
terms becomes

0-4342945 x 48
modulus = —

log.{(60 + a/~602— 62) -*- 6)
And the process indicated by this expression, when performed logarithmi-
cally, is as follows : —

CG + BG = 60 + 6 = 66 . . log. 1-8195439

CG — BG = 60 — 6 = 54 . . log. 1-7323938

CG2— BG2= 602— 63= 3564 . log. 3-5515377 = sum of the logs.,
one half of which is 1-7759689, and the natural number corresponding to this
logarithm is 59*699 = V 3564 = 18 -/ 11. Wherefore, by adding and di-
viding, as directed in the rule, we obtain
59-699 + 60 = 119-699 . . log. 2-0780906
6 . . ar. co. log. 9-2218487

Sum of the logs. = 1-2555353 log. 0-1139229 sub.

Constant decimal 0-4342945 . . log. 96377843 > . -..oic-no^

Semibase .... 48 log. 1-6812812 f 8 ' j0»*_L£^££?

The modulus of the curve is therefore = 16-036 feet . . log. 1-2051026

To determine the same by the second formula and its corresponding rule'
we must find the angle of condition CGL = 0 ; and for this purpose we have,

BG 6
by the principles of plane trigonometry, cos. 0 = fTp =~Fn = 0-10000, which

being found in the table of natural cosines, the corresponding angular magni-
tude is 84° 15' 38"; the half of this is 42° 7' 49'', and being increased by 45°,
or half a right angle, the sum is 87° 7' 49"; therefore by the rule we have
(45°— | 0) = 45° +

42° 7' 49"= 87° T 49" . . log. tan. 1-2998784 log. 0-1139229 sub.

Constant decimal 0-4342945 .. log. 9 6377843? „ra . ,.„„„,„

Semibase 48 log. 1 -6812412 Pum ■ ^ 1 3190255

Therefore, the modulus of the curve is 16-036 feet, the }, i-20cil026
same as before S

By comparing the results of these two examples with each other, we arrive
at the following inference ; namely, that if the rise or height of the arch ex-
ceeds the semibase or semispan by a greater and greater quantity, the com-
puted modulus will approach nearer and nearer to an equality with the para-
meter ; and, by continuing to increase the difference between the rise and the
semispan, the modulus and parameter will at last become equal to each other;
and, in this case, the curve of equilibration will coincide with a catenary upon
the same or an equal base. In fact, the curve of equilibrium and the cate-
nary are nearly related in principle to one another, the nature of the former
being represented by an equation involving two parameters ; but which, for
distinction's sake, we have denominated the parameter and modulus ; and
when these are supposed to be equal, the general equation of the curve of
equilibrium, becomes also the equation of the catenary.

Hence it follows, that a table of co-ordinates, adapted to the common cate-
narian curve, will apply to the construction of arches that are rigid in all their
parts, as well as to the construction of arches of suspension ; but then the
amplitudes might happen to be all fractional numbers, which are very incon-
venient in practical constructions, but more especially when they occur in
the intervals between the ordinates. In order, therefore, to avoid this incon-
venience, and to express the several intervals in whole numbers, it becomes
necessary to compute the ordinates corresponding to assumed amplitudes ; and
for this purpose we must have recourse to the general equation of the curve ;
which, being expressed in a specific form, exhibits itself as underneath: —

amp.
mod.

amp.
mod.

Ordinate = \ par. (2-718282 4- 2-718282 ) (3)

This equation is a very elegant one ; but by reason of the complex form of
the exponent, it is difficult to reduce, unless in particular cases, where the
fractions are small whole numbers, which will very rarely happen in calculating
the ordinates for an equilibrated, the modulus in almost every instance, being
a broken number. The difficulty, however, can easily be avoided by having
recourse to logarithms ; and for this purpose the equation is beautifully
adapted, the one term within the parenthesis being merely the reciprocal of
the other ; which, in logarithmic calculations, implies the use of the arithme-
tical complement.

In integrating the equation from which the above value of the ordinate is de-
duced, it is necessary to assume y = \p {n + -j;), by which assumption we get

amp.
mod.

amp.
mod.

n = 2-718282

andi = 2-718282

In these terms, therefore, the equation for the ordinate is
Ordinate = \ par. in + ■£)

amp.

considered as

Where re is the number corresponding to 0'4342945 ~

a logarithm, 0-4342945 being the logarithm of the constant 2-718282 ; hence
the following rule : —

Multiply the constant fraction 0-4342945 by any given amplitude, and
divide the product by the modulus calculated by either of the foregoing
rules ; find the natural number answering to the product considered as a
logarithm, and to the number thus found add its reciprocal ; then multiply
the sum by one half the given parameter for the ordinate required.

The rule here given applies to the calculation of a single ordinate, corre-
sponding to any given amplitude and modulus ; but, in the actual construc-
tion of an equilibrated arch, a series of ordinates must be determined for any
number of values of the amplitude, increasing by a given constant difference
or interval ; and, for effecting this purpose, formula (3), or its equivalent,
from which the rule is deduced, is excellently adapted ; because, by a parti-
cular modification, the logarithms of the values of re, as well as those of its
reciprocals, or j-j-, can all be deduced from each other, by adding a constant
difference continually throughout the series ; then, by finding the natural
numbers corresponding to these logarithms, their sums, when taken two and
two, will give the ordinates for the several values of the amplitude.

To illustrate what has here been said, we shall calculate the ordinates, and
construct the curves for the arches proposed in the foregoing examples, the
enunciation of which we shall here repeat, for the purpose of adapting them
to the present stage of the inquiry.

Example 3. The span of an arch is 150 feet, its rise or height 30 feet, and
the thickness at the crown 9 feet ; it is required to calculate the ordinates,
and delineate the arch, supposing it to be built on the principles of equili-
brium, with a horizontal road-way or extrados ; there being in all 16 ordi-
nates, including the parameter and the distance between the road- way and the
base. Here it will readily be perceived that the first step to be taken in the
resolution of the question is, to calculate the modulus of the curve ; but since
that has already been done in the first example, it is needless to repeat that
part of the process, the manner of performing it being now supposed to be
understood. The modulus for the present case, as determined by the fore-
going process, is 34-95 feet ; and by the question there are to be 16 ordinates,
including those at the crown and the impost. This gives 15 spaces or intervals
along the road- way, estimated from the crown of the arch ; so that the distance
between the ordinates is 5 feet, and the series of amplitudes is 5, 10, 15, 20,
&c, up to 75, which is the greatest amplitude or semispan of the arch.

Since 5 feet is the common interval between the ordinates, it is also the

i

1844..]

Naval Architecture.

85

first amplitude ; and, consequently, the logarithm of the corresponding value

5 1

of n is 0-4342945 x -— — = 0-06213, and that of - must therefore be
34-9o n

9-93787, which is the arithmetical complement of the former; these, there-
fore, are the constant logarithmic differences for the values of n and-, to be

n
added continuously up to the sixteenth or last term of the series. But since
each term has to be multiplied by 4-5, or half the parameter of the curve,
which is 9 by the question, it will be the readiest way to add the logarithm of
4-5 to the constants above found for the logarithms corresponding to the first
interval ; or, which amounts to the same thing, let the logarithm of 4-5 be
made the first term of the logarithmic series, corresponding to the parameter
of the curve; then, by adding the constants successively for the different
values of the amplitude, the whole series of logarithms will thus be obtained.
The process of calculation will therefore be as exhibited in the following
tablet, where the logarithms are carried only to five decimal places, that being
quite sufficient for the degree of accuracy required : —

Values of the

Log. »xl par.

Log.^xipar.

Values of n x

Values of \ x

Values of

Amplitudes.

0-0G213.

9-93787

by i par.

by 4 par.

(B+-J)xipar.

0

0-65321

0-65321

4-50

4-50

9-00

5

0-71534

0-59108

5-19

390

9-09

10

0-77747

0-52895

5-99

3-38

9-37

15

0-83961

0-46682

6-91

2-93

9-84

20

0-90171

0-40469

7-98

2-54

10-51

25

1-96387

0-34256

9-20

2-20

11-40

30

1-02600

0-28043

10-62

1-91

12-52

35

1-08831

0-21830

12-25

1-65

1390

40

1-15026

0-15616

14-13

1-43

15-57

45

1-21239

0-09403

16-31

1-24

17.55

50

1-27452

0-03190

18-82

1-08

19-89

55

1 -33665

9-96977

21-71

0-93

22-64

60

1-39878

9-90764

25-05

0-81

25-86

65

1-46092

9-84551

28-90

0-70

29-60

70

1-52305

9-78338

33-35

0-61

33.95

75

1-58518

9-72125

38-48

0-53

39-00

The numbers in the sixth or last column of this table are the ordinates
corresponding to the several values of the amplitude in the first column, and
are obtained by adding together the numbers in the fourth and fifth columns,
these being had by taking out the natural numbers corresponding to the
logarithms in columns two and three ; and having found the series of ordi-
nates in this manner, the semiarch may be constructed as follows : —

Let AC in the annexed figure be made equal to 75 feet, the semispan of
the given arch, and at the
point C, which is coincident
with the centre of the entire
arch, erect the perpendicular
CB, which make equal to 30
feet, the rise or height, as
given in the question. Pro-
duce CB to G, and make BG
equal to 9 feet, the thickness
at the crown or parameter of
the curve, which corresponds
to the first of the tabular or-
dinates ; then is CG the dis-
tance between the base and roadway, being equal to 39 feet, the greatest and
last of the tabular ordinates.

Complete the rectangular parallelogram ACGF, and divide the greatest
amplitude GF into 15 equal parts in the points a, b, c, d, &c, and through
the several points of division draw the ordinates q.a, bb, cc, dd, Sec, tending
downwards, and respectively parallel to CB, making them equal to the cor-
responding tabular ordinates taken in order from the sixth column of the
table ; then through the lower extremities of these ordinates let the curve line
AB be traced, which will be the curve of equilibrium sought ; and by deline-
ating the other half of it towards the right hand in the same manner, we
shall have an arch of equilibration with a horizontal road-way or extrados,
the superincumbent mass being so adjusted as completely to neutralize the
effects of the several antagonist forces by which the arch is sustained.

Example 4. The span of an arch is 96 feet, its versed sine or height 54
feet, and the length of the key-stone, or thickness at the crown, 6 feet ; from
these data it is required to calculate the ordinates and delineate the arch,
supposing it to be built on the principles of equilibrium, with horizontal
roadway, the number of ordinates being nine, including the extremes, which
correspond to the parameter of the curve, or length of the keystone, and the
vertical distance between the base of the arch and the horizontal roadway.

The modulus of the curve in this instance, as determined by the calculation
of the second example, is 16-036 feet, and the common difference of the
amplitudes, or distance between the ordinates, is 6 feet ; the series of ampli-
tudes is therefore 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, and 48 ; and consequently the
logarithm of n corresponding to the amplitude nearest the crown of the arch,

is 0-4342945 x — - — . = 0-16249, and that of i , or the arithmetical com-

16-036 n

plement of the former, is 9-83751. These are the constant logarithmic dif-
ferences to be added continually to 0-47712, or the logarithm of 3, which in
this case is half the parameter of the curve. The process of calculation will
therefore be as represented in the following table : —

Values of the

Log. n x 4 par.

Log -^ x 4 par.

Values of n x

Values of \ x

Values of

Amplitudes.

0.16249.

9.83751.

by 4 par.

by 4 par.

;rc+-j)x4par.

0

0-47712

0-47712

3-00

3-00

6-00

6

0-63961

0-31463

4-36

2-06

6-43

12

0-80211

0-15214

6-34

1-42

7-76

18

1-96460

9-98964

9-22

0-98

10-19

24

1-12709

9-82715

13-40

0-67

14-07

30

1-28958

9-66466

19-49

0-46

19-94

36

1-45208

9-50217

28-32

0-32

28-64

42

1-61457

9-33967

41-17

0-22

41-39

48

1-77706

9-17718

59-85

0-15

60-00

Having thus found the numerical values of the several ordinates, as in the
last column of the table, the semiarch may be delineated in the manner here
following. Make AC in the annexed
drawing equal to 48 feet, the given semi-
span of the arch ; and at the point C,
which is coincident with the centre, erect
the perpendicular CB, making it equal to
54 feet, the given rise or height ; produce
CB to G, and let BG be equal to 6 feet,
the length of the keystone, or thickness
at the crown ; then is CG equal to 60
feet, the vertical distance between the
base of the arch and roadway.

Complete the rectangular parallelogram
ACGF, and divide the greatest amplitude
GF into eight equal parts of 6" feet each,
being equal to the constant interval be-
tween the ordinates, and let the points of
division occur at a, b, c, d, &c. ; then draw the ordinates ao, bn, cm, dl, Sec,
tending downwards in directions parallel to CC, and let them be made re-
spectively equal to the numbers in the last column of the above table, taking
them in order, and beginning at the first, which is equal to GB. Then
through the points o, n, m, I, Sec, let the curve BA be traced, and it will be
half the curve of equilibrium required, and the other half may be delineated
in the same manner, by performing a similar process towards the right hand.

What is chiefly remarkable in this last case is the rapid variation of the
ordinates, arising from the height being greater than the semispan, and the
consequent approach to a ratio of equality between the modulus and para-
meter of the curve ; and if in any case they should actually become equal,
the curve of equilibration will merge in the common catenary.

If these two examples be carefully studied and well understood, the intelli-
gent reader will be at no loss for the construction of any other case that may
happen to occur in the course of his practice ; and if the method here illus-
trated be employed, it will be found that three arches may be constructed
with the same labour and in the same time as one, by the old methods of
Emerson, Hutton, and Atwood, which the method here given is intended to
supersede.

Art. VII.— NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.

Description of the Method of calculating the Moment of Stability of a Ship
to a given Angle of Inclination.

The form of ships in general is such, that the solid immediately above the
line of flotation is greater than the solid of an equal depth immediately below
this line ; or if a plane, inclined to the load water-line, intersect it at its
middle line, the prismatic solids contained between these planes and the ship's
sides are not equal, the greater being on the side above the water-line. In
calculating the moment of stability, therefore, it becomes necessary to assume
a plane as the inclined load water-line, which shall intersect the upright
water-line at such a distance from its middle line as shall give equal contents
to the solids of immersion and emersion.

The distance of the line of intersection of the planes of the upright and
inclined water-lines, is generally within the limits of -15 and -6 feet from the
middle line of the upright water-line, on the side of the immersion : between
these limits a line of intersection is assumed, according to the form of the body
above and below the water-line to the extent of the inclination ; and the
solids of immersion and emersion are calculated by putting the area* of equi-
distant sections of these prismatic solids into one of the rules, in a manner
similar to that which was described for calculating the displacement from the
areas of equidistant sections of the body of the ship.

The areas of the sections of the prismatic solids are calculated in the fol-
lowing manner : —

m 2

86

Our Club.

[April,

Let ABCD be one of these sections ; join BD, and bisect it in E, and draw
EC perpendicular to it : the area of the section contains the triangle ABD,
and the curvilinear area, BCD, which is considered as a parabola of the second
order. The area of the triangle is equal to AB x the perpendicular distance
of D from AB x ^ ; and the curvilinear area is equal to f BD x EC ; and
the sum of these quantities is the area of the sector ABCD.

The areas of the other sectors are calculated in a similar manner, from
which the contents of the solids of immersion and emersion are obtained ; and,
if they are very nearly equal to each other, the line of intersection of the
planes of the upright and inclined water-lines which has been assumed may
be considered correct; but, should there be a great difference between the
solids, a very near approximation to the true inclined water-line can be made
from the section which was first assumed.

Let Aa be the upright water-line ; C its middle point ; B5 the inclined
(»ater-line first assumed, to which the prismatic solids I and E have been
calculated, and suppose I to be greater than E.

Calculate the area of the inclined water-line = "W ; put x for the depth of
the solid whose base is W, which is equal to I — E.

Then x x W = I — E, and x = • ; set off a distance equal to x

W
perpendicular to Bb, to meet ka in the point S ; this point will be the dis-
tance of the line of intersection of the planes of the upright and inclined
■water-lines from C, which will equalize the solids of immersion and emersion.

E — I

If E be greater than I, the distance x = must be set off from Bb in

S W

the opposite direction, and on the opposite side of the intersection of the
planes.

The horizontal moments of the immersion and emersion are found by ap-
plying one of the rules to the horizontal moments of the equidistant sections
of these solids, which are calculated in the following manner : — ■

SR is the inclined water-line ; PR is bisected in T ; join ST, and draw TQ
perpendicular to PR ; then the centre of gravity of the triangle SPR is § of
ST from the point S ; and the centre of gravity of the parabola PQR is §
of TQ from T: SM and TO are taken equal to these distances respectively,
and MN, OU, are drawn perpendicular to SR : SN is the horizontal dis-
tance of the centre of gravity of the triangle SPR from S, and SU is that of
the parabola PQR from S : consequently, the area SPR x SN, and the area
of PQR x SU are the horizontal moments of these two areas ; and the sum
of these moments is the horizontal moment of the sector SPQR. In the
same manner the horizontal moments of all the sectors are found ; from
which we obtain the horizontal moments of the immersion and emersion, the
sum of which is 41. Of the other part of the expression for the moment of
stability, viz. dYs ; V the displacement, and s the sine of the angle of incli-
nation, are known ; therefore, to find the value of b\ — dYs, the distance d
from the centre of gravity of the displacement to that of the ship must be
determined.

To ascertain the Position of the Centre of Gravity of a Ship experimentally.

There are several methods by which this point can be determined : it will
be sufficient, however, to describe the method which can be employed with
the greatest facility.

The ship must, in the first place, be trimmed perfectly upright, with the
guns run out ; and the draught of water observed precisely, which can only
be done in smooth water.

A number of the guns is removed transversely from one side to the other ;
and any other weights, such as part of the crew, some being stationed on
each side, which may he sufficient to incline the ship to an angle of from 5 to
7 or 9 degrees ; which inclination is indicated by a graduated quadrant and
pendulum, fixed vertically for the purpose in a convenient part of the ship
near the middle.

The sum of the weights removed multiplied by the distance which the
common centre of gravity of the weights has been removed transversely, mul-
tiplied by the cosine of the angle of inclination, is the horizontal moment of
the weights : and, since the ship is at rest in the inclined position, the effect
of the upward pressure of the water on the bottom, which is the measure of
the stability, must be equal to the horizontal moment of the weights.

If M be the whole mass which has been removed transversely, estimated
in cubic feet of sea-water ; f the distance which the centre of gravity of M
has been removed ; and c the cosine of the angle of inclination ;

SI — M/e.

then, M x f x c = bl — dYs, or, d

Ys

the position of the centre of gravity of the displacement longitudinally and
vertically, il and V must be calculated from the drawing of the ship to the
draught of water taken at the commencement of the experiment ; c and s can
be found in a table of natural sines and cosines; then all the values in the
expression for d are known ; and as the centre of gravity of the ship and that
of the displacement are in the same vertical line, the position of the centre
of gravity of the ship is determined.

To calculate the Distance of the Metacentre from the Centre of Gravity of
the Displacement.

The expression for the height of the metacentre above the centre of gravity

of the displacement, isJ—!L*. ; the value of fy3dx is found by applying

one of the rules to the cubes of the ordinates of the load water-line, in a
manner similar to that which was described in calculating he area of the
load water-line from the ordinates : two-thirds of this value divided by the
displacement in cubic feet, will be the distance or height of the metacentre
from the centre of gravity of the displacement.

This expression for the height of the metacentre is frequently taken as a
measure of the stability of a ship ; it is only correct, however, at the instant
the ship begins to incline, and when the centre of gravity of the ship and
that of the displacement are in the same point ; which is a case of rare oc-
currence, even in merchant-ships, the cargoes of which, at times, are of great
specific gravity, and are stowed very low in the hold. It is certainly never
the case in a ship of war.

A little consideration of the foregoing investigations will show that the
stability depends on the form of the ship within the limits of the immersion
and emersion ; that these solids, at a given angle of inclination, should be
great in relation to the whole displacement ; that the horizontal distance be-
tween their centres of gravity should be as great as possible ; and that the
form of the ship should be such that the centre of gravity of the displacement
should be at the least possible distance from that of the ship. By attending
to these elements, when the length and breadth are given, the greatest moment
of stability is attained.

Art. VIIL— OUR CLUB.— No. X.

Scene — The Club-Room.

Present — Sir Jonah and Scalpel, and three Strangers.

Scalpel. I have invited these friends of ours here to-night to adjust, viva
voce, certain points of controversy about the interests of working-men, about
which we have been for some time corresponding with but little effect. They
were desirous, moreover, of being favoured with your opinion upon some of
these matters.

Sir Jonah. I am not unwilling to give it ; but I must stipulate, that any
discussion we may hold shall be conducted with decorum and good feeling.

Pearce. We are each of us, I am sure, too deeply sensible of the favour
conferred upon us, and of the respect which is due to the gentlemen of this
club, to let our tongues wag too freely. Apart from our sincere desire to be
further informed on those points which, from our limited means and oppor-
tunities, it is possible we may have taken up mistakenly, — and which would
make us more desirous to listen than to talk, — we have here none of the
temptations which sometimes urge us on, in mixed meetings, to use harsh
terms one towards another, and which has brought upon my party especially
so much deserved obloquy.

1844.]

Our Club.

87

Hewitt. You are right. We are certain to meet with civility and kind-
ness here ; and if we do not go herefrom wiser and better than we came, I
am sure it will not be the gentlemen's fault.

Scalpel. It has always been a source of grief to me to hear working-men
— all of whom, no doubt, mean well — browbeat each other, because of some
difference of opinion as to the way and manner of bringing about some given
end, in which they are all agreed.

Sir Jonah. That, certainly, is a grave fault. It is one, however, to
which we are all more or less addicted, and from which it is hardly possible
for poor human nature to be wholly exempt. We make our opinions so
much a part of ourselves, that any attack upon them is felt as an attack —
upon us.

Hewitt. But, is it right ? that is the question.

Sir Jonah. Certainly not. The more we can free ourselves from per-
sonalities— the more we can dissociate our opinions from ourselves — so much
the more likely shall we be, not only to reject error when proved to be such,
but also — and this is by far the most valuable result — the more open shall we
be to the conviction that it is an error.

Scalpel. From which another important consideration may be drawn.
If it be well, as regards ourselves, to let as little of self as may be mix up
with our opinions, so, surely, in reasoning with others, we should treat their
opinions as altogether apart from themselves. Instead of saying, as is com-
monly done (though not, perhaps, in so many precise words, yet in fact,) to
one man, " You are a fool !" — to another, " You are a wicked, blasphemous
wretch !" — thus making them to cover their opinions with such an impene-
trable coat of self-love, that not the slightest chink is left open whereby truth
may be allowed to slip unawares into the mind ; instead of acting thus, and
appealing from them to others, we should set themselves up as the tribunal
before which their own opinions should be tried. Thus appealing from
themselves to themselves, we achieve for them a good precisely parallel to
that which you, Sir Jonah, would have each achieve for himself.

Sir Jonah. Just so. Your view is the counterpart of mine.

Pearce. I should like this subject to be made a little clearer, gentlemen,
if you please ; that is, if my friends here are agreeable to it.

Newman. I should be most glad.

Hewitt. So should I. Indeed, I am never better pleased than when
listening to what either of the gentlemen says ; for I am persuaded they
mean what is right; which, in my opinion, is a very great thing ; and, in-
deed, without it, cleverness, after all, is not of much worth. Pray, Sir,
go on.

Sir Jonah. I accede the more readily to your wish, because I think a
few reflections on the subject will be especially appropriate, now that there
are several of us present ; among whom, if I mistake not, some slight dif-
ferences of opinion will be found. But, as my friend Scalpel has sometimes
a happy knack of illustration, and as, indeed, the subject is properly his, I
will leave it to him.

Scalpel. Well, I will suppose a case, in which each of you may consider
himself the actor. You are a father ; you look out of window, and perceive
some one thrashing one of your children soundly : your paternal feelings are
instantly roused ; you rush out of the house ; you stay not to inquire into
the merits of the case, but at once proceed to the rescue, defending your
child in what may possibly have been — what most likely was — his miscon-
duct; and you are straightway engaged in a game of fisticuffs — with whom,
and for what, you know not, and, in the heat of the moment, care not — your
sole desire and aim is to revenge the punishment suffered by your child.
How different would have been the case, had the person who felt aggrieved
by your child's wrong-doing come and told you of it, desiring you to exert
your parental authority. Then your self-love, instead of being piqued, would
be in a measure gratified ; and you would probably view the child's conduct
in its proper light.

Hewitt. I like these similies : they make things seem so plain.

Pearce. I fancy I see a child of mine so set upon. I am sure I should
give the person, whoever he was, a good cudgelling.

Scalpel. Without inquiry into the right or wrong of the matter ?

Pearce. I shouldn't stay for that, when my blood was up.

Scalpel. A practical exemplification of the truth of my remarks.

Sir Jonah [smiling.'] Now for the application, Scalpel.

Scalpel. I meant further to say, that a man's opinions (which are, in-
deed, the progeny of his brain) should be as carefully handled as his veritable
flesh-and-blood children. If you want to raise a man's ire, and to steel him
against the right, fall, tooth and nail, upon his opinions ; and, above all,
take especial care to impugn his motives. If, on the contrary, your purpose
be the discovery and the promulgation of truth ; if your desire be, not to
show up your opponent to others as a silly or a wicked creature, but rather
to show to himself how erroneous are his views ; then treat him with all be-
coming courtesy — give over his opinions, as you would his children, to his
own guardianship ; — in short, as I have before said, make him, as much as
possible, his own umpire. When men are thus treated, there is some chance
of their reconsidering the grounds of their respective opinions ; and, should
they find them weak, of their candidly acknowledging the same. If you treat
them as rogues or fools, what better than knavery or folly can you expect
from them ? What would either of us do, thus beset and abused ? Should
we not hug our opinions all the more tightly, and feel a strong temptation to
pay our opponents back in their own coin ? Thus does abuse beget abuse,
until the chimney-sweep and the scavenger have it all to themselves, and the

mud-bespattered spectators fly right and left — leaving bullyism and black-
guardism in quiet possession of the field.

Hewitt. This kind of doctrine (and I like it to my heart) puts me in
mind of a fable which I read when a boy : — I dare say you have seen it, gen-
tlemen, in your school-books — how that, once upon a time, the sun and the
north wind had a violent squabble concerning the power of each ; and how
they agreed to try it upon a poor solitary traveller ; and the one that should
first separate him and his cloak should be declared victor ; and how the
north wind began to bluster and bully most hugely ; and how the traveller,
the more fiercely blew the blast, held his cloak, and folded it about him all
the more tightly ; and how, after Mr. Boreas found that all his storming was in
vain, he sulkily retired ; and how that the sun then shone forth in his brightest
mood, till, by-and-by, the traveller began to loosen his cloak by degrees, and
at last fairly threw it off altogether. By which fable it is meant to be shown,
I consider, that kindness is oftentimes more powerful than anger ; and that
when you can 't force a man, you may easily melt him, to your wishes. I
know that such is the case with me.

Scalpel. These fables hoard well in the memory ; and their kernels of
sound, wholesome truths, well repay the hoarding.

Sir Jonah. What say you, friends, to our proceeding at once to discuss
those points on which you are pleased to say we may possibly enlighten you ?
A friendly conference, with our mutual good understanding, may be produc-
tive of considerable benefit. Sincerity and earnestness of purpose will atone
for many defects : they have a logic of their own, which is felt by every one.
The heart, after all, is the best teacher. Shall I proceed ?

Pearce. ~)

Newman. >- [SpeaJcing together.'} Yes.

Hewitt. )

Sir Jonah. In order, then, to give our discussion, as much as possible, a
practical bearing, I will submit to you the following subject ; — " Our national
distress, its causes, and its cure." In connexion with which, you will please
to bear in mind every topic is to be treated. This will afford " ample room
and verge enough" for our profoundest meditations. Are you agreed ? [All
three nod assent.} Suppose then, Mr. Pearce, as you were the first to re-
quest an audience of us, that we give you the priority. What, pray, is your
proposed cure ?

Pearce. I have no objection to begin. I am, as you know, an advocate
for the Charter, in all its points ; because, first, I think it is nothing but right
and reasonable that every man of mature years should have a vote ; and then,
again, I think that every voter should be shielded by the ballot from intimi-
dation as well as from bribery; and then, again — [Scalpel holds up his
finger.} What ! am I going wrong already ?

Scalpel. I understood that you agreed to our president's suggestion of
viewing Chartism solely in relation to our present distress, and as to how it
would operate as a cure thereof. Was it not so ?

Sir Jonah. I think you had better confine yourself at present (as Scalpel
suggests) to the matter in hand. We shall have, I trust, many opportunities,
in future, to discuss all the points of the Charter seriatim. Your remedy for
the national distress, if I understand you right, is the Charter.

Pearce. It is. All our present distresses can be traced to misgovernment
— to class legislation. The rights of the many are sacrificed to the good of
the few : bad laws have done it all. In that O'Connor, O'Brien, and, indeed,
all our great orators, however much they wrangle with each other (which they
sometimes do) are quite agreed. All we want is the Charter to be the law,
and then we should be as right as a trivet.

Sir Jonah. And what, pray, is your remedy for this sad state of things,
Mr. Hewitt ?

Hewitt. My plan is much more simple : I don't want to turn the world
upside down, as my friend Pearce wishes to. For my part, I have always
looked upon Chartism — Don't be angry [turning to Pearce] — as the apple
of discord thrown among working men, to distract us from our real interests.
Whilst scrambling for it, machinery has all the while been running away with
the prize. My plan is simply this : Do away with machinery altogether ; or,
let it be taxed to the extent that it supersedes manual labour. That 's my pa-
nacea ; and so persuaded am I of its efficacy, that if it would not answer the
purpose, I'd suffer myself to be hanged for a false prophet. Just look at it.
Sirs, I beg of you. Doesn't the distress that now prevails arise from want of
work ? And if there were no machinery, would there not be abundance of
work for man, woman, and child, throughout the kingdom? And is n't it
right that those machines (that is to say, the owners of them,) should be made
to contribute towards the distress they occasion ? What can be plainer than
this, or more just?

Sir Jonah. Now, Mr. Newman, your opinion, if you please.

Newman. I smile, when I hear men bawling themselves hoarse about
what, after all, are mere pimples and blotches on the surface of the body po-
litic, whilst it is diseased to its very core. The whole framework of society
requires reconstruction ; it requires to he skinned — to be literally turned in-
side out : no half-and-half measures will suffice. I'll give you the cause of
our distress, and its cure in two words — Competition ! Co-operation ! !
There " the bane and antidote are both before you." The latter, I believe,
will be the regenerator of the world.

Scalpel. And yet, if I mistake not, your attempts at a practical realiza-
tion of this erperimentum crucis on human nature have most of them proved
signal failures.

Newman. Some of them have, it is true, and the reason is obvious

88

Our Club.

[April,

enough. The individuals forming these colonies had not gone through a suf-
ficient moral training to purge them from the taint of the Old World. The
air of the New Moral World was too etherially pure for their gross senses,
which had become imbruted in the sty of the Old World's impurities.

Sir Jonah, [musingly, leaning back in his chair.'] These are, indeed,
grave subjects. Each of them would require, for its full discussion, many
such nights as these. Would that I could so " condense the perosities of
language" as to be able, in a few sentences, to give you, and, through you,
the working classes at large — among whom these several opinions, variously
modified, are widely spread — the pith and marrow of the entire matter. The
wish, alas! is vain. We can but barely glance, and that only at one of them,
to-night. Again and again, however, will we, if spared, dwell upon these
and other like subjects ; for, above all things, is it our most earnest wish and
desire that the artizans, the operatives of all classes, of this our native land,
should be a right-minded, right-thinking people. Let us now, for a brief
space — (our time of meeting, I see, is nearly come to a close) — let us rapidly
glance at Chartism, considered as a cure for our national distress. We will
suppose, then, the Charter to be the law of the land ; that every man of
age, untainted with crime, has given his vote, by ballot ; and that we have a
paid House of Commons, whose sitting is confined to one year; — in short,
that all the points of the Charter are gained— universal suffrage — vote by bal-
lot— a paid annual Parliament, we have them all. How is the national dis-
tress lessensed thereby. So far, indeed, as we have yet gone, the distress
must needs be increased by the payment to each member. That, however, is
not much. But where is the great good about which Chartist orators have
talked so much ? How is it to be achieved ? As yet it clearly is not.

Pearce. Oh ! Chartism is but a means to ail end.

Sir Jonah. Good. And the end — what is that ?

Pearce. Why, of course, when the people have the right of voting, they
will elect " good men and true," who will look after the people's interests ;
or, if they don't, the people, whose paid servants they are, will turn them out,
and put in others who will ; and surely you won't deny this right to the people.

Sir Jonah. I neither deny nor affirm the abstract right of every man to
vote ; because it has nothing to do with the present question, which is simply
this — How would the nation be benefited by the Charter ?

Pearce. I think I have told you plainly enough, that the people's Parlia-
ment would do their duty; and then, as a matter of course, all the bad laws
and grievances under which we now suffer would be done away with. That's
plain enough, I think.

Sir Jonah. Excuse me for wishing to go a little further. The Charter,
you have rightly said, is but a means to an end. We have heard enough
about the means ; I wish now to know something concerning the end. What
is the first thing, Mr. Pearce, that you, as an elector, would wish your repre-
sentative to do ? Of all the grievances that we labour under, which is the
first you would have swept away.

Pearce. The first thing that I should expect to be done would be the rub-
bing out the national debt.

Scalpel [sotto voce.] Wheugh !

Sir Jonah. But how cancel it ? By paying the holders ?

Pearce. No, not a stiver more should they have of the public money ;
they have fattened enough already on the spoils of the people. All our
leaders tell us that the debt was acquired in making cruel wars against the
liberties of other kingdoms, and by all sorts of profligate jobs, by our tyran-
nical governments ; and they, one and all, recommend the use of the sponge.
So also say I — rub it clean out !

Sir Jonah. I think you misapprehend the matter, friend ; you surely can-
not have given the subject the full consideration that it deserves.

Pearce. I have heard a good deal about it ; and I know that the money
was borrowed by bad governments, for bad purposes, from overgrown, bloated
capitalists. The people have been ground to earth long enough by excessive
taxation, and it is high time their backs were lightened of the load ; and so
they should be, if I had my way.

Sir Jonah. I might tell you how very wrong — nay, wicked — it would be,
to act so. I might point out to you how that some of the states of America,
acting on your principle, (or rather want of principle,) have called down upon
themselves the execration of all Christendom ; but I will confine myself to —

Scalpel. I begpardon for the interruption, Sir Jonah ; but it would not be
amiss, perhaps, to show Mr. Pearce, by a parallel case in domestic life, the impro-
priety of his proposed spunging process. Suppose, sir, that any one's property
had devolved to you by regular course of law, and, with his property, the con-
sequent liability to his debts. Think you, that you would be warranted in
accepting this property, and then turning round and violating every condition
on which its acquisition was conceded ? If this rule of conduct were once
to be tolerated, and the heir were to repudiate the debts of his progenitor,
the next step would be to repudiate his own, and the nation would degenerate
into a den of swindlers. Once suffer the broad principle of honesty to be
violated, and no man is secure in his property or earnings afterwards. Is
there no force in that ?

Hewitt. There is. No repudiation for me : I'll never act the rogue, and
turn tail upon my creditors. The money has been had ; and, as far as I am
concerned, it shall be returned — the interest at least — by hook or by crook, if
I die for it. Well, Mr. Pearce, what is your answer ? Speak out, like an
honest man ; yea, or nay.

Pearce. Why, certainly the heir to a man's property should pay his debts
— that 's nothing more than law and justice. But the cases are different.

Scalpel. How so ?

Newman. No, no ; they are as like as two pins' heads.

Sir Jonah. Really, Scalpel— Mr. Newman — I must beg to call you to
order. You are wandering from the point. You, at least, Scalpel, ought to
have known better. The subject was purposely narrowed. The right or
wrong of the matter, as you must remember, was to be excluded, and we
were to view Chartism only in the relation of a cure to our national distress.
Mr. Pearce has pointed out the instant doing away with the National Debt as
a part of his curative process. But would it so operate ? To whom is this
money owing ? By far the greater portion has been vested by persons — the
products of a life of frugality and honest industry — who, by the use of your
wet sponge, Mr. Pearce, would be irretrievably ruined. Much of it belongs
to sick clubs, to friendly and benevolent societies. But a small portion,
comparatively, is in the hands of large capitalists. Surely, the utter ruining
of several thousands of our choicest citizens, the flower of the country, and
the taking from humane societies of all kinds the money which they had in-
vested in Government securities, — surely this is not the way to remove our
national distress. What else, pray, would Chartism do ?

Pearce. It would do away with machinery, and a hundred other things
that press upon our industry ; but I am not fully prepared to state them to-
night. I only know that all our orators have always told us that it would
give us plenty of work and plenty of money, and that if we had the Charter,
we never should want for anything.

Sir Jonah. I would not wish to be misconceived — to be considered as
judging harshly of the Chartists in general. I know too well the frightful
privations and sufferings of all kinds under which the great mass of our
working men labour, and the state of gross ignorance in which too many of
them have been kept, to be much surprised that so many of them have been
goaded into Chartism. The error into which they have fallen is, perhaps, a
natural one, of supposing that those who dwelt the longest and most loudly
upon their unhappy condition were best able to extricate them therefrom.
Time, and an increase of knowledge, will teach them their mistake in this
respect ; and teach them, also, that, until they give up their fatuous policy of
striving to grasp at once all that they desire, they will obtain nothing.

Hewitt. I beg pardon, but there is an old fable (I am very fond of fables)
— from which the Chartists, I think, might learn a lesson— of a monkey that
was desirous to abstract some nuts from a narrow-necked vessel. At first he
grasped a handful ; but, finding that he could not then take out his hand, in
consequence of the vessel being so narrow at the neck, he, with a wisdom
that might shame a Chartist, dropped some of the nuts ; and thus, by re-
moving a few at a time, speedily made himself master of the whole. So
Chartists, you see, (no offence meant to you, Pearce,) may learn wisdom from
a monkey. [A hearty laugh, in which Sir Jonah and Scalpel join.]

Scalpel. Chartism seems to me to be the almost necessary result of a
starving, oppressed population, maddened with a sense of their wrongs,
having the book of knowledge suddenly opened to their gaze ; on whose
leaves they see inscribed, in plainest characters, their rights as men, whilst the
means of redress are more dimly recorded, and are scarcely legible to their
yet unpractised eyes.

Sir Jonah. Yes ; and this is precisely the point of transition-state from
ignorance to a correct knowledge of things, when men are most apt to be the
dupes of designing knaves, or to be led away by the insensate clamour of
mad-brained demagogues. Here, if at all, the line of Pope is verified, —

" A little knowledge is a dangerous thing ;"

for, with a less degree of advancement, the people would be less susceptible
of their wrongs; and, with more enlightenment, they would see how flagrantly
wicked, how monstrously absurd, were the plans proposed by their leaders to
improve their condition. Long ere men have attained to anything like a
knowledge of how to better themselves, and how to remove the grievances
under which they suffer, the grievances themselves are known and felt in their
fullest force. The latter is the first and an easy step in the scale upwards,
which the million in all ages have mounted, and have gone no further. The
former, far more difficult of access, must also be attained, or the first step is
worse than useless. It serves but to elevate men just high enough to take a
more extended view of their sufferings : the next step would raise them above
the clouds, and bare the unclouded heavens to their view.

Scalpel. I have often likened government to a watch. Any man can tell
when his watch is out of order ; but how few know how to set it right, or
can determine what part even of the works is affected. So, in the more
complicated mechanism of the social machine, with its secret springs, and
hidden movements, and "wheels within wheels" complexly working, every
body knows and acutely feels the slightest derangement that takes place ;
while much experience and a thorough examination are necessary, ere the
finger can be put upon the precise point affected, and ere the proper means of
rectifying it can be surely predicated.

Sir Jonah. Seeing, then, that Chartism, or something analogous thereto,
is an almost necessary concomitant of a state of society, in which the mass of
the population are goaded by misery into desperation, and groping their way
in the bindness of ignorance — how deeply is it to be deplored, that men as
blind as themselves should rashly assume the leadership, and conduct their
credulous victims, through bogs and brakes, in pursuit of an end which would
be more easily and quickly attained by the direct high road.

Pearce. You mean, then, if I apprehend you aright, that the Chartists
would have gone more comfortably to work, had they taken a straightforward

1844.]

A New System of Iron Ship-Building.

89

course, — had they gone right a-head, taking what they wanted bit by bit, as
they could get it.

Sir Jonah. Even so. Ordinarily, persons, who desire to reach some
far distant spot, content themselves with steadily pursuing their course from
town to town, recruiting their strength at the different resting-places, until
they have gained their goal. Not so with the Chartist leaders. They, for-
sooth, must seek out a path for themselves, taking their followers a wild-
goose chase through untrodden and intricate ways — to find themselves in the
end farther off from the mark than when they first set out. Into the pit-
falls which abounded in this erratic track some of the leaders, with their
deluded victims, have fallen. Happy will it be if the past shall have taught
them wisdom for the future !

Scalpel. Why the practice of men in the every-day affairs of life contains
a practical refutation of the all-or-nothing doctrines of the Chartist zealots :
and that so many of the people should pursue a course inimical to any reform,
and injurious, in the last degree, to their own especial cause, can only be
attributed to their suffering themselves to be nose-led by a set of half-
informed, peddling politicians — too many of them, it is to be feared, design-
ing knaves — whom they deify into gods, and then bow down and worship
with slavish adoration : certainly no gods in any save Chartist eyes.

Hewitt. It may be — and I verily believe it is — quite true, gentlemen,
what you have been saying about the Chartists running here and there after
a Jack-o'-lantern, which continually slips from them ; but if what Mr.
Pearce says be true, that the Chartists, if they had the power, really would
put a stop to machinery, in that case, they are wiser than I thought they
were, that's all. I don't think that working-men, like Pearce and me, have
any business to be addling our brains with politics : it may be all well enough
for you gentlemen to attend to it. But machinery I call a practical question.

Sir Jonah. It is too late to enter upon the consideration of that, or in-
deed, of any subject to-night. We have already exceeded our prescribed
bounds. If, however, you will favour us with your company at our next club-
meeting (of which I will give you due notice,) we shall be happy further to
investigate the subjects that have been broached this evening. An apology
may, perhaps, be due to Mr. Newman, for having kept him so much in the
background. We shall be most happy, Sir, to see you also, and at that, or
at some future meeting, we shall doubtless see co-operation compete (if you
will allow it to do so) with competition. My Chartist friend is equally wel-
come. Though we differ, in some respects, from you, Mr. Pearce, yet rest
assured, we are not, on that account, the less your friends. The motto of
" Our Club" ever has been, " The greatest possible happiness to the greatest
possible number."

{A. hearty shaking of hands takes place among all parties ; and Pearce,
Newman, and Hewitt, take their departure, expressing their gratification at
the friendly manner in which they had been received, and their intention to
be present at the ensuing clubs — when (so Scalpel assured them, in
mysterious whisperings, which the reporting -box, we are constrained to say,
does not give very legibly,) when the subjects which had been then only
skimmed in a kind of swallow's flight, just brushing the surface with the
wing, will be thoroughly dived into, to the very bottom ; so that pearls of
worth, it may be relied upon, will be then forthcoming.']

Art. IX.— A NEW SYSTEM OF IRON SHIP-BUILDING.

The different materials employed in the several branches of the constructive
arts, have each virtues unknown to the rest, of which advantage should be taken
by the judicious artificer. Iron possesses many powers to which wood is a
stranger ; and wood, again, has many capabilities unattainable by stone ; yet
these peculiarities are very often only little availed of ; but the methods ap-
propriate for one material are transferred with scarce any variation to ano-
ther, though for it they may be altogether unsuitable. The iron hoops upon
the columns of the earlier Grecian temples, and the dovetails and other expe-
dients that were indispensable whilst those structures were made of wood,
were faithfully copied in the stone structures of a subsequent age, though
the change in the material extinguished the motive for their employment.
The Chinese architecture, again, retains in stone and timber the likeness of
the parent tent ; and it will generally be found that the modes of construc-
tion adopted by a people have had their origin in some of the accidents of
their early history, the effects of which continue long after the causes them-
selves have ceased to operate. National tastes, whatever be their complexion,
will generally perpetuate themselves, without reference to the considerations
out of which they arose ; and arrangements originally prescribed by fitness,
may, through a change in the conditions, be driven to seek their justification
in the illusory influences of association. This subtle power will, it is true,
be less influential in the dominion of the useful than in that of the elegant
arts ; yet, even in cases pretending to be referable only to considerations of
utility, the activity of association will generally be perceptible. Every arti-
ficer will discern a thousand happy adaptations and nice dependencies in the
resources of his own art, which uninitiated spectators are unable to discover,
and will frequently measure the value of these microscopic refinements by the
admiration due to their realization. In this way the praise due to the intel-
lectual process of invention may be transferred to the object which is its accre-
dited progeny ; the elegance of a system may be mistaken for its eflicacy ;

and practical men will become incredulous of any new scheme which pro-
fesses to supersede so much perfection.

We are not sure that our readers will be able to see very clearly the pur-
pose of these profound observations ; and it may, therefore, be as well to
say that they are intended to explain why practical men have generally so
vehement a dislike to innovation in the particular art with which they are
conversant. Self-interest is, no doubt, a motive in some cases, and pride and
perversity in others ; but these influences are neither very strong, nor are
they universal ; or, at least, they are greatly inferior, in strength and fre-
quency, to the influences of association. Habit binds upon the mind parti-
cular trains of thought, which cannot be easily eradicated, even though the
invalidity of their deductions be shown ; and the forms which have been long
associated with ideas of refinement and dignity, cannot instantly cease to be
the insignia of their accustomed emotion. We cannot afford, however, to
dwell longer among these fine speculations, but must pass on to what we have
to say respecting iron ships.

The plan upon which iron ships are at present constructed, is known to
every one. The ribs are arranged perpendicularly, as in wooden ships — a
method, as it appears to us, which must have been adopted inconsiderately,
and without reference to the capabilities of the material ; and the consequence
of this practice is, that many iron vessels have broken in the middle. The
proposed new system of iron ship-building consists in the disposition of the
ribs of the vessel diagonally — that portion of them situated before the centre
being disposed in the opposite direction to the portion lying abaft the centre,
so as to constitute every rib a truss, to prevent the vessel from hogging.
This arrangement will be better understood by a sketch than by the most
elaborate description.

b b 'I 'i 'l> 'i i b K

D, deck ; K, keel ; B, bow ; S, stern ; ab, ab, the ribs running diagonally
from the centre ; a'V ', a'b ', diagonal plates, or trusses, running the reverse
way to the ribs, and bolted to them at each point of contact.

In iron vessels, as at present constructed, the ribs contribute but little to
the strength, and are retained in their position by very little besides the exte-
rior plating. In a vessel, however, constructed on the diagonal system, the
frame has a most effectual cohesion before the external plating is put on — the
ribs forming, with the internal cross-bars, an iron wicker-work, which scarce
any shock or twisting could dislocate. This tenacity is by no means super-
fluous ; for, although it is true that the cohesive strength of well-constructed
iron ships is several times greater than any force that can be brought to act
upon them, their power to resist the racking strains to which all ships are
exposed, is less than in the case of timber vessels ; and the adoption of the
diagonal method appears to be the most feasible way of counteracting this
weakness. We believe that the frame of a vessel, properly constructed on
this plan, would remain uninjured though poised upon its centre, with both
the ends unsupported ; and if placed in that position by any of the accidents
of navigation, the peculiar structure of the frame would save the skin
of the vessel from being rent by the strain to which it would be otherwise
subjected. It is needless, however, to waste many words in pointing out the
superior strength conferred by the diagonal disposition of the ribs, as that
point of superiority must be obvious enough to every observer ; but it may
be desirable to notice a few of the practical difficulties which stand in the
way of the application of this system, for the sake of indicating the expe-
dients by which they may be surmounted.

The iron, of which we would propose to form the ribs, is t^ r.
the double T, resembling, in its cross-section, that commonly js~

employed for the bars of railways.

The external plating of the ship would be attached to the one flange of the
rib, and the diagonal plates to the other.

90

The Geometric Principle of Beauty.

[April,

A being the rib ; B, the diagonal plate; and S, the outside skin,
and plate might be notched a little into each other, thus :—

The rib

This slight indentation could easily be given by a planing instrument made
for this particular purpose : it would not weaken the iron perceptibly, and
would take the strain off the bolts.

The ceiling of the vessel, if to be provided with any, should in our judg-
ment run in the same direction as the diagonal iron plates ; and we should
prefer making the ceiling of wood, both because it would be cheaper than a
ceiling of iron, and because it would counteract the tendency of the iron to
transmit heat either to or from the vessel with inconvenient rapidity. The
diagonal plates, moreover, could be more easily sunk into a diagonal ceiling,
and with a smaller deduction from its strength than if the notch designed for
their reception went across the grain of the wood ; and this it would require
to do if the diagonal plates and ceiling ran in any other direction than parallel
to each other.

One of the most obvious difficulties in building vessels according to this
system lies in giving the right bevels to the faces of the ribs. Tn the case of
vertical ribs this difficulty exists only to a very limited extent, and is over-
come by the application of moulds, as in a wooden vessel ; but in the case of
diagonal ribs the bevels are so numerous and intricate, that the ordinary
methods of working would be inapplicable, and the difficulty is only to be
overcome by a specific contrivance. The midship frames of an iron vessel
with vertical ribs require merely to be bent to the shape of the cross section ;
but the midship frames of an iron vessel with diagonal ribs require, after
having received the shape proper to the diagonal section, to have their faces
afterwards adjusted to the angle they make with the keel, otherwise the out-
side plating cannot be applied.

This will be at once apprehended by a reference to the annexed diagram,
where A A are two diagonal ribs, and C the line of the keel. It is obvious
that, in order to enable the outside plating to be applied, each frame must
receive such a twist at B, that the bottom of the loop will be parallel to the
line of keel ; and the bevel thus given will require to vary at every different
point between the level of the keel and the level of the deck, at which last
point it becomes extinct altogether. The trouble of forming these innume-
rable bevels by the toilsome method of the hammer and anvil would be far
too great for any reasonable manufacturer ; but it would be easy enough to
construct a mechanism which would give all the required bevels to the iron
by merely passing the bars through it. To make this machine answerable to
all classes of vessels, it would be merely necessary to provide that the same
species of curves should be employed in them all. The vessels might still
be of different sizes, and finer or fuller as the occasion required ; but they
would have to be moulded on the same system, or, in other words, composed
of curves which have in every case the same succession of equations. The
establishment of such a system would be very desirable upon other grounds
than that of facility of construction, and it would vastly simplify the opera-
tions of ship-building, as the necessity of draughting and laying down ships
would be superseded altogether. The iron ribs bent and bevelled by the
machine would only have to be erected at determinate distances, and the
plates — also bent to the proper curve by a machine— to be applied ; and the
vessel, with the exception of fastening, would then be finished. The intro-
duction of mechanisms such as we have alluded to would confer prodigious
powers upon iron ship-building, both in the rapidity and the perfection of
its productions ; and the energy of some penetrating and adventurous spirit
is all that is now wanting to bring these powers to a rich maturity.

One important feature of iron ships is the peculiar applicability to them of
water-tight bulkheads ; but with the facility of this adaptation the diagonal
direction of the ribs we fear in some measure interferes. To secure the iron
bulkheads to the ceiling, without any specific precaution, would not give
sufficient security ; and if fixed to the exterior plating of the vessel, the ribs
would require to go through them, forming holes which it would be difficult
by any expedient of fitting or caulking afterwards to make tight. The best
way of overcoming this difficulty appears to us to consist in filling up the
space between the ribs in the wake of the bulkheads with pieces of oak set
in Jeffrey's marine glue, bedding the ceiling upon these oak fillings, and se-
curing the joints of the ceiling over them with the same composition. With
this precaution, the bulkheads might be suffered to abut against the ceiling,
but the bolts employed for securing the flanges of the bulkheads should go
through the outside skin. The stringer for upholding the deck beams should,
we think, be supported and secured in a similar manner ; and we think all
iron vessels of considerable size should be built with strong wales, and an
unusually strong covering board ; and these attachments, as well as the out-
side plating, should be thickest in the middle of the ship. The besetting

vice of iron vessels is their weakness in the middle ; and should the leas
crack arise in that situation it will certainly extend, unless promptly reme
died, and may perhaps endanger the safety of the structure. The diagonal
method of framing is certainly one great precaution against this danger, but
the introduction of this method ought not to cause other measures of security
to be neglected.

With regard to beams we do not at present intend to say much. We may,
however, take this opportunity of remarking, that in the case of steam-
vessels furnished with direct-action engines, we prefer iron crank beams to
wooden ones, and think favourably of the plan of supporting the paddle-
wheels on the extremities of these beams, leaving to the paddle beams the
solitary duty of supporting the paddle-boxes. By this arrangement the
paddle-beams may be materially reduced in size, and will not then cut so
deeply into the sides of the vessel. It is in the wake of the paddle-beam
that iron steamers have almost always broken, the crack being a continuation
of the openings cut for the beam in the sides of the ship.

Such, then, is a rough outline of our new system of iron ship-building.
We shall be laughed at by some, we believe, for supposing it new at all ; for
vessels were long ago built, we shall be told, upon the diagonal plan. It
would be a sufficient answer to these objections to say, that the diagonalism
to which they refer obtains merely in the planking or trussing of ships, and
has never, so far as we are aware, been extended, either in iron or wooden
ships, to the allocation of the timbers. The benefits of the arrangement,
however, are obvious enough, and the plan has no doubt suggested itself to
other minds, so that we have little reason, we fear, to plume ourselves upon
our originality. We are less solicitous, however, about the novelty than the
feasibility of our suggestions ; and if they can only be carried into practice
with advantage, we really care very little with whom lies the honour of their
paternity.

There is one advantage incidental to the method of construction we have
recommended, in the case of iron vessels intended for warm climates, to which
we may here advert. The heat of iron vessels in such situations is found, if
they be on the ordinary method of construction, to be very inconvenient ; for
the iron being a good conductor, resists but feebly the transmission of heat,
and the temperatures within and without the ship become speedily equalized.
It is true that the temperature of the sea in warm climates is generally as much,
below the point of agreeable temperature as that of the air is above it ; and
the lower part of the ship, which is immerged in the water, redresses, to some
extent, the disturbance in the equilibrium of temperature consequent on the
absorption of heat by the upper part of the ship. But this adjustment is by
no means sufficient to remedy the evil ; for the hot air in the holds has no ten-
dency to descend to the bottom part of the ship to undergo the required re-
frigeration, but keeps uppermost by virtue of its levity ; and the cooling
efficacy of the bottom is well nigh extinguished by this perverse characteris-
tic. The interior temperature of an iron vessel, therefore, follows the vicis-
situdes of the atmosphere more nearly than is found to be the case in wooden
vessels. At midday the heat is oppressive, and the air absorbs the propor-
tion of moisture proper to its temperature, which it deposits again, towards
night, on the interior of the vessel, the iron by that time having cooled to the
temperature of the air outside, and being, therefore, in that condition which
instigates to the deposition of dew. The wooden ceiling we have suggested,
and still more the stratum of air confined within the ceiling and the outside
plating, and which is hindered by the diagonals from circulating in any direc-
tion, would, in our humble opinion, remove those inconveniences, and make
the temperature of iron ships quite as equable as that of wooden ones. We
would suggest, moreover, that the use of black paint for iron ships, in warm
climates, should be discontinued, and that some light-coloured paint should
be employed instead.

We would further suggest that some effectual system of ventilation should
be adopted, by which an adequate quantity of fresh air would be supplied to
the cabins and holds ; and it would be an easy thing, in a steam vessel, to
cool down this air before entering the cabins, by making it circulcate among
a congeries of pipes, through which a current of cold water was constantly
passing.

Art. X.— THE GEOMETRIC PRINCIPLE OF BEAUTY.

Proportion: or, the Geometric Principle of Beauty analysed. By D. R. Hay.
Edinburgh: Blackwood and Sons. 1843.

We really hardly know what to say of this ambitious production. It cer-
tainly displays a good deal of ingenuity, and will probably be of use to the
practical ornamentist, in the suggestion of geometrical forms that might not
have occurred to him otherwise ; but it is full to the brim of visionary fancies,
and is less remarkable for the souudness than the intrepidity of its generali-
zation.

The design of the work is to show, in opposition to the received hypothesis,
that the quality of beauty consists in certain harmonic proportions that are
determinable by calculation, and which are satisfactory to the mind by a fun-
damental law of our nature ; but there is no new evidence given in support of
this ancient heresy ; and it certainly appears to us, thatMr. Hay has failed sig-
nally in the establishment of his dogma. Of this, however, our readers shall

1844.]

The Geometric Principle of Beauty.

91

judge : we shall let Mr. Hay state his doctrine in his own words, and we shall
give our commentary as he proceeds.

" The beauty of all original architectural compositions depends upon mathemati-
cal harmony alone, becauso in such there is no imitation; and it can scarcely be
doubted that the Five Orders owe their origin and the perfection of their propor-
tions to some systematic mode of applying those principles practically in this art.
Upon this subject Field makes the following excellent observation : — ' In propor-
tion as we acquire rules and principles of our own, we shall be released from the
servile necessity of continuing mere imitators of those ancients, with the philosophy
of whose practice we are little acquainted, and who certainly did not work without
principles themselves.'

" So far as I know, Burke is the only writer on taste who does not admit that
proportion is one of the constituents of beauty. He says that ' proportion relates
almost wholly to convenience ;' and that it should therefore be considered as a crea-
ture of the understanding, rather than a primary cause acting on the senses and
imagination. It is very evident that proportion and fitness are here, as well as
throughout this part of the Essay, considered as the same quality ; but they appear to
be qualities of a very different nature. Fitness certainly is a creature of the under-
standing relating to use and convenience, and cannot therefore be considered a
necessary concomitant of beauty. But proportion is a quality of a very different
kind ; it is the essence of symmetry, and symmetry is the first principle of harmony
to the eye. Proportion must surely, therefore, be regarded as a constituent of
beauty in form and figures.

" In treating of this property in forms, apt:rt frem fitness, Burke defines it thus :
— 'Proportion is the measure of relative quantity. Since all quantity is divisible,
it is evident that every distinct part into which any quantity is divided must bear
some relation to the other parts, or to the whole. These relations give an origin
to the idea of proportion. They are discovered by mensuration, and they are the
objects of mathematical inquiry. But whether any part of any determinate
quantity be a fourth, or a fifth, or a sixth, or a moiety of the whole ; or whether it
be of equal length with any other part, or double its length, or but one half, is a
matter merely indifferent to the mind.' He then proceeds to state, that all pro-
portions and arrangements of quantity are alike to the understanding; that beauty
has nothing to do with calculation and geometry ; and concludes, ' If it had, we
might then point out some certain measures which we could demonstrate to be
beautiful, either as simply considered or as related to others.'

"•In despite of so great an authority to the contrary,'an attempt shall be made, in
the present essay, to prove that beauty does depend upon calculation and geometry ;
and that, therefore, we can point out and demonstrate certain measures to be beauti-
ful, either as simply considered, or as related to others."

The doctrines Mr. Hay has here laid down are a revival of those stated hy
Plato ; and are, indeed, a part of the exploded Pythagorean hypothesis of the
musical harmonies of the universe. We think we have a right to be in-
formed, if it be the fact that beauty consists in the observance of certain pro-
portions, what those proportions are ; but no one has yet succeeded in set-
tling the mysterious numbers by which perfect beauty is realised ; and any
attempt to arrive at that consummation has only had the effect of involving
the inquirer in inextricable difficulty and confusion. The fact appears to be
that beauty can consist with any proportions that do not violate propriety ;
or, in other words, proportion is an ingredient of beauty only so far as it is
indicative of fitness. The proportions that satisfy us in a lamb, or a leopard,
would be productive of deformity in the human frame ; and every object in
nature has proportions of its own, which are attractive in the degree in which
they indicate its perfection. It is impossible, therefore, that there can be any
one standard of proportion to which all kinds of beauty must conform ; and to
say that there is an infinity of standards, is virtually to acknowledge that there
is none.

We have, on several former occasions, explained our notions of proportion
at some length ; and we must, therefore, at present content ourselves with
saying that, in our humble opinion, proportion consists entirely in the per-
ception of fitness. By the perception of fitness we do not mean the existence
of it; but the impression merely, whether just or otherwise, that the object of
our survey, or the parts of that object, fulfil their intended purposes with the
least possible inconvenience. There are analogies scattered over nature,
which, no doubt, often influence our conclusions upon this head, and some-
times set aside the deductions of science ; but the secret of this influence is
traceable to association, and is not due to any law of our nature which inspires
a distaste of particular proportions. A few slender cast-iron columns, sup-
porting a heavy mass of stone-work, will certainly fail to satisfy our ideas of
proportion, though proved by science to be abundantly strong ; but the cause
of the dissatisfaction is evidently due to the impression that the conditions of
fitness have not been complied with ; and this impression will continue to in-
fluence our conclusions even after it is known to be erroneous. In this in-
stance, indeed, association and science are acting in opposite directions.
Association pronounces the columns in question to be too weak, though sci-
ence has ascertained them to be abundantly strong ; and as this association is
founded on our past experience of stone columns, and is strengthened by the
analogies of the human form, and a thousand others scattered throughout cre-
ation, it is scarcely surprising that reason should be overborne in the con-
flict, and that the impression of unfitness should remain, though shown to
have no real existence. — We are parting company, however, with Mr. Hay.
The following are some of the persuasives he gives in support of his hypo-
thesis : —

"The beauty of forms must consist in the production of a pleasing effect upon
the visual perceptions; the physical effect of forms, when pleasing to that sense, is

VOL. II.

appropriately called harmony, and when displeasing it is called discord. Now,
when we find that combined or successive sounds are harmonious or discordant to
the sense of hearing, agreeably to the arithmetical proportion they bear to one
another in the number of pulsations they occasion in the surrounding atmosphere in
a given period, and that these pulsations have an equally exact geometrical propor-
tion relatively to the size of the vibratory body producing them, it appears extraor-
dinary that so acute a reasoner as Burke should advance a doctrine so much at
variance with the general tenor of his excellent essay, especially as he admits, in
another part, that ' if we can comprehend clearly how things operate upon one of
our senses, there can be very little difficulty in conceiving in what manner they
affect the rest.' "

It would be an easy thing to' reciprocate the astonishment here expressed ;
for we certainly never met with any reasoning more loose and inconsequential
than that of Mr. Hay upon this topic. It is impossible to suppose that Mr.
Burke was ignorant of the physical cause of the harmony of sound ; and his
scepticism of the virtue of harmonic proportions, in giving beauty to material
objects, must have resulted from his conviction of the futility of all such ar-
guments as those in which Mr. Hay places reliance. Mr. Hay's specific for
determining the point at issue is virtually this :• — The physical effect of forms,
when pleasing to the sense, is called harmony : the physical effects of sounds,
when pleasing to the sense, is also called harmony. But the harmony, or, in
other words, the beauty of sounds, is due to certain geometrical proportions
in the pulsations of the air, and therefore the beauty of external objects is also
due to certain geometrical proportions in something else ! It is astonishing,
in our eyes, that Mr. Hay has been unable to see that he has been using the
word'harmony in two very different senses, — the one denoting a certain physical
effect that is acceptable to the ear, and the other the inspiration of congruous
emotions in the soul. The two meanings are no more identical than the word
taste, by which we distinguish that faculty which takes cognizance of beauti-
ful objects is identical in meaning with the taste that implies the organic per-
ceptions of the palate. If Mr. Hay's method of philosophizing be admitted,
we shall soon, we suppose, have cooks discoursing of the beauty of Harvey's
sauce, and gardeners of the beauty of pine-apples, on account of the harmo-
nies of their flavours.

We do not see the advantage of troubling our readers with Mr. Hay's ac-
count of the structure of the human eye. The design of this episode is, seem-
ingly, to ascertain in what portions of the eye its respective fnnctions are per-
formed ; but we really cannot see by what process this investigation is made
to contribute to the elucidation of the subject. We therefore pass to the
speculation on the correspondence of the three simple figures, — the circle, the
triangle, and the square, with the three primary colours, and the three pri-
mary parts of. sound. Here Mr. Hay suffers his imagination to take consi-
derable liberties : many of his analogies are strained and fantastic ; and the
disposition is so manifest, to press every accident into service which appears
capable of giving plausibility to the views Mr. Hay desires to establish, that
a discredit is thrown upon those coincidences that may not be accidental ;
and our faith is shaken in the virtue of an advocacy that is so unscrupulous
in its dialectics.

There is one remark of Mr. Hay's, respecting the beauty of poetry, to
which we may advert before the matter passes from our recollection.

"Poetry, as already observed, owes its beauty, in the first instance, to a geomet-
ric principle of proportion, upon which rules are established for its construction; and
that when these rules are followed, it produces a sensible effect of pleasure upon
the ear, independently of the meaning conveyed in the words of which the measure
is composed. But in music this geometric principle is much more generally under-
stood, and its rules philosophically determined by the science of accoustics."

Now, we humbly conceive, that the delight inspired by finely tuned poetry
apart from all consideration of the sense, is due to two causes, — the one of
them that indicated by Mr. Hay ; and the other, and, in most cases, the more
influential one, the skill and ingenuity, on the part of the artist, which such a
composition makes manifest. The tones and inflections of the voice are
merely musical phenomena, and have to be considered with the other parts of
the science to which they appertain. But the division of poetic diction into
feet and verses pleases by virtue of the difficulty of the achievement ; and the'
pleasure will be in the proportion of the difficulty, and of the skill with which
it has been surmounted. — We are violating our promise, however, to let
Mr. Hay tell his own story.

" In attempting to establish a system of linear harmony, applicable to form, of an
intelligible and practical kind, geometrical figures must be employed ; and in order
that such a system may correspond to those that regulate other harmonies, three-
simple elementary homogeneous parts must be shown to exist.

" The distinctions of figures do not seem to rest so much upon the number of
lines that compose their circumference, or perimeter, as upon other peculiarities in
their configuration. Regular curvilinear figures must have either one or two points
as a centre, and have no angles ; and regular rectilinear figures must be composed
of acute angles, right angles, obtuse angles, or an equal mixture of the acute and
obtuse kinds. Amongst these geometrical figures there are three which arc perfectly
simple and homogeneous in the nature of their configuration, and are, in every
other respect, quite analogous to the tonic, mediant, and dominant notes of the dia-
tonic scale of the musician, and to the three primaries, blue, red, and yellow, of
the colourist. These figures are the circle, the triangle, and the square.

" The homogeneous simplicity of these figures consists, first, in the circle beiDg
the most perfect curve, and composed of one line drawn round one point, from

N

92

Engines of Her Majesty's Steamer " Black Eagle"

[April,

which every portion is equidistant ; secondly, in the equilateral triangle being com-
posed of three sides, the smallest number possessed by any rectilinear figure,
which sides are equal, and each of which, as well as each of its angles, are
equidistant from one point; and thirdly, in the square being composed of four
equal sides and four right angles, each side and each angle being also equidistant
fiom one point, and the right angle itself being homogeneous.

" Without referring to the analogy of sound, it might be shown that from their
configuration, compared to the conformation of the eye, the effects of those prrticu-
lar forms upon that organ entitle them to hold the situation amongst other forms in
which I have placed them. The pupil of the eye is circular; hence the rays, or
pencils of light, which pass from external objects to the back of the inner chamber,
or retina, are most easily transmitted when the object is circular, as already ex-
plained. The circle is, therefore, not only geometrically the most simple of the
homogeneous forms, but naturally so in reference to the organ by which it is per-
ceived. The square is the next most consonant form to the eye, as its angles,
although more in number, are less acute than those of the triangle, and are the
exact mean between acuteness and obtusity. The triangle, of the three, is the figure
which, from its being composed of acute angles and oblique lines, exercises the most
powerful influence on that delicate organ."

We really are not penetrating enough to discover much force in this expo-
sition, and are profane enough, we fear, to imagine that Mr. Hay might have
found little difficulty, with the aid of such analogies, in adjusting the number
of his geometrical figures to any conditions demanded by the problem. Nor
do we see any natural relation between the circle and the eye, on account of the
form of the pupil ; for the opening through which the rays of light pass to the
retina is not circular in all animals, or rather is sometimes circular, and some-
times not, according to the measure of illumination. We think it a mistake
too, to attribute the more energetic effect produced by the perception of acute
angles altogether to the physical operation of those forms upon the eye, for
they naturally suggest the idea of sharpness and rigidity ; and it is impossible
to exclude the associations of the sense of touch from their share in the pro-
duction of the final emotion.

Before closing these hurried, and we fear, unprofitable observations, we
may endeavour to indicate in a few words the extent of the disagreement
between us and Mr. Hay. We think with him, that the beauty of colours is
naturally sensual, though at the same time this beauty may be modified, or even
reversed by the influences of association, as in the preference of modest to
glaring colours in articles of dress — the latter being to most minds indicative
of vulgarity. There is, however, in our opinion, a beauty of colours indepen-
dent of association, and also a harmony of colours which gratifies the eye on
some such principle as a harmony of sounds gratifies the ear. The ancient
masters had made near approaches in their paintings to a harmony of this
description by the mere force of taste or instinct, and the revelations of the
polariscope clearly establish the general soundness of their deductions ; but
no such thing as a tone in forms has ever been recognized, and it is incon-
ceivable, indeed, that a mere outline should be capable of exerting any organic
effect upon the eye, such as is known to be produced by sounds and colours
upon their proper organs. In the case of a great complication of diagrams,
indeed, falling at once upon the sight a certain illusory effect may be trace-
able to physiological causes, just as in whirling a stick rapidly in the air, it
assumes the similitude of a transparent wheel. But such a phenomenon
throws no light upon the nature of beauty, and has no discoverable connexion
withany of its emotions. We admit that there is a harmony of forms as well
as a harmony of sounds and colours, but the nature of these harmonies is
entirely dilferent and their classification under one generic epithet is merely
one of the many inconveniences incident to the penury of language. The har-
mony of sounds or of colours is a property due merely to certain physical causes
which invariably produce their proper effect when put into activity ; but the
harmony of forms is referable to the congruity of the emotions those forms
inspire, and the existence of that congruity will depend very much upon the
associations of the spectator. The one kind of harmony is dependant on
physical and the other on metaphysical causes, and the only effect of con-
founding them, as Mr. Hay has done, and of speaking of the melody of the
Farnese palace and the Parthenon, as if these structures were so many minuets
or waltzes, is only to make science ridiculous, and a difficult subject impos-
sible.

Art. XI,

-ENGINES OF HER MAJESTY'S STEAMER
" BLACK EAGLE."

These engines are the largest yet constructed, in this country at least, on the
oscillating plan ; and do great credit to Messrs. Penn, both as regards the
beauty of their workmanship and the efficacy of their performance. They have
now had several months' trial ; and their operation has been so satisfactory as
to have induced the Admiralty to order more of the same kind. The boilers
are of the tubular description, with iron tubes. Messrs. Penn prefer iron to
brass, for the tubes of sea-going vessels, both because iron tubes are less
easily damaged, in the event of the water in the boiler getting low ; and be-
cause there is no galvanic ac'jion between them and the iron shell.

The structure and mode of action of the oscillating engine are so well un-
derstood, that a slight explanation will suffice to render the plates universally
intelligible. The steam enters a belt on the cylinder, through the curved pipes

adjacent to the ship's sides, figured in plate XII. From this belt it passes
through the valve, by which means its distribution is regulated, and escapes
from the cylinder to the condenser, at the side of the belt opposite to that at
which it entered. There are two air-pumps, lying at an angle with the keel
as maybe remarked in plate XI. ; and they are both wrought by a single crank
in the intermediate shaft, the due position of the air-pump rods being main-
tained by means of guides. The slide-valves are provided with guides, and
are wrought by means of an eccentric, in the usual manner ; but the eccentric
rod is not attached immediately to the valve lever, but to a curved transverse
link, guided between the columns that support the shaft, and susceptible of a
vertical motion. The curve of this link is concentric with the arc described
by the cylinder in its oscillation ; and its design is to obviate the distortion
that would result from the combined movement of the cylinder and eccentric.
The columns of the framing are of malleable iron ; and a malleable iron cross
is introduced at each side of the engine, to give the framing greater stiffness.
The starting handles are so situated as to be accessible from a stage situated
near the level of the cylinder covers ; and this stage is continued round the
engine, so as to afford easy access to all parts of it. There is nothing pecu-
liar in the hot wells : they are bolted to the mouths of the air-pumps ; and
rise, as usual, to a higher elevation than any other fixed part of the engine.

The paddle-wheels of the " Black Eagle" are of the feathering variety,
something after the fashion of Morgan's, but greatly superior thereto in the
details of their construction. These wheels have performed very satisfacto-
rily, and are calculated, we think, to rescue feathering paddles from much of
the discredit thrown upon them by the unskilfulness of former manufac-
turers.

As we have already adventured an opinion respecting most of the other
direct action engines, we must, we suppose, say something of the merits of
these ; and we do so with the less reluctance, as we happen to think of them
most favourably. There is no other plan of direct-action engine that is sim-
pler than this ; nor is there any which has been tried so thoroughly, or that
has given more perfect satisfaction. Our engineering readers, however, of
the old school, will be ready to urge certain objections against this kind of
engine, which we shall here anticipate and examine.

The most plausible objection to the oscillating engine that we are aware of
is, that the cylinder and stuffing-box will speedily become oval, on account of
the pressure necessary to communicate motion to the cylinder. The existence
of a tendency of this kind cannot be disputed ; but it is so small in amount as
to be imperceptible in practice ; and although, after a lapse of years, it has
been found that oscillating cylinders became slightly oval, yet the amount of
ellipticity is, for the most part, actually less than is found to exist in the
cylinder of common side lever engines, after the same amount of wear. This,
indeed, if the question be considered attentively, is by no means surprising ;
for the common parallel motion, if in the less degree out of adjustment, will
exercise a most severe pressure upon the cylinder ; whereas the maximum
pressure that can be exerted on the oscillating plan is that requisite to over-
come the friction of the pivots on which the cylinder oscillates, and the
amount of that pressure is insignificant. Upon the stuffing box, indeed, the
tendency to wear oval may be more operative ; but, to counteract this ten-
dency, it is made of unusual depth, and a very substantial brass bush is fitted
into its interior portion. The piston rod, moreover, is made of cast steel ;
and, with these precautions, oscillating engines are found to work, for a num-
ber of years, without inconvenience.

Many nautical men, and some engineers, have objected to oscillating en.
gines on account of the movement of the cylinder, which, they imagine, wouli
become a formidable evil in the case of a vessel rolling heavily at sea. Thesi
objectors, however, do not seem to have remarked that the rolling of the cy
linder is neither dependent upon, nor proportionate to, the rolling of the ship,
but is regulated exclusively by the movement of the piston ; and we really do
not see why a mass of matter, in the form of a cylinder, should be more for-
midable or intractable in its movements than a similar quantity of matter in
the form of a side lever, or in any other shape whatever.

It has also been objected against the oscillating engine, that the eduction
passages are more tortuous than in common engines, so that the steam gets
out ot the cylinder less freely. We do not believe such to be the fact, if the
comparison be made with the common run of marine engines ; and certain it
is, that, in practice, no diminution of efficacy from this cause is appreciable.
The fact is, all the objections that have been raised to the oscillating engine
are merely hypothetical ; they are anticipations merely of defects to be found
out in large engines, of the oscillating genus, and would probably be plausible
enough to carry some weight with ignorant or prejudiced persons, were it not
unfortunately the fact, that they have been completely controverted by expe-
rience. The remark, indeed, is heard sometimes even yet, that the oscillating
method may do very well for small engines, but is of doubtful efficacy for
large ones. But the definition of large engines has been continually changed,
to escape the contradiction experience afforded, and size is, in every case,
decided to be large, which just exceeds the size of the oscillating engine last
constructed. It is plain, however, that the grounds of this frivolous scepti-
cism are being fast contracted : and, indeed, we think it requires a little con-
troversial intrepidity to set down engines, of 62 inch cylinders, which is the
size of those of the " Black Eagle," as among the number of small engines.
And if engines of this size are found to operate well — and those of the " Black
Eagle" have been found to perform most satisfactorily — it really appears to
us impossible to suppose that engines of 5 or 10 inches more cylinder would

1844.]

Samudd's Bell-Crank Steam Engine.

93

not be correspondingly effective. But we have dwelt too long upon this
fantasy ; and are, indeed, ashamed to natch ourselves replying to an objection
that is a fitter subject for laughter than for argument.

We cannot close these hasty, and, we fear, superficial remarks, without
bearing testimony to the elegance and refinement that distinguish all Messrs.
Penn's productions. There is great sagacity, as well as ingenuity, in the ex-
pediencs with which they work, and a manifest familiarity with those engi-
neering mysteries to which the pupils of the Soho school would appear to lay
exclusive pretension ; but these Messrs. Penn share only with others; and the
distinction, though valuable, is not unique. In the symmetry, however, and
the refined taste of their productions, these makers have distanced every com-
petitor ; and we cannot conceive anything in steam machinery more exquisite
than the generality of their engines. Accurate workmanship, elaborate finish-
ing, symmetry, efficacy, and convenience, are all here combined in nicely
adjusted proportions ; and the engines of which all this can be said are, at the
same time, the lightest and most compact of any as yet constructed. We do
not know of any kind of engine that we should prefer, for any size of vessel,
to the oscillating engine of Messrs. Penn. The plan unites all the conditions
demanded by steam navigation ; and the construction displays that combina-
tion of refined taste and mature judgment whose only issue is perfection.

The £6-gun Frigates. — Two of these frigates are being transformed into corvettes,
the" D«edalus" and " Amazon." They will have a poop and forecastle of about
twenty-five or thirty feet in length, and will carry the whole of their guns on the
main-deuk, which will be the upper-deck of the corvettes : the armament is to be
twenty-eight 3"2-pounders, of 9ft. in length ; and the weight of the gun is 50 cwt.
By the reduction of the weight of the topsides, a portion of the enormous quantity
of iron ballast, 1 10 tons, which these vessels used to take as frigates, will, we
conclude, be left out of them : it will be advantageous to the qualities of the

vessels; and, although not of the form which would be given to a corvette by
a scientific constructor, they will be an effective class of men-of-war. Wc gave
the midship section of these frigates in our last Number, as an illustration of the
form of the body of the ill-famed " Penelope." The draught of water of these
corvettes, we expect, will not exceed 19ft., when they will carry their ports 7ft.
from the water. The following are the principal dimensions of these vessels : —

Length on the gun-deck .... 150ft. 1 in.

Breadth, extreme 39 1 1

Burthen, in tons, old measurement, 1063.

Art. XII.— SAMUDA'S BELL-CRANK STEAM-ENGINE.

We give underneath the drawing of a steam-engine contrived by Messrs.
Samuda, for the use of steam-vessels, or for any other purpose where eco-
nomy of room is an object. The modus operandi of this engine is so obvious,
that, to the readers of the Artizan, it can scarcely require explanation.
The cross-head of each engine is connected by side-rods, in the usual manner,
to the beams, or rather half beams ; and from thence it is conveyed, through
the medium of the connecting-rods, to the crank. There is only one crank
for the two cylinders ; the effect of the connecting-rods being at right angles,
being virtually the same as if there were two cranks at right angles to each
other. We think very favourably of this variety of engine. It is compact,
ingenious, and, we are sure, would be efficient, but width is not the dimen-
sion in which the size of marine engines most require to be contracted. The
space left on each side would be only of little value, unless the boilers were
placed there ; and if that were done, their contiguity to the vessel would be
dangerous, or at least injurious, in the case of wooden vessels, and would
defeat one of the great advantages of modern boilers — that of making every
part of the shell accessible.

94

Survey of the Periodicals.

[April,

Art. XIII.— MINUTES OF THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL
ENGINEERS.

Institution of Civil Engineers. Minutes of Proceedings. Vol.2. Sessions
1842 and 1843.

This volume, as the title intimates, contains the minutes of the proceedings
at the meetings of the Institution of Civil Engineers during two sessions.
The conversations seem to be pretty fully reported ; but the abstracts of the
papers read are generally very meagre, and no drawings are given ; which
omission has often the effect of rendering what is said, both by the author of
the paper under discussion and by those members who give their opinions on
it, altogether unintelligible to the reader. We apprehend that the publication
before us can possess little interest to those who are not members of the
Institution ; and to them it must be useful principally as an index and detailed
table of contents of the papers in the Institution library.

We cordially subscribe to the justness of the following remarks made by
the President, Mr. Walker, in his opening address at the commencement of
the session of 1842. We would recommend them to the attention of those
of our readers whom they may concern : —

"I am glad to remark that, so far as I have had the means of judging, the wish
of young men to become pupils in the offices of engineers and surveyors has de-
creased; their parents and guardians have, I think, judged wisely, and there must
he many in the profession whose experience can confirm that judgment. If a
strong bias for mechanics, for construction, for mathematics, and for physical sci-
ence, has shown itself, there is perhaps no profession more suitable ; and even a
moderate share of these, combined with a sound understanding and a considerable
portion of application and emulation, will do much ; but the partiality of parents
is often the only foundation for the supposed possession of all or any of these
qualifications ; and if one lad be intended, in their minds, for engineering, as the
others may be for a profession or mercantile pursuits, where the chances of success
are numerous, a disappointment will be just as probable as if they had apprenticed
the youth to be a musician, a painter^ or a poet, who had shown no natural taste
for those arts. The number who can succeed in the profession of an engineer is
small in comparison with that of many other employments, unless, as I said last
year, the engineer shall be able to direct or undertake the execution as well as the
designing ; and unless to the knowledge of the science he adds that of the art,
the knowledge of materials, and the mode of putting them together. During the
last year there have been several appointments of engineers and surveyors to the
new colonies, where such practical knowledge is not only useful, but requisite, to
a degree perhaps not imagined by those who bestow or receive them.

"I have been told that, from what I said on this subject last year, I have been
understood to undervalue scientific and professional instruction. Certainly I had
no such intention. In this country, distinguished for the practical tendency of its
undertakings, we have had, indeed, eminent engineers who could not boast of either
sort of instruction; but they would, no doubt, have been still more eminent, had
these been added to their practical knowledge. Mechanical and physical science
being grounded on a mathematical basis, are sure guides in calculations connected
with engineering works ; but in the application of these to construction, or to the
superintendence of works designed by others, a practical acquaintance with detail
will be found indispensable, and should be carefully sought after. I name this,
and wish to enforce it on those who may have finished their apprenticeship under
a civil engineer, and are desirous of employment, that they have the means of
being for a time usefully, if not (in the pecuniary sense) profitably employed with
the millwright, the joiner, tho iron-founder, or the general builder, instead of re-
maining idle, as is too frequently the case, until they get engaged by a professional
engineer. This mixed knowledge will also have the effect of preventing the pro-
fession from undervaluing the trade, or the reverse, which is quite as common an
error. I mean that of the individual who has been brought up at the bench
making, or pretending to make light of the kind of knowledge usually acquired in
an office. The two individuals may be, and if they are sensible men they will be,
serviceable to each other; not setting science against practice, the head against the
hands, but mutually forbearing and instructing, each teaching and each learning."

Art. XIV.— ANALYSIS OF BOOKS.

SURVEY OF THE PERIODICALS.

T7te Quarterly Review. This nabob in periodical literature opens the present
number with an article on aqueducts and canals, from which we expected much,
but we have been sorely disappointed. The writer admit3 that he is discur-
sive, and truly his readers will agree with him, for scarcely during two consecu-
tive paragraphs does he continue the same train of description or of argument.
Of the latter, indeed, there is not much, for the article, though professing to treat
generally of canals and aqueducts, is, for the most part, a memoir of the Duke of
Bridgewatcr, by whoso persevering enterprise the canal that bears his name was
constructed, with the assistance of Brindley, and of Gilbert. There is a prelimi-
nary inquiry into tho respective merits of ancient and modern hydraulic architec-
ture, tending to enhance the merits of the Romans, whose knowledge of the laws
of fluids is considered to have been greater than is generally allowed. From the
circumstance of some old lead pipes having been discovered, it is inferred that they
were acquainted with tho fact that water finds its level if conducted from the
reservoir in pipes, but that they constructed their magnificent acqucducts in pre-

ference to conveying water in such channels. The question of the invention of
locks, on which the construction of navigable canals depends, is also shortly con-
sidered, and the merit of the invention is given to the Dutch, though the Italians
had their hydraulic expedients, which appear to have been somewhat similar in prin-
ciple to locks, in an early part of their history. The memoir of the Duke of Bridge-
water might have been rendered very interesting in connexion with the formation of
canals in England, especially as the writer appears to have had access to many family
papers, but it is so strangely discursive as to distract the attention, and to make the
article appear more like a hasty compilation than a well-digested story of a life, as
it ought to have been. It is a curious fact, not generally known, that the cause of
the Duke of Bridgewater's energies and wealth being directed to the formation of
the great work which was the foundation of the water communication of the king-
dom, may he attributed to his personal misfortunes — to having been crossed in
love, and to his bad health in youth, which rendered his education defective.
The latter circumstance indisposed him to associate with his peers in station, and
the former gave him a distaste for genial society. Mr. Gilbert introduced Brindley
to the Duke as a clever machinist, and the three designed and executed the
Bridgewater canal, and attempted, for the first time in England, to convey the
canal by an aqueduct across the bed of the river. The attempt was generally con-
sidered impracticable, and it was regarded by most as a mad project, that must
necessarily end in defeat. The Duke, with his able coadjutors, prosecuted the
work nearly to the ruin of his fortune, and Brindley himself was so nervously
anxious about the result, that on the day the water was to be let into the aqueduct
he concealed himself at a distance of many miles, not daring to be present at the
important moment that was to decide the fate of the enterprise. The natural
capacity and perseverance of Brindley overcame the disadvantage of want of educa-
tion, and of his humble station. It is questionable, whether he knew more of
penmanship than how to sign his name, and he offered his services to the Duke of
Bridgewater at twenty shillings per week ; yet his genius and mental application,
raised him justly to the first rank as an engineer, and enabled him to found a sys-
tem of canal navigation, which has been of immense benefit to this country.
Brindley was such an enthusiast for canai navigation, that he is said to have looked
upon rivers with contempt ; and it is reported, that when examined before a Com-
mittee of the House of Commons, he expressed this sentiment so strongly, that on
being asked for what purpose he thought rivers were created, he characteristically
replied, " To feed navigable canals."

Philosophical Magazine, No. CL1X. There is as great a lack of original articles
in this number of the Plrilosopliical as in its predecessor, most of the papers hav-
ing been read at different societies, and published in their Transactions. The first
article is on the manner in which cotton unites with colouring substances, by Mr.
Crrm, the Vice-president of the Glasgow Philosophical Society, before which body
it was read last year. The author is of opinion that colouring matter enters within
the cellular tissue of the cotton, and that it adheres to it by what is called by some
chemists " the action of contact," in the same manner as carbonic acid gas and
water arc absorbed by charcoal and other porous bodies; and that the process of
dyeing cotton does not depend on what is usually considered chemical affinity be-
tween the substance of the cotton and the colouring matter. A long paper by
Mr. Grove on the rationale of the action of the gas voltaic-battery, is copied from
the " Philosophical Transactions," and breaks off in the middle of a sentence.
Among the miscellaneous articles is an account, by Mr. James Cunningham, of ex-
periments on the roasting of coffee, which are of some importance. During the
ordinary process, coffee loses from 19 to 25 per tent, of its weight, from the
evaporation of moisture ; and Mr. Cunningham conceived, that by previously de-
priving the coffee of its moisture, without the application of heat, a much shorter
exposure to a high temperature would be sufficient to roast it. He, therefore,
weighed two eight-ounce packets of the same coffee, one of which ho placed in con-
tact with quicklime, the other he kept in paper. At the expiration of two months,
he found the coffee exposed to the action of quicklime had been reduced in weight
to 6£ oz. ; the other weighed exactly the same. When these two samples were
roasted, the dried coffee required only one-third the time requisite for roasting the
other, and the quality proved much better, being stronger, more aromatic, and finer
in flavour.

The Nautical Magazine, No. IV. A communication from Captain Washington,
of H. M. S. " Shearwater," directs attention to the rapidly deteriorating condition
of Harwich harbour, which, from its easy access by night or day, in all states of the
tide, forms the only real harbour of refuge on the eastern coast, therefore, its main-
tenance becomes the more important. The principal cause of the recent deteriora-
tion of the harbour is stated to be the carrying away of the cement-stone from
tho foot of Beacon Cliff and Felixtow Cliff, the effect of which has been, that the
former has been rapidly washed away on the western side cf the harbour, and
Landguard Point, on the eastern point, has been extended. These facts are attested
by plans of the harbour at different periods ; and the necessity of interference to
prevent further deterioration of the cliffs, and to protect the harbour by jetties, is
strongly urged. At a time when attention is directed to the necessity of providing
harbours of refuge where none at present exist, it becomes particularly needful
that those we already possess should not be lost, especially as a comparatively small
outlay, under judicious management, would be sufficient to secure tho object.
AVhcn it is known that the harbour of Harwich has, on certain occasions during
easterly gales, given shelter to 500 sail of shipping, the necessity of preservicg it
in an efficient state will he at once apparent.

The Electrical Magazine. Electrical science in England appears to be in
a very torpid state, if we may judge from this only periodical devoted to the sub-
ject, for though published only quarterly, it contains scarcely any intelligence by
English contributors. The majority of the articles consist of translations from
foreign publications, and the few original papers are short, and of but little value.
The first of these is a communication from the Rev. J. Lockey, of Bath, on the
action of buried plates, which commences by stating that the results from zinc and

18*4]

Marvels of the Day.

£5

topper plates buried in the earth have not been very successful, yet he after-
wards mentions effects produced by that mode of exciting electricity, which show
that it is capable of being practically applied with great advantage. It is singular
that in these experiments no mention is made of Mr. Bain, the discoverer of the
important fact in electrical science, that the moisture of the earth may be made the
generator of electricity by burying underground plates of zinc and copper, and con-
necting them by a sin'ale wire, though the plates may be miles asunder. In Mr.
Lockey's experiments lie used eight copper plates, each of which contained nine
square feet of single surface, and eight zinc plates, each containing upwards of ten
feet of single surface. The plates were deposited horizontally, with alayer of garden-
mould two inches in thickness between each. When only a pair of plates were
used, bright sparks were observed in breaking contact, and most of the usual phe-
nomena of voltaic electricity were observed, though in a feeble degree; but, witli
half the number of plates, the apparatus was sufficient for electrotype purposes, and
the deposited copper was remarkably fine, firm, and tough. There must, however,
have been some defect in Mr. Lockey's arrangement, or the effects would have been
more powerful ; for we recently witnessed some experiments with Mr. Bain's elec-
tric telegraph, during which a circular magnet was made to vibrate actively by
means of a single pair of plates, only one foot square; one of which plates was
placed in the Thames, the other in a pond at Wimbledon— a distance of six miles—
the connexion between them being made with an unprotected length of copper
tell- wire.— The only other original article worth attention contains a notice of Mr.
Armstrong's hydro-electric machine; from which it appears, that the notion of Dr.
Faraday, that the electricity evolved is produced by the friction of water in the
tubes, and not by the change of state from vapour to water, continues to be coun-
tenanced. Some experiments recently made by Mr. Armstrong, appear to show
that the electricity evolved by the boiler is changed from negative to positive by
causes that are at'prcsent inexplicable; and, by trifling additions to the water, and
by alterations in the tubes, which seem altogether inadequate to account for the
change. It app?ais to us that the experiments must be in some manner deceptive,
and that circumstances unattended to must be causes of the changes, and not those
to which they are attributed.

Fraser's Magazine, No. CLXXIT.— This number gives the conclusion of the
excellent paper on the " Chemists of the Eighteenth Century," which is principally
directed to the development of the theory of Lavoisier, and the explosion of the
ancient views of phlogiston. The labours of Cavendish are lauded more highly
than those of Lavoisier himself; and the question whether Watt or Cavendish was
the discoverer of the elements of water, is impartially considered. The result of
this consideration is, that though to Watt is due the honour of having suggested
that water is a compound of dcphlogisticated air (oxygen gas), and phlogiston (hy-
drogen), yet the proof of its true composition was established by Cavendish, who
also succeeded, bv means of accurate experiments and inductive reasoning, in de-
throning phlogiston from its sovereignty in chemical science. It was upon the
results of Cavendish's experiments that Lavoisier founded his theory, though he
made no acknowledgment of his aid. 1 he hasty conclusions of the French philo-
sopher were opposed, in many instances, by the more cautious English chemist ;
and, even though the latter afterwards sucrumbed to the theory of combustion,
established by weighing the results of combustion, there were points of Lavoisier's
theory, respecting the universal acidifying principle of oxygen, to which Cavendish
would not assent ; and subsequent investigations have proved him to be right.
The efforts of Lavoisier to court the applause of the revolutionary mob of Paris,
disinclined Cavendish to accept his views; and the silly display of publicly sacri-
ficing phlogiston on an " altar of reason," amidst the shouts of the Parisian popu-
lace,=was not calculated to raise his theory in the estimation of an English reasoner
from facts. Lavoisier, it is well known, became a victim to the guillotine in the
prime of life. Kirwan and Priestley, the supporters to the last of the phlogiston
theory, are treated in Fraser somewhat roughly. Priestley is considered as a mere
experimentalist, incapable of reasoning on the facts he established ; and the honour
due to him as the discoverer of oxygen, under the name of dephlogisticated air, is
said to be more than counterbalanced by the errors of reasoning, and the bigoted
perseverance with which he attempted to withstand the progress of truth. There
is a curious article on the destruction of the famous library of Alexandria, in which
the writer undertakes to show that the story of its having been burnt by the Sara-
cens is a fiction; and that, in fact, those portions of it that had escaped accidental
fires, were plundered, or distributed in different places, by the early Christians,
long before the Saracens overran Egypt.

Dublin University Magazine, No. CXXXVI. — In an article on the Ordnance
Memoir of Ireland, in this number of the Dublin University, the continuance of the
publication of the Memoir is strongly urged, as tending to the general diffusion of
that kind of knowledge which give6 loftiness and dignity of thought to a nation.
To many of our readers it may be necessary to explain, that, during the progress
of the Ordnance Survey Map of Ireland, it was thought desirable, by the directors of
that Survey, that the Map should be accompanied with an " Illustrative Memoir"
relating to the geology, natural history, statistics, and antiquarian relics of the
country. Accordingly, collections were made of materials for forming such a
Memoir; and, as a specimen of the kind of information intended to be promul-
gated, a " Memoir of the Parish of Templemore" was published. This occurred
in 1835; and many influential persons connected with Ireland have endeavoured
to induce the Government to continue the work; but the publication threatened
to be so overwhelming, that it might well frighten any minister from the under-
takinc. The " specimen " of what has been collected respecting a single parish, is,
in fact, a volume of 400 pages; and to proceed with the work on the same scale,
would be to accumulate a mass of printed paper, the far greater portion of which
could be of not the slightest interest or value. Commissioners were therefore ap-
pointed to examine and report respecting the use that it might be desirable to make
of the materials collected, and whether the investigations should be continued.
The Report of the Commissioners has been published, in which they strongly re-

commend the continuation of the Memoir, but on a more gmeral scale, so as to
convey information on the geology, antiquities, statistics, and natural history of
the country, and not masses of local minutia; that there is no possible use in res-
cuing from oblivion. It is proposed to contour the Ordnance Maps, at an expense
of 30,000/. ; to publish a topographical and antiquarian memoir, at an expense of
60,000/.; and to publish a topographical, geological survey, at a cost of 15,000?. ;
so that the whole Memoir, with the contour maps, will cost the country 85,000/.,
to be provided for in twelve years. It seems probable that this plan will be
adopted, and that a valuable fund of information will thus be collected, sufficient
for all purposes of reference and practical utility, without being confusingly
diffuse.

The Atlienaum, Part CXCV. Many of the original papers in this part refer to
the pyramids of Egypt, and to Egyptian discoveries ; respecting which there ap-
pears to have arisen a new furor among antiquaries. One of the points, the set-
tlement of which now disturbs that paternity, is the mode of constructing those
piles of stone; and, from the interest taken in the matter, it might be supposed
that it was in contemplation to build a vast pyramid in this country, and that the
best manner of doing so was required. In the opposing theories, one supposes that
all the pyramids of Gizch formed one grand design, which proves that the
Egyptians had solved the problem of the quadrature of the circle ; another theory,
less comprehensive, limits the design and execution to each pyramid ; and Dr.
Lepsius, the most recent thcoriser, would destroy the magnificence of design alto-
gether, and make it appear that the great pyramids were constructed bit by bit, by
the building up of one slanting wall against another, without any original design
how far the pile would ultimately extend. The latter notion is warmly com-
bated by a writer in the Athenamm, who, indeed, shows, by diagrams of the
internal structure, that the work could not have been done by merely build-
ing one wall against another; and that evidence of original design is to be
traced in the character of the foundation. The subject serves well to talk about ;
and, unlike many others, it has the advantage that, whether truth or error pre-
vail, is equally the same to the world at large. — A long article in the Atlienaum,
on " Vulcanian Architecture," condemns and ridicules the employment of iron in
architectural works, for which stone has hitherto been considered the appropriate
material. The spire of St. Stephen's, at Vienna, which has been restored by means
of an iron pyramid, or " extinguisher," as it is called, gives rise to the writer's
bile. It is, indeed, time, now that iron is extending its domain in the building
arts, to establish some principles for guidance in its employment, that may be ap-
pealed to as standards of taste in a matter respecting which our ideas are at present
somewhat confused. The principle contended for in the Athenceum is, that every
material should be made to do its own work, and that nothing should bo simulated.
This is, in the main, correct ; and, according to that rule, an iron imitation of stone
is as bad as stucco. There is, however, in favour of iron, the reality of solidity;
and if it be found, for all practical purposes, as endurable as stone, and to possess,
in other respects, superior advantages, the repugnance to its use can only be founded
on prejudice. We should certainly now be less impressed with a sense of grandeur
on entering a cathedral, the fac-simile of Westminster Abbey, if it were but a
recent structure of cast-iron — a mere Brummagem affair, as it would be called —
but, supposing Westminster Abbey itself to have been made of cast-iron by our
forefathers, and that the supply of iron had been exhausted, the sensations it would
have excited under those circumstances, we venture to surmise, would have been
even more grandly impressive than those which the present stone structure pro-
duces. " Vulcanian Architecture" can only be contemptible by pretending to be
what it is not; and, to our architects in iron, even more forcibly than to those
in stone, the recommendation applies, of establishing an independent style suitable
to the present condition of society, and to the modern advancement in science and
the arts.

Art. XV— MARVELS OF THE DAY.

FROM OUR OWN CORRESPONDENT.

Calcutta. — Since the departure of last month's mail a new company has
started into existence, under the denomination of the " India General Steam Navi-
gation Company." It has arisen under favourable auspices, although its title is an
evident piracy from the famous company at home ; and it yet remains to be seen
whether it turn out a bubble association or not. It is to start with a capital of
200,000/., divided into 2,000 shares of 100/. each. The prospectuses issued very
magnanimously state, that "without defining any limit for the operations of this
company, it will be sufficient to say, that the ulterior object is step by step to intro-
duce steam navigation in India, wdierever there may be a certainty of its yielding a
fair profit — the immediate object, to improve upon and extend internal navigation
on the Ganges." A very excellent scheme ; and if properly and efficiently carried
out, it cannot fail, not only to benefit Bengal and India too, but to return the
shareholders a fair profit. It is proposed to unite this new company with the
Steam Tug Association, a company which has been for some time in existence, and
has flourished amazingly ; but of this hereafter. The new company expect to
place as superintendent of their affairs a Capt. Johnson, who is at present similarly
employed by the Government, who have a number of steamers employed on the
river, carrying passengers and cargo to aud from Calcutta to Allahabad, a distance
of about 400 miles. This they will of necessity have to discontinue, if the In-
dia General Steam Company does succeed, as the Government are prohibited from
coming into the market of competition as carriers. They have had quite a mono-
poly of the river carriage until very lately, when a single steamer, the " Assam,"
was started by a company ; but of course it alone was not sufficient to supply the
wants of the public. The Government have realized from their accommodation

96

Marvels of the Day.

[April,

and cargo boats a clear revenue of 1*2 per cent, per annum. They charge 4s. per
cubic foot for freight, but if there happened to be a very spirited demand to obtain
room in their boats, they used to put it up to auction, and the consequence was, it
ran often up as high as 1 Is per foot. With this exorbitant charge for freight,
(and their prices for passenger cabins were proportionably high, being no less than
30/., exclusive of provisions,) and their almost entire monopoly, it cannot be won-
dered that the profits were so immense. The Assam Company acted much more
wisely; they reduced the charge from 4s. to 3s., and gave the requisite space to
those who inquired for it, so that those who came first were first served. The
Government, too, in making the requisite distinction between their charges on
heavy and light goods, the former being charged by weight, \\i. per lb., just drew
their line so that books would come under the former head, and millinery under
the latter — a most injudicious arrangement, as the freight on a parcel of books, (the
only source of amusement to a person up the country,) often came to an enormous
amount. But it is time to give you the estimates upon which the new company
found their hopes of success. They are as follow : — The Government boats which
now ply on the river Ganges are 125 feet in length by 24 feet in breadth, with
engines of 6fi horse-power; — -those of the company will be 150 feet by 25, with
engines of 120 horse-power. The flats will be of the same dimensions, and will
carry 130 tons freight of cargo. The probable term of a voyage to Allahabad will
be 1 8 to 20 days.

The cost of one pair of boats — -steamer and flat — delivered in India
ready for service ....... £14,100

Including the engines — complete — estimated at . . 6,000

The boats will last 25 years, and supposing them, at the expiration of th;
to be worth nothing, the rate of depreciation will be 4 per cent, per annum,
14,000/. will be annually

Annual repair of the iron hull, including twice docking

Repairs of the wood-work at three complete renewals in 25 years, at
2,000/. each, is 6,000/., or, per annum ......

Repairs of the engine annually at 6/. per horse-power

Three sets of new boilers — annual proportion ....

Establishment of officers and crews ......

Supplies of stores — per annum ......

Proportion of l-10th of 5,000/. charged to one pair of boats for es-
tablishment, and the annual interest at 8 per cent, on 30,000/. sunk in
land, building, and machinery ........

at time,

and on

i£560

100

240

720

90

1,900

400

740

Total annual cost of one pair of boats, without fuel

Cost of coal for 7 voyages, — steam up for 448 hours each voyage, and
10 lbs. of coal per H.P. per hour, at 11. 10s. per 100 maunds (8413 lbs.)

Total annual expense, with 7 voyages' fuel ....
The boats will carry 130 tons weight at half an anna per lb.
(2 lbs. for \\d.) on the voyage upwards, and quarter of an
anna downward, or per voyage ...... £1,365

4,750

3,150
7,900

And for 7 voyages ....... 9,555

The steamer will have 6 cabins available for passengers,
at 20/. upwards, and 15/. downwards, for 7 voyages per annum 1,470

Balance to the credit of oue pair of boats for one year

11,025

3,125

It will be seen from the foregoing, that it is proposed to reduce the present charge
for conveyance one-half, and yet the profits are assumed to be 22 per cent., whereas
the Government only pocket 12. It is difficult to conceive how the profits can be
nearly doubled, when those realised by Government are partly derived from a regu-
lar charge of double the amount, and also from the unnatural rates to which the
freight was raised. This circumstance makes one look with suspicion upon the
estimate brought forward to the public, and which is said to be drawn up from
actual experience of boats performing upon the river, and the charges in which can
scarcely be estimated by others than those who know, and who have practised steam
navigation on rivers in India. There is one item, however, which ought to have
been taken notice of, viz., the premium of insurance for these boats, which, it is
said, will be very trifling, as the risk is not great. If it be resolved that all cargo
be charged by weight, the company must evidently, in some cases, be the losers,
where very light articles are sent, whose weight bears but a small proportion to the
space they occupy. It will be interesting to know how the prospectus of this com-
pany will be received at home; hut, indeed, if deserving of encouragement, there
will be but little need of assistance from capitalists there, as money is very plentiful
with us, and people would rejoice to have an advantageous outlet for the surplus.
There appears to me but little doubt of the ulterior success of such an association,
if judiciously, prudently, and economically managed ; but of all this there is much
to be apprehended from the sad experience we have already had in the failure of
steam companies and ferry-bridge associations, that looked promising enough in
theory, and when they were projected, but came miserably short in practice and in
their results. The truth is, the feeling prevalent over India is, that we Europeans
have come out to a climate inferior to our own — we have deserted our friends,
and bade adieu to many social comforts and pleasures — all for the sake of making
money in a less time than we could do at home; and, since that is the case,
let us endeavour to make our independence to retire as soon as possible ; let us
apply our whole energies constantly and solely to our business. This is the true
and real state of affairs, and in such a condition, let me ask, how can a merchant
both conduct his own business and be a director in half-a-dozen companies at the

same time— banks, insurance offices, steam associations, charitable institutions, &c.
&c. — all differing in their kind ? Why, the idea is absurd ; he must, will, and
does pay more attention to his country house or his ships, as that is most natural,
and as what comes nearest home. The directors of the new company are un-
doubtedly excellent people, but they are now deeply and everlastingly immersed in
their own affairs, and it is out of the question to suppose that they can pay great
attention to the interests of the Internal Steam Company; but, indeed, it is
hardly necessary that they should, for with a good superintendent and manager,
good rates of freight, and an almost exclusive monopoly, added to a constant de-
mand on the part of the public, it would be next to impossible that the profits
should not be remunerating, or that the company should not '■'•pay." The reduc-
tion in the freight must, undoubtedly, have a beneficial effect ; it will facilitate
our intercourse with the native merchants, who can transport our goods at a very
reasonable and quick rate; it will materially increase the demand for British manu-
factures ; it will enable the silk merchant and the indigo planter to bring his goods
earlier to market, and himself to watch over their disposal ; it will, indeed, not only
stimulate the interests of English commerce and English manufactures, but it will
also tend to develop the vast and teeming resources of the interior; and, in short,
if carried out in a proper spirit, and watched after in a proper manner, it may prove
of incalculable benefit to British India. If this promising seed be planted in .a
kindly soil, and its growth and tendency be carefully observed and protected, it
would be needless to attempt to predict what may not be the result, or what
goodly fruit may be the product. — But now as to the Steam Tug Association, upon
which it is proposed to graft the new company. This association has three steamers,
which are let out to bring vessels up, and to take them out to sea; it has now an-
other boat ready for launching, with all her machinery provided, besides a complete
workshop and foundry, (for the erection and repairs of steam vessels of any size,)
" with spare boilers and duplicates of all important parts of the machinery of the
boats now running. It has, since its establishment, paid dividends every six
months, of never less than 10 per cent, per annum, and on several occasions more ;
besides reserving a fund sufficient for all emergencies." And the advantages held
out to new subscribers are, that they, " by joining the old association, would be
assured of a dividend on their shares being regularly received from the day of their
first instalments being paid, instead of having to wait, as would be the case in a
separate company, till their own boats could be brought from England, erected in
this country, and could earn enough to pay a dividend." AH this, however, has
not met with a favourable reception ; and the proposal of uniting the two com-
panies has proved the most unpalatable part of the whole design. The shareholders
in the new company, like all others when in their infancy, must not expect to re-
ceive dividends for some time; and of course, the Steam Tug Association will be
generous enough to allow a reduction in their dividends, so that the new comers
may have a share. The experience they have gained is worth very little, as they
traffic solely below Calcutta ; and indeed, the two companies would have nothing
in common except the fuel. It should also be observed, that the success of the
Steam Tug Company is entirely owing to the monopoly they have enjoyed, and
the consequent exorbitant rates at which they let out their vessels for hire.
When the steamer proceeds to join the ship she is to tow up or down, and until
she is freed from her duty, the charge is only 40/. per day 1 If she is detained with
steam up for a part or the whole of a day, the charge is 30/. ; if without steam,
20/. I can imagine your surprise at reading this ; it is not only exorbitant, but it
is disgraceful that such imposition should be practised. All ships of any standing
use these tugs, not only from their having less chance of running aground, but from
arriving off town at a much earlier time. It has also become so much the custom,
that it world be considered infra dig. were the ship not to employ them, and she
would be liable to lose her good name. It is an enormous item in the ship's dis-
bursements ; and in fact, it is a direct clog upon commerce. Freights are not now
so high, and passengers are not now so plentiful, that vessels can easily afford so
large a sum, which falls twice upon them — at their arrival and at their departure.
From this you will well be able to understand how it is that the Steam Tug As-
sociation pays so admirably. The vessels are, I believe, wroitght at a great cost,
and not so economically as they might be, while their very appearance has much
more the air of a passenger- boat than a tug. They look regal compared to the un-
wieldy hulks termed tugs on Old Father Thames; but I should rejoice to see
some of these latter sent out to the Ganges, as I am convinced they could be
worked at half the cost, — that those are here, while they could reduce their
charges one-fourth — nay, one-sixth, and still pay a handsome profit; and they would
have the great merit of breaking up a shameful monopoly. When I am on the
subject of expenses attending ships trading with Calcutta, and which items, though
extravagant, are almost necessary, just allow me to tell you of another one, that is
pilotage. The Honourable East India Company have a very excellent establish-
ment of pilots, some of whom arc always cruising about the Sandheads (the mouth
of the Hoogbly) in taut little brigs, ready to pick up any vessel that approaches.
These men are of course paid by the Company, who send in a pretty large claim
for piloting each ship. But the unfortunate ship-owner has yet another score to
clear off, in the shape of a douceur to the pilot — always expected, and always
given, and which varies in amount from 20/. to 35/. ; and this, be it recollected, has
to be paid both at the ship's arrival and departure. These pilots are fine gentle-
men here ; they ride about in their carriages. But I must stop — these are some
tit bits for your readers to digest : but there are thousands more that deserve to
he well exposed. We were much disappointed with the arrival of the " Hindostan"
in January, but it was all well explained, owing to the accident of the " Great
Liverpool " on the other side ; she left us on the 13th inst., but unfortunately got
aground at some considerable distance from Calcutta, where she remained for about
thirty-six hours, and luckily got off without any damage. This happened consider-
ably above that part of the river which I mentioned in a former letter. The pilots
thought she should always be anchored there, and not be taken up any further.

Mac.

96

and cargo boats a clear re
cubic foot for freight, but
room in their boats, they
ran often up as high as 1
(and their prices for pas
30/., exclusive of provisi
dered that the profits we
wisely ; they reduced lb
those who inquired for
Government, too, in m
heavy and light goods, t!
their line so that books
the latter — a most injm
only source of amuseme
amount. But it is tim<
found their hopes of su
now ply on the river G
engines of 6(5 horse-po
engines of 120 horse-pc
carry 130 tons freight ■
be 18 to "20 days.

The cost of one pair
ready for service

Including the engin>

The boats will last
to be worth nothing, t
14,000/. will be anriu.
Annual repair of tl
Repairs of the woo
2,000/. each, is 6,00f
Repairs of the eng:
Three sets of new
Establishment of i
Supplies of stores-
Proportion of 1-1
tablishment, and tlv
land, building, and n

Total annual cost

Cost of coal for 7
10 lbs. of coal per I

Total annuo

The boats will c;

(2 lbs. for \%d.) oi

anna downward, or

And for 7 voyag

The steamer w

at 20/. upwards, ai

Balance to the

It will be seen

for conveyance on

the Government <

nearly doubled, v

lar charge of dou

freight was raised

estimate brought

actual experience

scarcely be estim

navigation on riv

been taken notic

said, will be ver

be charged by w

where very lighi

space they occu)

pany will be re

will be but littl

with us, and pe

There appears

if judiciously,

to be apprehen'

steam coiupani

theory, and wl

their results.

have come mi

and bade adie

money in a 1

let us endear

apply our wh

and real state

both co'iduot

J

PETER BORRIE'S PATENT SELF ACTING SAFETY FRICTION WHEEL

kok DISCONNECTING PADDLE WHEELS OF STEAM VESSELS AMI) OTiiKR MACHINERY.

SECTION OF FRICTION WHEEL

WITH PART OF

ENGINE FRAMING ATTACHED.

(Jdapbd to a Mm A* UngVi of ttrola/

BACK VIEW.

PL. XIV..

THE ARTIZAN

No. XVII.— MAY 31st3 1844.

Art. I.-

-RAILWAY DEPARTMENT OF THE BOARD OF
TRADE.

Report of the Officers of the Railway Department to the Lords of Committee
of Privy Council for Trade. London, 1844.

The Railway department of the Board of Trade has, in our opinion, conferred
many benefits, not merely upon the public, but upon the persons more imme-
diately interested in railway locomotion. Since its establishment the number
of accidents upon railways has been greatly lessened, and the fears of travel-
lers, which had been raised to an alarming pitch by a succession of catastro-
phies, have subsided correspondingly — thereby, of course, inducing a larger
traffic and a more profitable return. But this is only a small part of the
benefit. General Pasley and his satellites form a sort of arbitration court,
before which the disputes of interfering railway companies are settled ; and
the official and influential position of the arbitrators prevent the malcontents
from showing any of the contumacy they would be sure to manifest towards
inferior tribunals. If one railway company has taken any step to damage
another, or has committed any injury upon a private party, the Railway de-
partment of the Board of Trade has only to be applied to, and the grief will
be redressed : and if, on the other hand, a railway company be assailed,
touching some gate or viaduct, by a host of hungry litigants, a representation
has only to be made to the same department to put an end to the vexation.
We think it equally fortunate for the public and for the railway interest that a
controlling power has been provided to redress their mutual sufferings and
sins, though we believe it would be an improvement if the power of the board
went further still. We are very thankful, however, for the measure of dis-
cipline that has been conceded, and are willing to hope that it may in time be
extended and fortified.

There is one thing that will strike the most cursory reader of this report,
and that is, the great activity displayed by General Pasley in the execution of
his duties. The number of places he contrives to visit, and the number of
examinations he contrives to make touching accidents or other events, in the
course of the year, are really astonishing, and show very clearly that he must
not only be a very assiduous man, but that his heart must be in the business.
The conclusions at which he arrives in his investigations, though on some
occasions, perhaps, dictated in some measure by superficial views, appear to
us to be generally sound, and always safe and practical ; and while he shows
a due appreciation of all new improvements, he is careful of recommending
their adoption until experience has demonstrated their efficacy after an ade-
quate trial. We begin to suspect, however, that our readers will be better
pleased to hear what General Pasley has to say about railways than what we
have to say about him, and we therefore indulge them, without further pre-
lude, with a few extracts from the work before us. The following relates to
railway accidents : —

" It appears that only one really serious railway accident of a public nature, by
which any passenger suffered while travelling by the ordinary trains, and ob-
serving the ordinary degree of caution, has occurred during the year 1843, viz.,
that on the North Midland Railway, on the 12th of January, 1843, by which one
passenger lost his life. During the preceding year four such accidents occurred
by which one passenger only was killed, and 10 received injuries. The number of
passengers travelling by railway during each year has not been less than
24,000,000, conveyed on the average about 15 miles each. This statement is
sufficient to show the high degree of security which has been attained in railway
travelling, and to demonstrate, in the most forcible manner, the advantages that
have resulted from the progress of scientific improvement in point of safety as well
as of speed."

"It is the more satisfactory to find that the number of accidents during the
past year has been so small, since during that period considerable retrenchments
have been effected in the expenditure of most railway companies, and there has
been a tendency to economise, by every possible means, forced upon them by
the decline of their traffic during the late period of commercial depression, which,
if not tempered by a proper discretion, on the part of the directors, might, in many
cases, have been productive of danger.

" It is satisfactory, also, to find that the number of accidents attributable to the
misconduct or inexperience of engine-men, and the servants of railway companies,

VOL. II.

or to defective arrangement, on the part of the companies, is progressively on the
decrease."

We think it likely enough that this increased safety has been in no small
degree promoted by the labours of the department from which this report
emanates, and we look upon the event as a presumption, at least, of the great
utility of its labours.

The question of the most beneficial gauge for railways, is one that has at
various times agitated the engineering world, and a great diversity of opinion
and of practice has unfortunately prevailed respecting it. Mr. Brunei has
been the boldest innovator in the direction of wide ways, as he passed at a
single bound to a gauge of 7 ft. from one of 4 ft. 8^ ins., which last is the
gauge the Messrs. Stephenson introduced and still uphold. The question
appears to us to be determinable altogether by the exigencies of the locomo-
tive engine, so that adequate room may be attained for the boiler and the free
working of all the parts. If we were to venture an opinion upon the subject,
we should be disposed to fix the width of 5 feet, or thereby, as the most expe-
dient ; for although at the present moment a little more width might be de-
sirable for the accommodation of the engine, yet we would not deprive engine
makers of all stimulus of difficulty in reducing the engine to more convenient
limits, but would leave something for their ingenuity to accomplish, that we
are assured it can accomplish, if the attempt be only made. We shall, how-
ever, here introduce the opinions of several engineers relative to the most
expedient widths of railways, if they had all to be formed anew ; and the
reasons on which these opinions are founded : —

" I recommended the narrowest width of gauge, that could be adopted with
reference to the space required for the construction of a locomotive upon the most
advantageous principle, because such gauge admits of the transmission of traffic over
it with fully as much safety and smoothness as the wider gauge, and is much more
economical, as the expense of ballast, sleepers, boxing, embankments, and cuttings,
is proportionably less ; and I would, in consequence of this, have recommended the
gauge usually adopted in England, viz., 4 feet 8^ inches, had not many of the most
eminent manufacturers of locomotive engines stated to me, that a few inches more
space would be most desirable for the working parts of the engines ; and, from the
best information I could procure, they seemed to think that 5 feet 1 inch, or
5 feet 2 inches, would be, under any circumstances, the best. In fact, I have
not, in any instance, found any practical man, who thought a greater width of
gauge at all necessary, to secure the best description of engine, or one that would
work more economically, or with greater safety, at higher velocities. I also ascer-
tained from coach-builders, that I could get the same amo.unt of accommodation
for passengers on a 5 feet 2 inches gauge as on one of 6 feet 2 inches, and that
the carriages would be not only lighter but stronger and cheaper."

John Macneil.

" From the experience I have had in railways, I unhesitatingly express my
opinion that the 4 feet 8-J inches gauge is more economical in its construction, not
only as regards the engines and carriages, but more particularly of the railway
itself; and also that it conduces to its maintenance and repair, at a much less cost.
The narrow gauge, too, I regard as much safer at high velocities than the wide
gauge, as the liability of the engines and carriages to fly off the line is greater at
high speeds upon the wide than upon the narrow gauge. This I know well from
practice. In passing round curves, the power required to keep the wheels square
with the line must be augmented in proportion to the gauge. This position admits
of a very obvious demonstration ; as, for instance, supposing the centre of the line
to be the fulcrum for the application of a lever to turn the carriage, it is clear that
the resistance against the lever is in proportion to its length, that is, in propor-
tion to the gauge, as the one wheel has to be thrown back, whilst the other is
advanced in an equal degree, both having to slide, the one in reverse, the other in
advance.

" It was certainly my opinion, some time ago, that if I had again to com-
mence railway-making in a new country, I would adopt a gauge of 5 feet to 5 feet
2 inches, with the view of having more space for the erection of the engine;
but having discussed the subject fully with my son, we found that sufficient
space existed for the engine within the 4 feet 8J inches, gauge. We have, therefore,
come to the conclusion that the narrow is preferable to the wide gauge."

George Stephenson.

N

98

Railway Department of the Board of Trade.

[May,

" The question of the proper gauge for railways seems to me to resolve itself into
three considerations, viz., cost, efficiency, and the convenient arrangement of the
locomotive engine.

" As to the first, there is no room for doubt, even when the question is con-
fined strictly to the construction of the railway itself; but when the additional
cost of the carrying department and stations is carefully brought into the account,
the balance in favour of the narrow gauge is further augmented in a very important
degree.

" As regards the efficiency, we have, in my opinion, had sufficient experience to
prove incontestably, that 4 feet 8J inches is fully adequate to admit of speed up-
wards of 40 miles an hour, without involving any danger that would not equally
exist on a wider gauge. No instance can, I believe, be quoted to prove that any
instability in the carriages or engines arises from the narrowness of the gauge ;
nothing in my experience, to lead to such a conclusion, has ever occurred.

" The third point, in reference to the convenient construction of the loco-
motive engine did, at one time, lead me to think that a small increase, say to
5 feet, would have been productive of great convenience, both in the construction
and repair ; but the recent improvements in the arrangements of the engine render
even that small increase entirely needless.

" The engines first employed on the Liverpool Railway were constructed with
four wheels, inside bearings and outside cylinders. In the construction of these
engines, in consequence of outside cylinders being used, not the least difficulty was
experienced connected with the gauge. The second class of engines which were
introduced upon that line had the same number of wheels, but the adoption of the
cranked axle and inside cylinders immediately gave rise to some inconvenience in
the arrangements of the machinery.

The cranking of the main axle, which this plan of engine involved, was supposed
to weaken it so much, as to require to be supported by bearings on both sides of
each crank.

" These bearings occupied so much space in the axle, that some difficulty was ex-
perienced in placing the eccentrics for working the slide valves.

" To lessen this difficulty, outside bearings were resorted to ; but this alteration
did not entirely remove the inconvenience arising out of the limited space upon the
main axle. As we progressed in experience, it was found, that by adding greatly to
the strength of the cranked axle, the intermediate bearings might be dispensed with
altogether. When these were removed, the former difficulty and consequent
awkwardness produced in some of the detailed arrangements entirely disappeared,
and the present generally adopted construction of engine may be regarded, as in no
degree whatever crippled, or prejudicially influenced by the narrowness of the gauge
of 4 feet 8^ inches.

" I think, therefore, we have good reason for concluding that this gauge gives us
railways at a minimum cost, combining every useful convenience with perfect safety;
and I am persuaded, after giving the matter much consideration, that no material
increase of this gauge can be adopted, without augmenting the cost of con-
struction, as well as that of working. I am quite ready to admit that an increase
of a few inches in the gauge produces no perceptible detriment, and that the
Eastern Counties and Northern and Eastern gauge of 5 feet might safely be
adopted, in any country where a new chain system of railways is about to be
established ; but whilst I admit that this increase would not be productive of any
appreciable detriment, I must confess myself at a loss to conceive any good reason
for its adoption."

Robert Steplienson.

" Speaking as a manufacturer of locomotive engines, I am quite satisfied with the
Width of the present gauge, viz., 4 feet 8-J- inches.

" There is abundance of room for all the purposes of the arrangement and
efficiency, and the lowness to which we have brought the centre of gravity,
besides other recent improvements in the working of the engines, have given
them a stability which leaves little, if anything, to be desired, and when
the engines have been allowed to attain a velocity of nearly sixty miles
an hour, they have worked as steadily as when going only twenty miles per
hour. It is evident, therefore, that the 4 feet 8-J iuches gauge has been found
sufficient.

" A width of 5 feet (which was the width originally recommended by me for the
Liverpool and Manchester Railway) might be an improvement ; and this I should
be disposed to recommend for all the new railways in Ireland. This would permit
of a width of 6 feet for the carriages."

George Rennie.

" Commencing with the locomotive engine, as being the most important part of
the machinery employed in Railways, there can be no doubt that 4 feet 8-| inches
for the base, is too narrow to admit of that free construction and easy access to the
Working parts of the machine, which is desirable, not only for daily examination and
cleaning, but also for repairs when required ; and the addition of a few inches in
the width, by affording a remedy for the deficiency, would, at the same time, admit
of a higher steam chamber to lessen priming, and allow for a larger driving wheel
when wanted for light loads. The engine, which, being of sufficient size to admit
of the necessary combination of strength of parts, and easy access for repair, and
which would, at the same time, be best adapted for the more universal applica-
tion of its power, appears to me, on the whole, to be the preferable one,
and these advantages can be attained in a gauge of from 5 feet to 5 feet 6 inches.
I prefer, however, the gauge of 5 feet 3 inches ; for, with this gauge, on insulated
lines, any reasonable speed may be attained ; but in the same degree that railway
lines become longer, and trains from various parts of the country are collected,
and combined until the whole form a large united train, will high speed cease to be
a leading object, in comparison with greater punctuality and moderate speed."

Edward Bury.

"Although the works of a locomotive engine can be packed together in the
4 feet 8£ inch gauge, they are very confined and difficult of access for repairs or
adjustment. A small increase of width would be desirable. I also think that as
railways become the general mode of transit, larger and heavier goods may be
carried — for instance, boilers for marine engines. Some months back we had to
send new boilers to a steamer at Southampton, and, after considering the various
modes of transit, the railway was decided upon ; but it required much contrivance
to sling them between two waggons on a timber frame. I therefore think more
width would much facilitate the carriage of such goods. On the other hand
every increase of width increases the expense. On the whole, I think the
best width would be from 5 feet to 5 feet 6 inches." Joshua Field.

We have a report of General Pasley's on the Atmospheric Railway in this
volume, but it contains no feature of consequence that has not already been
described in The Artizan when discoursing of that invention. In a report
on the Peterborough Branch of the London and Birmingham Railway, we have
the following : —

"In order to judge how far level crossings may be dangerous to the public
safety, I have repeatedly passed along the Northern and Eastern Railway, from
Stratford to Bishop Stortford, which may be considered as a prototype of the
Blisworth and Peterborough branch, as it ascends first the valley of the river Lea,
and then that of the river Stort, in the same manner that the latter will descend
the valley of the river Nen ; and in consequence of this advantage, the Northern
and Eastern Railway has been completed with very little labour in earthwork, but
it abounds in level crossings, there being no less than nineteen or twenty in the
space of twenty-eight miles, at all of which, except private or occupation roads,
gates have been erected, shutting across the road, and only opened for passengers
when required, at which period they are shut across the railway. This is done
by a gate-keeper living in a cottage on the spot. The trains of the Northern and
Eastern Railway never slacken their speed on passing those points, unless the gates
should be shut across the railway, which are sufficiently conspicuous by day, and
rendered so by a red lamp at night, which is a signal to stop. This railway has
been opened, though not to the whole of its present extent, for about two years' and
a-half, and no accident has ever occurred at any of its numerous level crossing."

We shall conclude our extracts with General Pasley's account of the damage
sustained by the London and Birmingham Railway, in consequence of the
retaining walls of the cutting near Camden Town being forced out by the
weight of the earth behind them. This cutting is in the London clay, which
has only a very small cohesion, and has, in consequence, given infinite trouble
to engineers in every species of earthwork :—

" A considerable portion of the railway, between Euston Square and Camden
Town, passes along a cutting, which has been made in very fine plastic clay, the
most treacherous of all soils, and has been kept up by curved retaining walls, not
having regular slopes, as was customary in old works, but as leaning curved walls
in the form of arcs of a circle, with counterforts at intervals, according to a system
which has recently been generally adopted by the civil engineers of this country.
The event has sufficiently proved that the profile first adopted by Mr. Robert Ste-
phenson, the engineer-in-chief of the London and Birmingham Railway, was too
weak ; for several portions have fallen down and been rebuilt with a greater thick-
ness of brickwork, and others betrayed symptoms of giving way, which rendered it
necessary to prop them by strong struts or shores of timber, as a temporary measure,
preparatory to taking them down for the purpose of permanent repair. All these
failures have occurred on the west side of the cutting ; and though no part of the re-
taining wall on the east side has yet given way, yet, as the same slight profile was
used, and the same sort of soil presses against both sides, Mr. Stephenson has
deemed^ it a necessary precaution, after repairing or rebuilding those parts which
fail, to introduce very strong cast-iron girders over the railway,';between the upper
parts of his two retaining walls, to prevent them from collapsing hereafter. In
respect to the remaining portion of the cutting nearer to Crescent Place Bridge,
where the Company wish to occupy a wider plot of ground, as before specified, the
whole wall, now shored up with timbers is in so ruinous a state, that it must be
entirely pulled down as soon as they shall get possession of the ground. The
plan proposed by Mr. Stephenson is to rebuild the whole of this portion of wall
rather stronger, but in the same curved form as before, and to diminish the pressure
against it by cutting away the clay in rear of it with a slope of l£ of base to 1 of
height; besides which, to secure the back of his new retaining wall still further,
he proposes to build a series of vaults or arches connected with it at right angles to
the line of the railway.

We subjoin a sketch of this important operation, in which A B is the railing
at the face of the slope, and B C the vaulting at the back of the wall.

We have now, we believe, put our readers in possession of the most in-
teresting parts of this volume. The industry and sagacity it makes manifest
are highly creditable to General Pasley and his coadjutors, and cannot fail to
be productive of great benefit to the community.

1844.]

The Nature of Beauty — Mr. Hay versus The Artizan.

Art. II.— AUGMENTATION OF ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.
In the article on Mr. Bain's electric printing telegraph, in the preceding
number of The Artizan, we alluded to an arrangement in the apparatus, for
the purpose of augmenting the effect of the voltaic current generated by the
action of the moisture of the earth on the buried plates of zinc and copper at
the two termini of the telegraph. We now propose to explain the manner in
which this increase of electrical power is produced ; being sensible that elec-
tricity and its correlative sciences are so fraught with important consequences
to mankind, that any discovery or new application of previously known prin-
ciples may be of great value in leading to further and more important appli-
cations of that mysterious power.

It has been, for some time past, well known that a current of voltaic elec-
tricity induces temporary magnetism in the copper wire along which it passes.
The wire becomes magnetic throughout its whole length, but the poles are at
right angles to the direction of the voltaic current ; or, in other words, the
wire may be considered as composed of an infinite number of small magnets,
ranged side by side, with their poles similarly placed. The power of these
small magnets, considered separately, is very feeble ; and, to produce a sen-
sible effect, it is requisite to combine a number of them to form a compound
magnet. When a finely-suspended magnetic needle is brought near a copper
wire that is conducting a current of electricity, the attraction of many of the
minuter magnets of which the wire may be considered composed is exerted
on the poles of the needle ; one of which is consequently attracted towards
the wire, and the other is repelled. When the needle is placed over a single
wire the same effect is produced ; but the power of deflection is greatly aug-
mented by twisting the wires in many convolutions, so as to increase the
length of the copper magnets by joining their poles. A coil of insulated wire
thus twisted becomes, as is well known, a powerful magnet, whilst the electric
current is passing through it. In applying this property to produce the de-
flection of the magnetic needles in electric telegraphs, it has been usual to
arrange the wires parallel to the position of the needle ; by which arrange-
ment it is placed farthest from the two poles of the electro-magnet, where, of
course, the greatest power is exerted. In Mr. Bain's arrangement, the wires,
instead of being parallel to the needle or permanent magnet, are at right an-
gles to its natural position ; and by employing two coils of wire, and two
semicircular magnets, he is enabled greatly to increase the magnetic effect.

The annexed diagram will afford a
more clear idea of this method of ma-
nagement. The two semicircles, A B,
represent two magnets, the north poles
of which, marked n n, are placed very
near each other, but do not touch;
and the south poles are similarly situ-
ated. These magnets are joined toge-
ther by a brass bar, and suspended at
the point c, so as to move freely within
the coils of wire, represented by the
dotted lines. Now it is evident, from
this arrangement, that where an electric
current passes through the coils, so as
to make them electro-magnets, with
north and south poles, indicated by the
letters NN and SS, the immediate effect
will be to attract the north poles of the
semicircular permanent magnets towards the end S of the coil within which
they move ; and to attract the north poles, in a similar manner, towards the end
N of their containing coil. By this means, not only is a double effect pro-
duced by the employment of two magnets and two coils ; but the poles of the
permanent magnets are brought nearer to the poles of the electro-magnets,
where the force is the greatest. It is by this ingenious arrangement, as we
have stated, that Mr. Bain is enabled to obtain so great an effect from the
smallest quantity of electricity. A surface of four square inches of zinc placed
in the Thames, and of four square inches of copper at Wimbledon, is suffi-
cient, even at those distances apart, to excite an electric current that will de-
flect the magnet, though the insulation of the wires in his experiments was
not so perfect as it is intended to be when the wires are permanently fixed.
The communicating upper wires between Nine Elms and Wimbledon are
thinner than ordinary bell-wires ; and they are unprotected, excepting at the
points where they are fixed to the posts that raise them above the ground.
When the circuit is very long, the surface of the copper wire itself becomes an
object for consideration, since it reacts on the zinc in the same manner as the
copper generating plate, and excites subsidiary currents of electricity that
might impair the action of the apparatus, if not provided against by employ-
ing plates at each terminus proportionally large, and by effecting a more com-
plete insulation. In Mr. Bain's telegraph it is proposed to insulate the wires
by laymg them m a small channel of asphalte. In case of accident, by which
the electric current may be broken, it is proposed to facilitate the means of
detection and of repair by forming, at every quarter of a mile, a communi-
cating tube with the buried wires, by which means the part of the line where
the fracture has taken place can be readily determined ; and by running a
wire externally from one quarter-mile station to the other the communication
may be quickly renewed, and time may be then taken for ascertaining more
exactly the point of injury, and for effecting the repair.

The importance of electro-telegraphic communication, not only in facili-
tating the working of railroads, which we have alluded to in another article,

but for the transmission of information, is not yet sufficiently estimated ; but
it is calculated to become of very general application. That which has already
been done by Mr. Bain and by others, wonderful as it undoubtedly is, must
not be considered as the perfection of the system, but merely the infant steps
of an invention that will, we anticipate, lead to most important results.

Art. III.— THE NATURE OF BEAUTY. MR. HAY versus THE
"ARTIZAN."

We are not in the habit of troubling our readers with the discontented letters
we sometimes receive from the authors who have been brought to our bar.
We prefer leaving our decision, and the reasons for it, in the hands of the
public, and are content to take the risk of our judgments being reversed by
an appeal to that higher tribunal. If we deviate on the present occasion in
some measure from our usual course, it is not because we think the sentence
we ventured to pronounce upon Mr. Hay in any material degree erroneous, or
entertain any doubt of its confirmation by the court above, but we think
Mr. Hay's exceptions calculated to throw light upon a difficult subject, which
is often best done by a conflict of opinion, and we are willing to hold up the
admirable temper he has shown in replying to some of our rather supercilious
strictures, as an example to the irritable generation of authors among whom
we had considered such a virtue as well nigh impossible. We therefore will-
ingly bespeak for Mr. Hay the patient attention of our readers, and must in
return solicit his attention to the few remarks we shall take the liberty of
offering on the occasion.

To t7ie Editors qftJte Artizan.

Edinburgh, May lith, 1844.

"In Article X. of your journal for the current month, which professes to be a
notice of one of my works, entitled, ' Proportion, or the Geometric Principle of
Beauty Analyzed ;' you say you think you 'have aright to be informed, if it be
the fact, that beauty consists in the observance of certain proportions, what these
proportions are.' I acknowledge you have, and I shall therefore supply you and
your readers with the required information in a more familiar, and if I can, a more
plain manner than I have given it in the work referred to. But before doing so,
allow me to point out a few inadvertences that appear in the article to which I
allude ; and I do it the more readily, because you frankly admit at the outset, that
you ' really hardly know what to say' of my work — a difficulty easily accounted
for in the abstruse nature of the subject of which it treats, and the study conse-
quently required to become sufficiently acquainted with its principles, to be enabled
to form a correct opinion of the merits of such a production. But I beg you to
understand that it is not with the opinions you have formed of the merits of my
work, that I here mean to find fault. You have unquestionably a right to give
them, and you have done so in a candid and fair manner ; but with inadvertences
in your statement of its nature and views.

" The first of these is the statement that my book is ' full to the brim of visionary
fancies.' Now it is not so — its nature and design preclude the advancement of
any imaginings or fancies of my own, and is intended, as you yourself correctly
state, to show that the quality of beauty consists in certain harmonic proportions
that are determinable by calculation. In doing this I feel that I have not made one
assertion without appealing to fundamental and irrefragable laws in nature, and my
deductions from these are based, not upon fancy, but its opposite, mathematical
calculation. I cannot therefore be said to give my imagination any latitude in the
matter, neither can the analogies I have drawn, based as they are upon the most
demonstrable of all sciences, he with justice characterized as 'overstrained and
fantastic' until they are proved to be so by the same mode in which I attempt to
establish them, — namely, mathematical demonstration.

" You speak of geometric pulsations in the atmosphere and of a tone in forms, as
if I had used such expressions ; but I never used any expressions so absurd. I
have explained that the pulsations in the atmosphere bear in their arithmetical pro-
portion certain relations to the geometric divisions of vibratory bodies, and that
forms have their harmony of succession or melody as well as harmony of combina-
tion ; and it is evident that these explanations are thus misconstrued.

" But the most serious mistake occurs in the last paragraph of the article in
question, where you make me speak ' of the melody of the Farnese palace and the
Parthenon.' Now neither of those buildings are mentioned in the work which you
assume to notice, and you, therefore, confound it with another distinct work of
mine, to which you do not otherwise allude. In introducing this error to your
readers, you further mislead them by saying that I have confounded a kind of
harmony dependent on physical causes with another kind which you say is depen-
dent on metaphysical causes. This cannot be, for I am totally unacquainted
with a metaphysical cause of harmony. I never before heard of it; neither does
the work in question treat of anything metaphysical — it is strictly confined to
aesthetics. The nature and limits of this science are well known, and agreeably
to these, I have endeavoured to show in the work in question that harmony in
sound, colour and form, is produced by certain modifications and combinations of
the elements of external nature acting physically upon the organs of sense, which
communicate to the sensorium certain impressions producing perception. This per-
ception induces an operation of the understanding, or is itself an act of that faculty,
whereby it appreciates the nature and quality of the impression originally made on
the receptive organ. Our physical and mental powers may be divided into three
kinds — the receptive, the perceptive, and the conceptive, and it is only upon the first
two that the effects of harmony are produced ; the latter being creative, and only
called into operation in the productions of imagination that are formed by the
assistance of memory in combining what has already been operated on by the in-
termediate powers of perception. Thus memory supplies all the materials for
the metaphysical operations of the mind ; but memory has received its stores from
the perceptive faculty, which deposits with it the result of the first impressions on

N 2

100

The Nature of Beauty. — Mr. Hay versus the " Artizan"

[May,

the organs of sense, as felt, understood, and comprehended, hy the faculty of per-
ception. How, therefore, can there be a metaphysical cause of harmony?

" I shall now proceed to give you the information required, namely, what the pro-
portions are that produce harmony. They are called the harmonic ratios, and they
are as follow : —

Dissonances
Consonances. which are occasionally Dissonances,

treated as Consonances.

1 to 2 5 to 7 4 to 7

2 — 3 7 — 10 7_8

3 — 4 8—9

3 — 5 9 — 10

4 — 5 8 — 15

5 — 6 15 — 16
5 — 8

"These ratios can he extended as 1 to 4, 1 to 8, &c, 2 to 6, 2 to 12, &c, in
combined harmony. But in the harmony of succession, or melody, the dissonances
8 to 9, 9 to 10, &c, becomes harmonious.

" All musical compositions are regulated by the harmonic ratios, and their
power in modifying and giving a character to combinations of sound is almost
boundless.

" Burke has justly remarked, that ' if we can comprehend clearly how things
operate upon one of our senses, there can be very little difficulty in conceiving in
what manner they affect the rest.' Now, it has been ascertained by the experimental
inquiries of the greatest natural philosophers, that sounds act upon the sense of
hearing agreeably to the ratios of quantity in their combinations ; for it has been
determined by the science of acoustics, that all the varieties of effect of which music
is capable, arise from the operation of those ratios. And when the three which
form the common chord, viz., 1 to 2, 2 to 3, and 4 to 5, or which occur naturally
in the harmonics, as 1 to 2, 1 to 3, 1 to 4, and 1 to 5, are produced simultaneously,
concord and harmony must be the result, independently of any fancy, imagination,
or association of ideas in the hearer. And any one who would deny that it was
perfect harmony, would only prove some deficiency in his organs, or a vitiated
taste ; so well established are the laws of acoustics.

" Now the work you endeavour to explain to your readers is simply an attempt
to prove that as the mind is thus affected mathematically in regard to what is
addressed to it through the medium of the ear, it is equally so with respect to what
reaches it through the eye, and it developes a system for the application of the har-
monic ratios to form.

" In proof of this doctrine, I shall here add a familiar instance, by showing that
the human countenance displays in an eminent degree a geometrical principle, de-
pendent upon the harmonic ratios in the division of its parts. Although all admit
that regularity of features constitutes a primary element in the beauty of the
female face, few seem aware of what is meant by this expression. This regularity
depends upon certain proportio»s, which bear harmonic relations to one another, in
the divisions of the length and breadth of the surface of the face, as depicted in full
front upon the retina of the eye of the spectator. This surface is in outline an
ellipse with an equal projection at the upper part on each side, and it has, therefore,
a conjugate and transverse, or short and long diameter, upon the divisions of which
depend the proportions which constitute this species of physical beauty. The first
division is across this ellipse by the conjugate diameter, producing between the
upper and the under parts of the face, and the whole transverse diameter, the ratio
of 1 to 2 ; upon this line the eyes are horizontally placed. The next division is of
the lower portion into two, each of which portions relate to the upper part of the
face, as 1 to 2, or to the whole length, as 1 to 4 ; this determines the length of the
nose and the ears. The next mode of division is by three, and is performed upon
the lowest of these two last divisions. Each of these ternary divisions will, of
course, bear to the space so divided the ratio of 1 to 3 ; to the lower portion of
the face, 1 to 6, and to the whole length, 1 to 12. Upon the upper of these three
divisions, the mouth is horizontally placed. The next division is upon the conju-
gate diameter, and it is by five ; and, of course, each division has to the conjugate
diameter the ratio of 1 to 5. Two of these spaces are occupied by the eyes, there-
fore they are to the unoccupied spaces as 2 to 3, and to the conjugate diameter, as
2 to 5. The unoccupied spaces are to the whole diameter as 3 to 5. The width
of the nose and the mouth are also regulated by this division, each being one-fifth.
These measures are, however, general, for the variety of nature admits of no absolute
rule ; yet there must be a degree of proportion similar to these ratios, or there can
be no beauty. Suppose one eye, one ear, or one cheek larger than the other, or
suppose one of them to be placed higher in the face than the other, aud the im-
pression of beauty is destroyed to the understanding. The same would be the
case were the relative proportions altered to any apparent extent. It will be
observed, that I have confined my observations to physical beauty alone ; for in
regard to it only can the judgment operate. The variety of expression of which the
human countenance is capable, from the smile which the infant can appreciate long
before the reasoning faculties have come into use, to the most repulsive expressions
of anger and hatred, are subjects for the imagination, and excite feelings in which it
alone operates.

" Those who wish more information upon this subject will find it in the fifth
edition of the ' Laws of Harmonious Colouring,' where the subject is treated at
length, and illustrated by plates. Trusting you will give these explanations a place
in your next Number,

" I remain your obedient servant,

"D. R. Hay."

Such then, are Mr. Hay's exceptions to our decree. Before proceeding to
examine them, it may be advisable to recall the attention of our readers to
the real question in dispute, which we fear has been partly obscured by the
mists of Mr. Hay's argument. We maintain, then, in opposition to Mr.

Hay's hypothesis, that there are no absolute and intrinsic properties by which
the quality of beauty is realized, and that if it be the fact that beauty consists
in the observance of certain proportions we have a right to be informed of
those proportions. This right Mr. Hay admits, and proceeds, as he says, to
give us the required information ; but this information consists merely in the
enumeration of certain harmonic ratios, which, though available for the
determination of some varieties of beauty, are by no means applicable univer-
sally ; and, as the kinds of beauty to which this information applies are pre-
cisely those that we excepted from the objections we brought against the other
parts of Mr. Hay's hypothesis, we really do not see how the explanation ia
any way improves his position. To give this explanation any significancy we
must first assume that harmony is the only constituent of beauty, and that
the harmony of forms and the harmony of sounds address themselves to the
same class of emotions : but so far are these propositions from being self-
evident, that they are even inadmissible ; and indeed there is something rather
absurd in the supposition that beauty depends on certain abstract propor-
tions, when the proportions which are beautiful in one object are intolerable in
another. If it be Mr. Hay's doctrine that there are certain porportions in
certain objects which are more beautiful than other proportions — or to take an
example, that the human frame will approach more nearly to our standard of
beauty, when moulded in certain proportions, than if other proportions were
intermingled, we agree with him of course. But this is merely stating a fact
instead of explaining it ; and it is by no means a> consequence of the pheno-
menon, that the quality of beauty is due to any occult virtue in those propor-
tions, or that they must continue to be acceptable when applied to other
objects. The determination of the proportions which obtain in any standard
of beauty, enables us to construct other examples of the same kind of beauty
at will ; but the beauty of an unknown object is no more to be predicated
from the proportions of its parts, than the beauty of a picture can be fore-
told from the size of the canvas .

We agree then with Mr. Hay, that there is a harmony of sounds and a
harmony of colours which are due to physical causes, and we perfectly appre-
hend his hypothesis to be that the mind is mathematically affected by the
agreeable perceptions of the eye in some such way as it is affected by the har-
monic perceptions of the ear ; but, except in the cases of sounds and colours,
we deny that beauty is a simple perception at all, and can scarcely retain our
seriousness when we find people trying to resolve it by arithmetical computa-
tion. As, however, Mr. Hay seems to think that he proves his doctrine by
the harmonic ratios discoverable in the human countenance, it may be worth
while to spend a few moments in considering this convincing example.

We take it for granted then, as Mr. Hay tells us, that the contour of the
human countenance is an ellipse divided in the proportion of 1 to 2, by the
line of the eyes, and that the width of the nose and mouth in our most precious
specimens of beauty are such as Mr. Hay specifies. Now we think nothing
can be clearer than that if these proportions of the human face be represen-
tative of perfect beauty among European nations, they will fail to satisfy the
inhabitants of Africa, among whom the proportions proper to flattened noses
and thickened lips, will alone people the imagination with images of enchant-
ment. The laws of harmonic proportion, however, are the same in all coun-
tries and times, and it is impossible to suppose that there can be any necessary
connexion between these elements, when the one of them is immutable and
universal, and the other resolves itself into a mere question of latitude and
longitude. The fact appears to be, that any relation which may subsist be-
tween the proportions which constitute musical harmony, and the proportions
that give beauty to the countenance, is merely accidental, and cannot obtain
among all nations ; and it is impossible to doubt that the aspects we appro-
priate to Apollo and Adonis would have been different, had a different order
of visage preponderated among mankind. Different races have different
standards of beauty, to which their ideas of perfection will alone conform, and
it must be idle to expect any unanimity as to the constituents of beauty so
long as the same objects are significant to different minds of different emotions.
To all this we may add, that the faces of some animals, though possessed of
beauty, are, nevertheless, neither possessed of an elliptical outline, nor of the
harmonic map-work indicated by Mr. Hay; but by a vaulting method of
generalization, those proportions which may consist with beauty appear to
have been set down as the cause of it, and the accompaniment of an emotion
is mistaken for its essence. The absence of these proportions, in some cases,
and the utter inconsistency of the standards of beauty prevalent in different
nations, show very clearly, we think, that beauty cannot be a physical pro-
perty at all ; and indicate with equal sureness, that there can be no real vir-
tue in those golden proportions which Mr. Hay has reared for our adoration.

We have only a few more words to say, and they relate rather to the letter
before us than to the merits of the argument. Mr. Hay seems to think it
impossible that his doctrine can be visionary, because it is founded on
mathematical calculation ; for mathematics, it is well known, leaves no room
for the excursions of the fancy. Our objection however is, not that the cal-
culations themselves are erroneous, for to tell the truth, we never tested them,
but that the relations pointed out between those calculated numbers, and the
forms of material objects are merely accidental, and therefore visionary as a
general hypothesis. Mr. Hay still seems to think, in spite of our declara- i
tion to the contrary, that there is no species of harmony but a physical one.
We would, however, venture to remind him, that there is a harmony of emo- I
tions as well as a harmony of sensations ; and that the former, though a
powerful element of beauty, is referable not to physical but to metaphysical ]
causes.

1844.]

The Experimental Brigs of 12 Guns.

101

We misquoted Mr. Hay, when we represented him as speaking of geo-
metric pulsations ia the air — harmonic pulsations being the words we
intended to have used ; but we did not say that Mr. Hay maintained that
there was a tone in forms, and only insinuated that such a heresy, as it ap-
peared to us, flowed very naturallyfrom his doctrines. We cannot see where
the serious mistake can be, of representing Mr. Hay as speaking of the
melody of the Farnese Palace or Parthenon, if he did speak of it, and
whether the statement occurs in the book on the Geometry of Beauty, or in
that on the Harmony of Forms, really appears to us of very little importance,
especially as we made no allegation on that subject. We congratulate Mr.
Hay on having found so able an auxiliary as Mr. Burke ; but we fear his
artillery will be of very little service on the present occasion, as it obviously
is not pointed against our positions. It may be very true, that if we can
comprehend clearly how things operate upon one of our senses, there can
be little difficulty in conceiving how they affect the rest : but we deny the
existence of a distinct sense for the perception of beauty ; and Mr. Burke
does not say that the conception of the mode of action of one of the senses
will throw light upon something which is not an act of sense at all. It is cer-
tainly true that the beauty of a face will be destroyed if one eye or cheek be
larger than the other, or placed perceptibly awry ; but the cause of this, we
take it, is not that the chain of harmonic proportions has been broken, but
that the peculiarity carries to the spectator ideas of disaster and imperfection.
There can be no doubt, in our apprehension, that a Cyclops-eye in the fore-
head, or a carbuncle on the nose, would both be perfectly tolerable if such
features were prevalent among mankind ; and any species of face Mr. Hay
might be disposed to set down, as the most inconsistent with his musical
proportions, would be esteemed beautiful, if tied by accident to the emotions
out of which beauty arises. We do not suppose that a scrofulous swelling on
the neck would be esteemed, by Mr. Hay, as the necessary concomitant of
beauty, according to his hypothesis ; yet, in some of the secluded Alpine
valleys, where this deformity prevails, it is reckoned one of the constituents
of beauty — and no countenance is there considered to be perfect, which is
not adorned by a goitre. Mr. Hay, we suspect, would himself be inclined
to smile, if he found the artists of those regions attempting to explain the
beauty of this protuberance, and the necessity of its existence for the realiza-
tion of beauty, by the laws of harmonic progression : yet this is precisely
the thing he is himself attempting — only that he happens to appeal to the
associations of a wider auditory, and to discourse of peculiarities which have
only a wider existence.

But we have said more than we intended, and must now take leave of Mr.
Hay. We think he has left all the points of our argument untouched, and are
confirmed in the belief that the relations he seeks to establish are visionary,
because inconstant. If we had been in his situation, we should have hesi-
tated to bring out a book upon these subjects, until we had something more
important to say, and especially with such a parade of broad margin, and
other mechanical honours, as will raise expectations the work cannot satisfy.
But we can forgive the indiscretion, when we find it redeemed by so much
technical skill, and accompanied by so much moderation and modesty.

Art. IV.— THE YARMOUTH AND NORWICH RAILWAY.
This railroad, which has been very recently opened, forms a detached link
of railway communication in a part of the country that has hitherto not parti-
cipated in the advantage of improved modern locomotion ; and may be regarded
with much interest, not only as the commencement of railway traffic in the
comparatively little known north-eastern district of the kingdom, but as an
experiment of the practicability of working a railroad with a single way. The
distance from Norwich to Yarmouth is twenty miles ; and there are in that
distance two principal and two minor stations. At the principal intermediate
stations, sidings are arranged to facilitate the passing of trains going in oppo-
site directions.

With a single line of rails, collisions of the most disastrous kind can only
be prevented either by arranging the departure of the trains from the termini
so that they make alternate journeys up and down, the one train not starting
till the other arrives, or the same end may be accomplished by telegraphic
communication from station to station, announcing that the line is clear.
The latter is the mode adopted on the Yarmouth and Norwich Railway,
where arrangements have been made for working electric telegraphs commu-
nicating with each station simultaneously. We recently inspected the ope-
ration of these telegraphs, which were exhibited in the rooms of the Society
of Arts, by Mr. Cooke, whose name is joined with Professor Wheatstone's
in the patents taken out for their telegraphs. The telegraphs are worked by
deflecting needles, in the manner we have described in a preceding Number,
on " Electric Telegraphs," and each apparatus is furnished with a voltaic
battery. There are on each apparatus as many dial-plates as there are sta-
tions, with the names engraved on the plates; and the words " Up train" and
" Down train" are marked on each. A magnetic needle, suspended verti-
cally, points either to Up or Down as it is deflected on one side or the other.
To give an idea of the manner in which this system is worked, we will quote
a passage from the description afforded by the inventors, in tracing the pro-
gress of an express and unexpected train : —

" A fixed time, say five minutes, before the train leaves Norwich, the super-
intendent, having first ascertained that the line is clear at the Brandon junction,
will ring the Brundall alarum. He theu points the Norwich handle to the left;
which movement causes a corresponding indication, by the system of Norwich
pointers at all the stations, and thus informs the clerk at Brundall, and the other

stations of the line, that an up train is about to start, if the line is clear. If it be
clear, the Brundall clerk (whose attention has been called to the alarum) an-
nounces the fact by giving the same signal upon his own compartment. The train
being now ready, the Norwich superintendent gives the usual order to start, and,
as the engine moves forward, he restores the handle of his telegraph to its upright
position again. The pointers of the Norwich system then, by becoming vertical,
instantly give notice to the other stations that the up train has left Norwich, and
is on its way to Brundall. This serves as a warning to the clerk at Reedham (the
station beyond Brundall) to give the signal ' Up train ' in his compartment of the
telegraph, that the clerk at Brundall may be prepared to notify to the train, upon
its approach, that ' the line is clear to Reedham.' Presently the train is seen ap-
proaching Brundall ; and, if not intended to stop at that station, leave to proceed
is given in the usual way, and the clerk at the same time puts down the handle of
his compartment ; whereupon, all the pointers of the Brundall system resume their
vertical position, and announce to the other stations that the up train has passed
Brundall, and is on its way to Reedham ; and the same routine is repeated as long
as the line is clear. It will be the duty of the terminal stations to fix the place
at which meeting trains should pass. The regular method of proceeding would be,
to enter in the way-bills the name of the sub-station at which the first-arriving train
would wait and pass the other ; and an order to the same effect would be trans-
mitted by telegraph to the sub-station itself. Should either train be afterwards
casually delayed, a fresh arrangement would be made by telegraph, and the altera-
tion would be entered in the way-bill at the nearest station."

The foregoing description refers to the simplest operations of the electric
telegraph for regulating the departure of the trains, the progress of which on
the line is thus indicated at all the stations ; for as each apparatus has as
many dial-plates as there are stations, and as the actions of the pointers of
each separate dial-plate correspond, the superintendent at Norwich can tell,
by looking at the position of the pointers on the dials, how far either an up
or down train has progressed. The handles are so arranged, that, when not
worked, they assume a vertical position by their weight, and the pointers are
then also vertical, which is the signal of danger ; therefore, should there be
any neglect, or the attendants be absent, the effect would merely be to detain
the train, and not to cause it to run into danger, as it must not pass any sta-
tion without receiving a signal that the road is clear.

In addition to these simple signals, which are sufficient for general pur-
poses, there is a separate dial, called by the inventors the " speaking tele-
graph," for holding communications from station to station. On this dial
there are two pointers, and letters and figures are marked thereon ; so that
by previously-arranged signals, the movements of the pointers indicate either
letters, or words, or sentences. The rapidity with which the pointers on all
the dials are deflected simultaneously, and answer to the motions of the
handles, forms a peculiar advantage of this telegraph ; but we imagine that
such energetic power can scarcely be sustained for great distances, nor without
powerful voltaic batteries, the continued action of which must require care,
and be attended with considerable expense. On these points the printed de-
scription of the inventors affords no information — but, at all events, they can
bear no comparison to the great economy which such a system of working
railways must introduce. As an experiment for establishing a system of
cheap railway communication it is of surpassing interest, and we shall heartily
rejoice in its success.

Art. V.— THE EXPERIMENTAL BRIGS OF 12 GUNS.

These brigs are being fitted for sea with all possible despatch, and, we
have no doubt, will all prove fine vessels. They are all, with the exception
of the " Mutine," built of the same materials, and, consequently, with the
same dimensions of masts and yards, so that a fair and interesting trial of their
respective sailing qualities will be made. The "Mutine" has an advantage
over the others in the weight of her hull ; her beams being Fir, and topsides
or top-timbers Cedar, while the others have African Oak beams, and Oak
top-timbers. Her light-displacement will consequently be from thirty to
forty tons less than that of the other brigs. We see nothing in her form
alone to justify the conclusion that the " Mutine" will be superior to all the
others. Should she, however, be found to possess advantages on some
points, we shall know how to account for it ; and the " builder" of this brig
will have the gratification of knowing that they have been unfairly gained.
The following are the comparative dimensions of these vessels : —

Daring.

Espiegle.

Flying-
fish.

Mutine.

Osprey.

Ft. In.

Ft. In.

Ft. In.

Ft. In.

Ft. In.

Length between the "1
perpendiculars . J

104 0

104 8

103 1

101 Hi

101 10

Length of keel for tonnage

83 If

83 7f

81 8

81 2

80 6i

Breadth, extreme . .

31 4

31 9i

32 4£

31 11

31 10

,, for tonnage .

31 0

31 6i

32 0i

31 6

31 6

,, moulded .

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31 0|

31 6i

31 0

31 0

Depth in hold . . .

15 2

IS li

14 3"

13 7

13 6

Burden in tons . . .

425^

442£J

444|f

428M

424fi

Armament.

Number of Guns.

10

2

Weight of Shot.
32 -pounder
18

Length of Gun.
6ft.
6

Weight of Gun.
25 cwt.
20

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Art. VII.— ON FIRE INSURANCE.

It would be needless to extend our remarks upon this subject to any length,
not only from the close analogy it bears to a subject discussed in our last
Number, but also from the fact, that it is much more generally known, and
much more generally practised, than Life Insurance. The only reason we
can give for the greater adoption of the former over the latter, (and it is one
of the peculiarities of which, we would fain dissuade ourselves, as reflecting no
credit upon our race) is, that bearing as it does so much upon the present,
it greatly affects the current generation, and only indirectly stands connected
with the future. To speak plainly, its adoption may be actuated by feelings
of selfishness alone. In Fire Insurance the peculiar advantages of a body of
men combining and forming an assurance society are very forcibly exhibited
— the risk is spread over a number of persons, instead of being confined to
one individual, upon whom the destruction of a timber-yard or cotton-mill
would very severely press ; whereas, for a small yearly payment or premium,
a person may insure his property, suoh as buildings, merchandize, furniture,
&c, against accidental loss by fire ; and such loss is, as it were, shared
equally by a community. The principle upon which Fire Insurance is found-
ed is essentially the same as that of Life Assurance, — viz., upon the doctrine
of probabilities. Fire Insurance Companies are divided into two classes —
Contribution and Proprietary ; in the former, the assured are both members
and partners ; in the latter the proprietors alone participate in the profits
and losses. We are inclined chiefly to approve of the latter class, from the
absence of any risk or responsibility attaching to the party insuring. Fire
Insurance risks, from the varying nature of property insured, are generally
divided into common, hazardous, and doubly hazardous. The premiums are
respectively 1*. 6^., 2s. 6d., and 4s. 6d. per cent., exclusive of a stamp duty
of 3s. per cent. On mills a premium is charged of from 3s. to 20s. per
cent, on the building, according to its construction, mode of heating, &c,
and of 5s. to 22s. on the machinery and stock, according as it may be a corn,
cotton, flax mill, &c. It is much to be regretted that Government has
levied so heavy a stamp duty, which, in common cases, amounts to more than
the premium itself, and it is undoubtedly a great hinderance to the spread of
Fire Insurances, and a direct burden on the growing interests of society. If
the stamp-duty rate was lowered, we do not imagine that any sensible de-
crease would be perceived in this branch of the revenue. In cases of loss by
fire, the office will not pay the claim, whether for partial or total loss,
unless the insured had a direct interest in the property ; and when it is sus-
pected by the Insurance Company that the fire was wilfully raised, with an
intent to defraud, many offices require a certificate from the clergyman or
some respectable inhabitant of the place where the fire occurred, testifying to
the character of the party who has sustained the loss, which they believe to
have arisen through accident, without any fraudulent design. As in the
policies for Life Insurance, conditions are printed upon the back of those for
Fire Insurance, specifying the classes of risks, &c. ; and if, in the body of
the policy, there be any omission or misrepresentation of facts or statements,
or any alterations in the buildings or process of manufacture since the com-
mencement of the risk, without information of the same having been given
to the office, the policy becomes null and void. We have already remarked
upon the more prevalent adoption of Fire Insurance, but we should be glad
to see it even more generally acted upon, especially in thickly-populated, or
in the manufacturing towns. Many instances of conflagration have lately
occurred in the destruction of farm stock and houses in the neighbouring
counties, and were the practice of Fire Insurance to be brought more promi-
nently before the notice of farmers than it now is, their occasional losses
would hardly be felt, and they would live in comparatively greater security.
Although, indeed, it is far from desirable that this feeling should give rise to
inattention, on the ground that, the property being insured the proprietor
does not feel that interest in preventing accidents arising from fire, that he
would otherwise do were the estate not so protected. Incendiaries often be-
gin their work of destruction from a feeling of revenge or envy to the pro-
prietor ; but did they suppose that he had insured his property in an Insur-
ance office, they would be much less likely to adopt this mode of giving vent
to their spleen.

Art. VIII.— CRADDOCK'S UNIVERSAL CONDENSING
ENGINE.

We have here another crop of those mechanical puerilities, the chief merit of
which is that their folly is transparent. In some of the cases which occasionally
come before us, we have to weigh with care the excellence and defect, to en-
able us to strike a precarious balance ; but inventors of Mr. Craddock's ca-
libre spare us all that trouble, and make our course a rapid and an easy one.
It requires very little exertion to sound the depths of Mr. Craddock's inform-
ation, or to fix the value of his suggestions ; and, among the difficult paths we
have sometimes to tread, a feat such as this becomes like a down-hill run that
relieves the labour of the journey. We do not wish to practise any severity
upon Mr. Craddock, for that would be cruel in the case of so primitive a per-
sonage ; but there would be greater cruelty in leading him to suppose that he
had found out anything of the least novelty or value, and what is more to the
purpose, the insinuation would be fallacious. Let him, therefore, fortify him-
self at once to meet his doom ; and at the same time remember, that our judg-
ment is a thing we cannot control, and is merely the exponent of the public
opinion.

Mr. Craddock's improvements are manifold. The first, and the least incon-
siderable of them, consists in accomplishing the condensation of the steam of
an engine by a current of cold air — an achievement of some importance where
water is scarce or inaccessible. This idea is not a new one ; but the method
proposed for carrying it into effect is one that has not hitherto come under
our observation. It consists in turning the steam, on its escape from the
cylinder, into a faggot of copper tubes, that is put into revolution by appro-
priate gearing ; and the impact of the air upon these tubes achieves the re-
quired refrigeration, and condenses the steam accordingly. The vacuum thus
obtained is, Mr. Craddock admits, a bad one, and is much inferior to the vacuum
realized by the ordinary means ; but he says that a vacuum of 91bs., which is
attainable in this manner, is better than none ; and it is only in situations
where condensing water is not to be had that he recommends the adoption of
this system. It certainly appears to us that the atmospheric method of con-
densation is applicable in some cases with advantage ; for, not to speak of
the gain of power over engines which discharge their steam into the atmo-
sphere, it will be the means of keeping the boiler replenished with pure water,
which, in some situations, is an object of importance. We do not, however,
like the plan of putting the condenser into rotation, and should much prefer
the plan of maintaining a draught of air by means of an Archimedean venti-
lator, or some other such expedient, situated over the centre of the pipes, the
condenser itself remaining stationary. The effect is precisely the same whe-
ther the air strike the pipes, or the pipes strike the air ; and a stationary
condenser is free from many objections to which a rotating one is subject.

The next improvement Mr. Craddock mentions is his plan of tubular
boiler ; which consists of a number of pipes standing up in afire, with scarcely
any surface. The circuit of the furnace is composed of brickwork ; so that
with the exception of the few tubes that dip into the fire, there is really no
medium by which the heat may be communicated to the water. In addition
to the evil of their heating inefficiency, these tubes would be very liable to
choke up and burn out ; for the rapid circulation of the water in them would
draw into the narrow necks which communicate with the horizontal pipe any
extraneous matter that might chance to be in the boiler, and wedge the pas-
sage up so firmly that the access of water to the pipe afflicted with this stric-
ture would be prohibited. The balls, even, which form in almost all boilers,
would be productive of this effect.

Mr. Craddock's self-acting damper is not much better than his boiler. The
mechanism for moving it consists of a piston, moveable in an air-tight cylin-
der, above which is an air-vessel. The lower part of this cylinder being put
in communication with the boiler, the air in the air-vessel is compressed by
the steam pressing against the inferior side of the piston, and forcing it up ;
and the piston rises higher as the pressure of the steam becomes greater, and
closes the damper in its ascent. The part of the cylinder between the piston
and air vessel contains water, through the instrumentality of which the pres-
sure is communicated to the air. At high pressures a good deal of the air
would be absorbed by the water. For low pressures the float in the stand-
pipe, according to the usual plan, is greatly preferable to this improvement ;
and for high pressures, a piston, pressed by a weight or spring, has every pro-
perty possessed by this spring of air, except its uncertainties. We believe
Mr. Craddock, in this part of his plan, has at least succeeded in securing him-
self against piracy ; but we take leave to insinuate that he might have quite
as effectually secured to himself the monopoly without the trouble of a patent.
But the most amusing part of Mr. Craddock's improvements is his scheme
for working the two cylinders of a Woolf 's engine at right angles. The only
advantage a Woolf 's engine enjoys is, he appears to be sensible, to make the
impelling pressure more uniform when expansion is used ; and, for the sake
of securing this advantage, he has devised a plan for making the steam pre3
sure on the piston nearly twice as irregular as it would be in an engine of the
common description ! As the two pistons of a Woolf s engine cannot be at
the end of their respective strokes at the same time when their cranks are set
at right angles, the difficulty presents itself that the steam cannot get away
from the smaller cylinder during the one half of the stroke, the larger cylinder
not being at that time open for its reception. Mr. Craddock, however, gets
over the difficulty, by saying that the steam will compress ; and he actually
proposes to compress the steam in the smaller cylinder into a very small vo-
lume, and to let it in upon the larger piston in this highly concentrated state ;
at the same time that he admits that, to diminish the initial pressure on the
larger pressure is the only use or purpose of the second cylinder. Indeed, by
Mr. Craddock's plan, the operation of the Woolf engine is exactly reversed;
and instead of the irregularity of pressure being lessened with the same mea-
sure of expansion, the smaller cylinder operates during a part of its stroke as
a great force pump, to blow up the steam to a gunpowder pressure ; and the
initial pressure upon the larger piston is actually greater than if the steam
came unsophisticated from the boiler.

Such, then, are the constituents of Mr. Craddock's universal engine. We
are at a loss to comprehend what its universality consists in, unless it be in
the uniform worthlessness of its prescriptions ; but of this at least we are
confident, that it will never become universal as regards the extent of its
adoption. We have already indicated our belief that a condensing agent may
be found in the air, which, when better agents are wanting, may be advan-
tageously employed. In the case of steam engines in tropical climates, for
example, where the water is scarce and bad ; or in the case of mills, or other
manufactories, which require a supply of hot air as well as motive power, this
method of condensation may sometimes be eligible ; for although, without a
prodigious surface, a better vacuum is not to be expected than about one half

1844.]

Mines and Mining Regulations in Hungary.

105

of that usually realised, yet the gain in other ways may more than balance the
loss due to this imperfection. The idea, however, of thus employing air as
the instrument of condensation is by no means original ; so that it is only
to the machinery now proposed for the application Mr. Craddock can lay
claim, and that machinery has no merit we can discover to induce its adop-
tion. A stationary condenser is, in our judgment, indispensable to success ;
for, to say nothing of the other objections to the whirling condenser, the cen-
trifugal force would, at its greatest velocity, tend to bend the pipes in the
middle ; and the constant repetition of this deflection every time the engine
was started would, we fear, in time, break all the pipes at the neck. An
Archimedean ventilator, applied in some such manner as we have mentioned,
so as to maintain a draft among a forest of stationary tubes, would, in our
humble opinion, be greatly preferable to Mr. Craddock's scheme ; and if this
plan of condensation be ever brought into use at all, of which we are somewhat
sceptical, it must, we are persuaded, be by the use of some such expedient as
that we have just suggested.

Art. IX.-

-MINES AND MINING REGULATIONS IN
HUNGARY.

As far as the precious metals are concerned, the Austrian empire comprises
the most productive mining districts in Europe ; for the rich veins of gold
and silver in Spain are in our day consigned to almost utter neglect. In the
five years, from 1830 to 1834 inclusive, the mines in the Austrian dominions
were officially stated as yielding, on an average, 5134 marks (equal to -Mb.
each) of gold, and 93,362 marks of silver, yearly. Of these amounts, about

2148 marks of gold were raised yearly in Hungary, and 2845 in Transyl-
vania ; — these two provinces thus contributing together nearly 49-50ths of
the entire average; while, of silver, Hungary contributed 63,754 marks;
Bohemia, 22,1 24 ditto ; and Transylvania, 4611 ditto ; as their yearly average
within the same period. In 1837, the produce of Hungary, in gold, was

2149 marks, and in silver 64,224 marks, as officially reported; but there is
reason to believe that the quantities actually produced were considerably
more ; a portion being embezzled in some of the many channels through
which it had to pass, and a further proportion having reached the hands of
the Austrian rulers, which they carefully avoid announcing publicly, from a
false apprehension of danger in making known the actual resources of Hun-
gary to the Hungarian nation.

The Hungarian mines are divided, from their position, into four districts —
the Schemnitz, Schmolnitz, Nagy-Banya (Transylvania), and Banat ; of which
the first are by far the most important ; and hence Schemnitz may be consi-
dered as the mining capital of Hungary. This town stands on the river of
the same name, a tributary of the Gran, about 70 miles N. of Pesth. It had,
in 1837, a population of 17,028. An old and strong gateway conducts to a
long, narrow, and wretchedly paved street, closely hemmed in by sloping hills
on either side. At the end of this is a mountain amphitheatre, part of its
area occupied by the churches and other public buildings of the town, while
the hill sides are covered with the dwellings of the miners, embosomed among
trees. The mines of Schemnitz extend beneath the mountain on which the
town is built. Six principal veins of silver, whence gold is also obtained,
run at distances from each other varying from 60 to 400 fathoms, connected
by numerous smaller branches. In these veins are twelve mines belonging
to the government ; besides others, the property of private individuals. The
mines of Schemnitz boast of a high antiquity. That of Rosalia is currently be-
lieved to have been wrought at least as far back as the time of the Roman domi-
nion ; and with some degree of probability, for here, as elsewhere in Hungary,
the mode of excavating practised at that period is traceable ; and antique
lamps, and other primitive implements, have often been found. All the
mines communicate with each other, at a depth of 200 fathoms, by the Adit
or level of the Emperor Francis I. This, we believe we are right in assert-
ing, is the same passage spoken of by Mr. Paget, as debouching into " day-
light" in the hill-side without the gate of the town, and in which horses, with
trains of low carriages, are employed to convey the ore. Deeper still is the
Adit of Joseph II., a noble work, though yet unfinished. It consists of a
tunnel 12ft. in height by 10ft. in breadth, extending from Schemnitz to the
valley of the Gran, a distance of nearly ten English miles ! * This work has
been already more than forty years in progress ; but the more arduous parts
of the excavation through the mountain at Schemnitz, and in another place,
have yet to be completed ; and it is estimated that, when finished, this adit
will have cost at least 400,000?. It is intended, at present, to carry off the
water from mines which cannot now be wrought ; but it is so constructed as
to be convertible to the purposes of railway or canal communication.

Our object in this place is not to enter into particulars respecting the
modes of working the ores in the Hungarian mines, which are, in fact, little
different from those employed in our own and other countries ; but to hold up
an instance characteristic of the folly of government trade-monopolies, and
of vexatious interference by governments in the disposal of the time and ener-
gies of the subject. Twenty thousand miners are employed in the district of
Schemnitz ; yet, with all this amount of labour, the mines there appear to
have been profitable to the state only in a comparatively small degree. The
private mines remunerate their owners for working them, although these

* This remarkable statement is made on Mr. Pagct's authority.

VOL. II.

owners are obliged to pay 10 per cent, of all their produce to the govern-
ment, and to dispose of all the ore they raise at a fixed rate, to the imperial
smelting works. But the imperial mines scarcely pay — if, indeed, under the
existing system, they do so at all. They are under the superintendence of an
Oberst-kammer-grdf, or High Chancellor, who is himself subordinate to the
Imperial Council at Vienna, and who (like most of the great functionaries of
our own government) has never served any " apprenticeship," to give him a
technical knowledge of the matters over which he is called to preside — being
invested with his office solely by the influence of court favour. Under him
are a crowd of subordinates, whose "voluminous reports" probably emulate,
in bulk, the " cart-loads of blue rubbish," as a noble lord emphatically called
them, which are wheeled into our Houses of Parliament, and which here, as
do their prototypes in Austria, help to swallow up the resources of the em-
pire. In addition to employing a multitude of servants, Austria has not yet
learned that it is good economy to pay her servants well. Mining officers,
who in England would be paid from 100/. to 1000/. yearly, receive in Hun-
gary no more than from 50/. to 100/. a year ; which, making every allowance
for the cheapness of the necessaries of life in that country, is certainly a very
inadequate rate of payment for their services, and altogether incommensurate
with the benefit which the Austrian Government might obtain from their
labours and ingenuity under a more liberal and wise system. In consequence
of this pernicious policy, embezzlement had long ago proceeded to so intolerable
a pitch, that the processes of amalgamation had to be given up at Schemnitz,
as well as in other mining districts ; and all the gold and silver raised in
Hungary is now sent to Kremnitz to be purified and coined, or otherwise
brought into a marketable state. Embezzlement exists no less among the
working miners : the Government provides oil, gunpowder, and implements ;
and these are constantly objects of peculation. The workmen, who are paid
by the piece, are not permitted to earn more than about 'is. per week : they
are bound to perform a certain quantum of work, but are not allowed to do
more. It appears to be one of the grand springs of policy of the Austrian
Government, to keep its artizans poor, in order that it may keep them obe-
.dient; yet its power is far less effectual than that of less despotic rulers;
and it is cheated with its eyes open, and exposed to the contempt of its under-
lings, by the displays of intolerance, without the power of coercion. Ob-
stacles are not, however, thrown in the way of private workings ; on the
contrary, a regulation exists, by which any individual may work a mine, if
not interfering with previous workings — no matter on whose estate, provided
he pay the proprietor of the land for the surface required for buildings, &c. :
and any one is at liberty to work a mine, on his own account, which has been
left unwrought by another for a fortnight, on the usual conditions of paying
one-tenth of the produce to the government, and coining the rest in the
country. Half of the mines in the Schemnitz district is in the hands of pri-
vate individuals or companies. These are incapable of making the most of
their property, from the want of capital ; but Mr. Paget suggests that an
English company, possessed of ordinary wealth, might obtain a good profit
from mining at Schemnitz.

In Transylvania, a large proportion, if not most part of the gold produced,
is obtained by washing. The deposit of almost every stream and river in
that province contains gold. Gold -washing in Transylvania is almost mono-
polised by gypsies, of whom a large number reside in the country. The
Austrian Government grants a gypsy band the privilege of washing the sands
of a certain brook, on payment of a yearly rent, which is never less than
three ducats of gold per head for every washer. A gypsy captain settles this
matter with the Government, and is answerable for the rest of the band, from
whom he collects the whole of their earnings, which he re-divides among
them, after paying the tribute.

Kremnitz is a mining town of Northern Hungary, about 90 miles E.N.E.
of Presburg. Its mines are descended by eleven or twelve shafts, attached to
which are eighteen or twenty washing works. The best mines at Kremnitz
belong to private companies. The richest veins are now exhausted, or under
water ; but, at present, about 15,000 marks of silver, and 250 marks of gold,
are raised yearly. The metals are rarely found pure, but, as at Schemnitz,.
are intermixed with lead, copper, iron, zinc, and arsenic. Quartz is the
matrix of the ore, which is first reduced by the hammer to pieces about as
large as the stones used for Macadamizing roads, then subjected to the crush-
ing-mill, by which it is pulverised, next washed over slanting frames, occa-
sionally roasted, and finally smelted. The largest smelting-house in Hungary
is at Neusohl, on the Gran ; but Kremnitz boasts of the most complete esta-
blishment of this kind in the country.

It has been stated above, that all the gold and silver produced in Hungary,
whether by private individuals or by the Government, is, or ought by law to
be, coined at Kremnitz. Delius reported, in 1773, that, between 1740 and
that year, nearly 100 million guldens (florins) of the precious metals had
been obtained from the mines of Schemnitz and Kremnitz, and coined at the
latter town ; and that 3,000,000 guldens still came yearly from Hungary and
Transylvania. According to Mr. Paget, the amount of bullion now coined
at Kremnitz is about 250,000/. (2,500,000 florins) yearly ; besides which,
nearly 270 marks of gold, and 18,000 marks of silver, of which no further
account is given, find their way thence to Vienna, in ingots. The silver
coined at Kremnitz is chiefly in zwanzigers, or pieces of twenty kreutzers ;
and the gold into ducats and half-ducats. The stamping-machines used there
are now made in the Austrian capital, from Prussian models ; but they would
seem, from all accounts, to be of a very inferior kind ; and, at the imperial
mint of Kremnitz, there is no machinist capable of improving them.

o

Naval Architecture.

[May,

Schemnitz has a school of mining, established in 1760, with five professors,
and about 200 students, all of whom are educated by the state, free of cost,
and some of whom are awarded an. annual stipend of 20/. or 30J. This
academy has a good library ; but, in all other respects, it appears to be
greatly inferior to that of Freiberg, in the kingdom of Saxony, — on the plan
of which it was modelled, and which unquestionably takes the first rank in
Europe as a school of mining industry.

Art. X.— NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.

ANALYSIS OP SHIPS.

The method of analysing ships, which the Swedish naval architect, Chapman,
adopted, and which led to the invention of the parabolic or exponential
method of construction, is one by which a correct idea of a ship, subjected to
such examination, may be formed.

The calculations are made of the various elements, the areas of the vertical
sections, area of the load water-line, displacement, and the distance of the
centre of gravity of the displacement from the middle of the load water-line.

The areas of the vertical sections are divided by any convenient common
divisor, as the greatest breadth, to obtain ordinates for a curve, or line of
sections; these ordinates are set off perpendicular to the load water-line at
the stations of the respective sections, and a curve is drawn through the
points, and extended forward and abaft to meet the water-line. When the
areas of the sections are calculated to the outside of the timbers, this curve
generally meets the water-line a short distance within the rabbets of the stem
and stern-post ; and the distance between the points of intersection is consi-
dered the length of the construction water-line.

To examine the nature of this curve, its area is calculated, and the expo-
nent of a parabola of equal area is found,

If D = the number of cubic feet in the displacement,
M = the area of the midship section,
I = the length of the construction water-line,
b = the breadth of the ship,
and n, m, r, and *, the exponents of the line of sections, midship section,
load water-line, and the displacement respectively, then

I x M x

D

- — = D, or n — —
s+1 JM-D

The distance of the axis of a parabola from the middle of the construction

water-line is taken = a.n + 2, a being the distance which the centre of
gravity of the displacement is before the middle ; and tbe greatest abscissa
of the parabola is eqaal to tbe greatest breadth of the curve of sections, which
gives the position of the vertex to the parabola.

The equation to the parabola is yl = ax ; x is the longest abscissa ; and y,
the distance from it to tbe fore-part of tbe construction water-line, tbe longest
ordinate: the parameter is fo and from the equation n. log.?/ = log.a + log.x,
and log. a = n. log. y — log. x : from wb'ch equation,, also, the lengths of
the abscissa to their corresponding ordinates are foond.

When the ordinate is y', the corresponding v?lue c?the abscissa x is ob-
tained ; log. x' = n. log. y' — log. a. And in this manner all tbe values
of x are obtained for the after-part as well as for the fore-part of the para-
bolic line.

It will be found convenient to divide the parts of the construction water-
line abaft and before the axis into an equal number of equal parts, as, at the
corresponding divisions, the abscissae are equal when the exponent is the
same for both parts of the line of sections, and the labour of calculating is
lessened.

We have then parabolic lines to compare with tbe fore and after-parts of
the line of sections. In some ships the exponent of the fore-body is found
to be greater than that of the after-body ; in others, the exponent of the
after-body it. found to be the greater, and the bine of sections does not cor-
respond with the parabolic line ; at some parts it is rather within, and at
others a little without it : and in some ships the exponent is the same for the
fore and after-bodies, and the curve of sections corresponds exactly with the
parabolic line. This was the case in the Swedish ships, which had been
proved co be the finest ships in the navy of Sweden.

W

The exponent of the load water-line r = j~r~_ -ry that of the midship

M

section m = -j-~r w in which expressior k is tbe height of the load water-
line from the intersection of the curve of the midship section with its middle
line, when continued in a fair line to meet it ; this gives the exponent of the
curve : for that of the area of the midship section, the whole depth from the

D
load water-line to the rabbet is taken : and s =~Tw tj: fr°m tnese ex-
pressions the exponents in the following table are calculated. The dimen-
sions of the several ships are taken from the excellent article on " Ship
Building," in the last edition of the " Encyclopedia Britannica,"
A. F. B. Creuze, Esq., F.R.S.

ANALYSIS OF TABLE OF ELEMENTS.

Number of guns
Length of the load water-line
Breadth at load water-line
Mean depth from load water-line)
to tbe lower part of the rabbet >
of keel . . J

Load displacement in cubic feet
Centre of gravity of displace-)
ment before the middle of the >
load water-line . . J

Centre of gravity of displacement J
below the load water-line ^

Area of the midship section .
Area of the load water-liue
Exponent of the line of sections :
Exponent of the load water-line :
Exponent of the midship section m
Exponent of the displacement j
Height of the uietacentro from ~)
the centre of gravity of dis- >
placement . . . )

Height of metaccntre from the 1
load water-line . . £

Co-efficient of the displacement)
having the area of midships-
section . . . )
Ratio of displacement to a cir- )
cumscriliing parallelopiped . C,
Side of a cube of equal content )
with the displacement . J
Side of a cube of equal content)
with the circumscribing paral- V
lelopipeil . . . J
Length divided by -J displacement

120
20525
55-5

2312

165,200

20

10-0

1056

10012

3-205

7-253

4-64

2-49

13-7

3-7

156-439

•6272
54-87

64-10
3-740

CO
195-75
52-23

22-66

134,400

1-35

89

908

C960
22-77
7-12
506
1-95

13-34

4-44

136-032

•5801
51-22

61-42
3-821

76
182

49-75

20-58

103,570

1-75

8-2

C'O

75.02
2-794
7-21
3-78
1-97

13-28

5-00

.134-03

•5826

47-7

57-12
3-815

74
176
48-25

20-75

105,980

2-0

8-1

802
7608
3-01
8-60
402
204

12-4

4-3

132-1

•6014
47-32

56-06
3-719

74
168-25
47 66

1975

91,840

2-1

7-63

740
6916
2-31
6-27
3-68
205

12-2

4-57

124-1

•5799
45-12

5401
3-728

Kazee

50
175-33

47-75

liazee

50

168

47-66

17-75

17-75

84,140

77,560

2-0

2-0

6-0

6-9

658

7176
2-69
5-99
3-47
1-94

646

6672
2-504
499
3-23
1-89

13-93

13-7

7-90

6-8

127-87

120-06

•5662

■5457

43-82

42-64

52-97

52-18

4-0

3939

60

173-5
44-25

10-5

74,900

2-75

6-73

6)6
6704
2-34
7-19
3-04
1-52

46

153

40-25

17-37

42

145-25

38-5

16-87

55,720 5i,i()0
1-95

6-75

540
5260
207
5-85
3-39
1-53

12-9 10-9

6-17 4-15 3-4

6-5

500
4776
2-37
585
3-34
1-73

9-9

121-59

•5272

42-15

52-17
4-115

103-1 102-2

•5208
38-19

47-47
4-005

•5413
37-11

45-52
3-914

28

115

31-83

13-66

26,880

1-6

4-9

320
3264
2-70
8-23
2-78
1-51

91

4-2

•5375
29-95

36-84
3-839

18 | 18
106-9 | 97-3
30-25 | 30-25

11-88 ! 11-88

17,710
•65

4-1

241
2632
2-19
4-40
2-03
1-30

9-2

5-1

73-48

•4609
26-06

33-74
4-J02

15,5-10
•66

4-0

241
2368
1-96
4-12
2-03
1-23

9-5

5-5

64-48

•4444
24-95

32-70
3-899

10

87-2
24-66

9-95

10,185

•45

3-5

164
1796
2-47
5-08
2-01
1-32

7-5

40

62-07

•4760
21-67

27-76
1-023

Cutte.-

66
23-66

9-83

6160

0

30

138
1232
2-089
3-73
2-39
1-03

7-4

4-4

44-63

•4001
18-33

24-85
360

205

804

381i|

■

1844.]

The Building Arts.

107

Art. XI.— THE BUILDING ARTS.

CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY.

There is do subject, in the whole range of Constructive Carpentry, of
greater importance than a correct knowledge of the quantity and direction
of the pressure of beams o" timber, arising either from their own weight, or
from their own weight considered in connexion with the loads that they are
made to support. It is therefore our intention, in continuing our discussions
on the Building Arts, to lay before our readers a few of the most valuable
propositions in reference 1.0 the pressure of beams, and the quantity and
direction of i.he forces by which they are sustained ; but in doing this, we
desire it to be understood, that we suppose a previous acquaintance with the
doctrine of the Composition and Resolution of Forces ; for, without that, it
would be difficult to trace the nature of the thrusts exerted by the beams
under different circumstances of fixing, and the various positions in which it
is found necessary to place them. Admitting, therefore, that the reader pos-
sesses the requisite preliminary information, the following propositions are
chosen for their great practical utility and extensive application in the ordi-
nary details of timber framings.

In the construction of scaffoldings for large ant5 lofty buildings, roofs for
churches, theatres, warehouses, &c, as well as the centrings for arches, and
even the arches themselves when the bridges are of timber, it is necessary
that the directions and magnitudes of the various thrusts should be accurately
known, in order that their effects may be counteracted by the proper appli-
cation of ties, struts, and braces, according to the exigency of the particular
case in hand ; and, moreover, in the very common operations of shoring, a
considerable degree of skill is necessary for placing the shores in the proper
position for performing their office with the greatest ease and safety. These
things considered, it is presumed that what follows will be found useful m
leading the carpenter to a knowledge of the positions in which his beams
ought to be placed, wheD they exert themselves with the greatest effect in
sustaining the buildings of which they form so necessary a part.

Fig. I-

Proposition 1. — If a heavy body, no matter of v.hat form, be suspended
by two ropes that meet each other in oblique directions, a straight line drawn
perpendicular to the horizon, and passing through the point in which the
suspending ropes intersect each other, will also pass through the centre of
gravity of the suspended body.

Let the body B, fig. 1, be anyhow suspended by the two ropes AP and CP,
meeting each other obliquely in the point
P ; then, if the straight line PD be drawn
from P in a direction perpendicular to the
horizon, it will pass through G, the centre
of gravity of the body.

By the principles of mechanics, two
forces acting on the body B, and sustain-
ing it by their joint efforts, will equally
sustain it, at whatever point of the lines
AP and CP they may be applied ; provided
always that they act id the same direc-
tion : we may therefore suppose them to
be applied at P, and acting in the direc-
tions AP and CP ; or, w,hich is the same
thing, let the body be suspended from P
considered as some immovable object ca-
pable of sustaining it. Then, since every-
body endeavours to attain the lowest pos-
sible situation, and because the centre of gravity must always be considered
as the place of a body, it follows that the centre of gravity must lie in the
line PD, which is perpendicular to the horizon ; for the several points in
that line are lower than the corresponding points of any other line passing
through the point of suspension at P.

If the sustaining lines AP and CP were to intersect below the body B, the
same thing would still obtain ; for the body cannot be supported unless the
centre of gravity occur in the perpendicular PD, which must in all cases pass
through the point of intersection of the directions of the sustaining forces.

Let the weight of the body B be represented in magnitude and direction
by the straight line PG, intercepted between the centre of gravity G and the
point of suspension at P, and complete the parallelogram GEPF, or, which
amounts to the same thing, let the representative of the body's weight be
resolved into its equivalent composant forces GE and GF, which will respec-
tively represent the magnitude of the sustaining forces in the directions CP
and AP. It therefore appears, that the weight of the body, and the forces
acting in the directions AP and CP, are, respectively, as the lines PG, PE,
and GE, or as the sines of the angles PEG, PGE, and GPE, the sines of the
angles of any plane triangle being proportional to the sides of the triangle by
■which they are respectively subtended.

Frcm what has been done above, it will readily be inferred that the lines
PA, PC, and PD are situated in one and the same plane ; and because PD is
perpendicular to the horizon, it manifestly follows that the plane in which
the lines are situated is also perpendicular to the horizon. The practical man
•will easily discover to what purposes the principles here established are to be
applied.

Proposition 2. — If any body whatever, or any beam of timber, loaded or
unloaded, having its extremities abutting against two planes, be supported in
an inclined position ; and if from the points of contact straight lines be drawn
at right angles to the planes, and continued till they meet ; another line
drawn through the point of intersection at right angles to the plane of the
horizon, will pass through the centre of gravity of the body.

Let a be, def, fig. 2, be two
inclined planes supporting the
body B at the points A and C,
and through the points of con-
tact, A and C, and perpendicular
to a c and df, let A.P and CP be
drawn, which continue to meet
each other in the point P ; then
through P, the point of intersec-
tion, let PD be drawn at right
angles to the plane of the horizon;
PD will pass through G, the cen-
tre of gravity of the body.

Since the body is supported by the planes at the points A and C, and
because the planes re-act against the body in the directions AP and CP
respectively perpendicular to their surfaces, it follows that the body is simi-
larly circumstanced to what it would be if it were suspended from P by the
two ropes AP and CP, as in the last proposition ; consequently, the straight
line PD, which passes through the point of intersection at P, in a direction
perpendicular to the horizon, must pass through G, the centre of gravity of
the body.

If the straight line PD, which is drawn from the point of intersection of
the perpendiculars AP and CP, does not pass through the centre of gravity,
the body will not be sustained in a state of quiescence or balanced rest, but
wil1 move to the one side or the other until the centre of gravity falls in that
line i in which case an equilibrium will obtain, and the body will remain
suspended in a state of rest.

Let the straight line PG, intercepted between the point concourse at P and
the centre of gravity of the body, denote its whole weight and complete the
parallelogram GEPF ; then it is obvious, that the whole weight of the body,
and the pressures on the planes at A and C, or the tensions in the cords AP
and CP, are respectively as PG, PE and GE the diagonal and sides of the
parallelogram, or as the sines of the angles PEG, PGE, and GPE.

By the help of what has now been demonstrated, we are enabled to resolve
the following practical question, in regard to the position of the planes and
the pressures which they sustain in consequence of the weight of the body
when supported at the points A and C.

Example.— Let the position of the body be such as to make with the
horizon an angle of 14 degrees, while the plane on which its upper extremity
rests is inclined to the horizontal line in an angle of 43° 10' ; the position of
the centre of gravity being 18 feet from the lower extremity, and 11^ feet
from the upper ; it is required to assign the position of the other plane when
the body is supported, and also the pressure on each plane, the whole weight
of the body being eight cwt. ?

Draw the straight line b c of any convenient length at pleasure, in which
take any point b, and through b draw b a de at right angles to b c, to repre-
sent the horizon. At the point c in b c, make the angle b c a equal to 46° 50',
the complement of the given acclivity of the plane. In the inclined face of the
plane a c, assume any point A at pleasure, and draw AP perpendicular to a c.
Through the centre of gravity of the body G, draw DP perpendicular to the
horizon or parallel to b c, and meeting AP in the point P ; from the angle
bac 43° 10' the angle of the plane's inclination, subtract 14°, the angle at
which the length of the body is inclined to the horizon, and the remainder
29° 10' is the angle CAa contained between the face of the plane and the
direction of the body. Make the angle CA a equal to 2tP 10', and set off
AC equal to 29£ feet the given length, or 18 + 11^. Join PC, and draw
fCd perpendicular thereto; then through any point /in df produced at
pleasure, draw/e at right angles to the horizontal line bade, and def will
mark out the position of the required plane on which the body is supported
in'a state of rest.

From the principles of construction, it is manifest that the angles APD
and CPD are the same as the inclinations of the planes bac and e df, one
of which, viz., b a c, is given by the question, and is equal to 43° 10' ; and the
other, or e df being calculated from the figure, is equal to 42° 52' very nearly ;
consequently, the pressures on the planes in the directions PA and PC are
determined in the following manner, viz : —

Pressure in the direction PA = 1-0024 x 0'6803 x 8 = 5-46 cwt.
Pressure in the direction PC = 1-0024 x 0-6841 x 8 = 5-49 cwt.

These two propositions unfold the principles by which we are enabled to
determine the pressures on the points of support, when the whole weight of
the incumbent body is given ; they are useful in assigning the magnitudes of
the forces that must be applied to counteract the pressures in given directions,
for in all cases of constructive carpentry, the opposing forces here alluded to,
must be brought into operation in order to prevent accidents, and since it is
our motive in subsequent details, to dwell particularly on the points of calcu-
lation, our readers will find it to their advantage to render themselves familiar
with the fundamental principles.

Proposition 3. — If a beam of timber of uniform figure be supported in
such a manner, that while a portion of the end is perfectly coincident with a

o 2

108

The Silk Trade of France, and Silk Manufacture of Lyons.

[May,

portion of an inclined plane, the lower end is prevented from sliding outwards
on the horizontal plane by reason of some immovable obstacle placed before
it ; then if the whole weight of the incumbent body be given, with its position
and the position of the centre of gravity, the several pressures and thrusts on
the points of support can from thence be readily determined.

Let AC, fig. 3, be a uniform beam having a portion of its upper end in con-
tact with the inclined plane AI, while the lower is supported on the horizon-
tal plane BC, and prevented from sliding outwards by means of some fixed
object at C, or we may suppose that it is retained in its position in con-
Fig. 3.

sequence of the plane DE, at right angles to PC, the direction of the oblique
thrust on the point C. Since the figure of the beam is uniform, the centre of
gravity must obviously occur at the middle of it ; therefore, at the point I,
on the inclined plane A I, erect the perpendicular IP, and through the centre
of gravity at G, let the vertical line FGP be drawn at right angles to the
horizontal BC, and meeting IP in P. Join P C, and let DCE be a plane at
right angles to PC, passing through C the extreme point of the beam AC,
and produce PF to meet ECD in D.

Upon PC as a diameter describe the circle PIF C, which will manifestly
pass through the points I and F, since PIC and PFC are right angles.
Draw FI and complete the parallelogram GKPL ; then is the whole weight
of the beam, the pressure on I, and the oblique thrust at C, respectively
proportional to the straight lines PG, PK, and PL the diagonal and sides of
the parallelogram GKPL.

Since the whole length of the beam is given, as well as its position and the
position of its centre of gravity, the angle ACB, and consequently its equal
GPI, are also given ; and because the whole weight of the beam is known,
the magnitudes of the pressures and thrusts in the directions PI and PC
are to be determined as follows : — Let the straight line PG, intercepted be-
tween the point of concurrence at P and the centre of gravity of the beam
at G, be either equal or proportional to the weight of the beam ; then in the
triangle of forces PKG, we have by plane trigonometry,

Sin. PKG : sin. PGK : : PG : PK = PG x sin. PGK x cosec. PKG= pressure on I ;
and Sin. PKG : sin. GPK: : PG : GK = PG * sin. GPK x cosec. PKG=pressure or thrust
atC.

And from these formula the numerical values of the pressures or thrusts may
be ascertained according to the data, as specified in the following example.

Example. — The beam is inclined to the horizon in an angle of 35° ; its
whole length is 42-J feet, distance from C to I 38£, from C to F 16£ feet,
and the whole weight of the beam 6 cwt. ; it is required from thence to deter-
mine the pressure at I, and the thrust at C. The first thing to be done in
resolving the question is, to find the angle QFI, because the difference be-
tween it and QCI gives CIF, which again is equal to GPL or PGK, as is
manifest from the circumstance of both the angles CIF and CPF being con-
tained in the same segment of the circle FIPC, and subtended by the same
chord FC. And it is from the same circumstance that we determine the angle
GPI to be equal to QCI, the inclination of the beam ; for they are both con-
tained in the same segment of the circle, and are subtended by the same
chord IF. ffo find the angle QFI, we have, by plane trigonometry,

Radius : 38-5 :: cos. 35° : CQ = 38'5 x 0-81915 = 31-54 feet.
And again it is

Radius : 38-5 :: sin. 35 : IQ = 38-5 x 0-57358 = 22-08 feet;
therefore, by subtraction we get 31-54 — 16-5 = 15-04 feet = QF; and

IQ 2209
again by trigonometry it is tan. QFI =Qp~ = i5 ,() . = 1-46808, the natural

tangent of 55° 44', from which subtracting 35°, the inclination of the beam,
\here remains 20° 44' for the angle CIF or GPL. Consequently, by revert-

ing to the foregoing formula? for the values of the pressures at I and C, we
have cwt.

Pressure on 1 = 6 x sin. 20° 44' x cosec. 55° 44' = C x 0-354 x 1-21 = 2-57
PressureonC = 6 x sin. 35 00 x cosec. 55 44 = 6 x 0-574 x 1-21 =4-17

This, however, is not all that the calculation requires ; for, in consequence
of the oblique thrust in the direction PC, two other forces are excited, one of
them acting in the direction of gravity, and the other in the direction of the
horizon ; or the one operates as a direct pressure at C, and the other as a hori-
zontal thrust at the same point ; the calculation will, therefore, not be com-
plete until we have ascertained the magnitude of these forces also ; for, in a
case of actual construction, it becomes necessary to counteract the effects of
all the forces that may be brought into action throughout the whole system
under consideration.

Let the oblique force or thrust PL be resolved into its co-ordinate forces
PR and RL, the one perpendicular to the horizon, and the other parallel
to ; then it is obvious that while the one acts as a direct pressure at C, the
other acts as a thrust, endeavouring to carry the beam along the horizontal
plane BC. To calculate these forces we must observe, that in the right-angled
triangle PRL there are given all the angles, and the side PL, and from these
the two sides PR and RL are found as follows : —

Direct pressure PR = PL x sin. PLR = 4-17 x 093524 = 3'90cwt.

Horizontal thrust RL = PL x sin. RPL = 4-17 x 0-35402 = 1-48 cwt.

And in this manner will the calculations proceed in all cases where the
conditions are similar to those that form the subject of the present proposi
tion. But it must be borne in mind, that when the beam is loaded otherwise
than by its own weight, the common centre of gravity of the beam, and of the
load which it sustains, is the point to which the process of calculation must
be referred; but when this point has been properly assigned, the othei
steps of the operation will be nearly the same as those above.

:

'

Proposition 4. — If a uniform beam have one extremity resting on a hori
zontal plane, while the other abuts against an upright wall ; then, if the in-
clination of the beam, its weight, and the position of its centre of gravity be
given, the several pressures and thrusts can easily be ascertained.

Let AC, fig. 4, be the
beam, ACB its inclination,
and C the position of its
centre of gravity ; through
the point A, where the
beam AC rests on the sur-
face of the upright wall,
draw the straight line AP
parallel to the horizon ;
and through G, the place
of the centre of gravity,
draw the vertical line FP,
meeting AP in the point
P ; and draw PC to the
point where the beam rests on the horizontal plane. Let PG denote the weight
of the beam, and complete the parallelogram GKPL ; then the weight of the
beam, the pressure on A, and the thrust of C, are respectively as the lines PG,
PK, and PL ; or they are respectively proportional to the right lines PF, FC,
and PC, as is manifest from the similarity of the triangles PGL and PFC.

This is the simplest case into which the general problem divides itself. It
is, nevertheless, one of very great utility in the practice of carpentry, since it
indicates the conditions under which rafters and shores are generally placed in
roofs and shorings of the usual construction ; and the resolution of the follow
ing example will show the method of conducting the calculation.

Example. — The length of the beam AC is 41 feet, its weight 5fcwt., and
its inclination to the horizontal line BC is exactly 30°, the distance CF beinj
17-^feet ; it is required to determine the pressures at A and C, the points o!
support.

Since the angle ACB is 30 degrees, the perpendicular AB, or its equal PF
is half the hypothenuse or length of the beam AC ; consequently, in the right-
angled triangle FPC, we have given the two sides PF and CF to find the angli
LPG ; and for this purpose the rules of plane trigonometry give

FC 17-5
tan. LPC= -pni =o(P5 = 0-85365, the natural tangent of 40° 29 ; hence we

have

Pressure at A = tan. 40° 29' x 5- 75 = 0-85365 x 5-75 = 4-91 cwt.

Pressure at C = sec. 40 29 x 5-75 = 1-31476 x 5-75 = 7-56 cwt.
There are several other very important cases, in which the pressures and
thrusts of single and compound beams remain to be considered. These, how-
ever, must be noticed at some subsequent opportunity, as our space will not
allow us to discuss them on the present occasion.

Art. XII.— THE SILK TRADE OF FRANCE, AND SILK
MANUFACTURE OF LYONS.

The manufacture for which France is eminently distinguished is that of silk.
The French silks are unequalled in Europe, and perhaps in the world ; the
only fabrics capable of rivalling them being those produced in China. Their
superiority is due not only to the taste and elegance in pattern, &c, which
characterise them, and in which they are superlatively beyond the silk fabrics

1844.]

The Silk Trade of France and Silk Manufacture of Lyons.

109

of our own country, for instance, but also to the real excellence of the raw
silk produced on the French soil. At the close of the last century a number
of experiments was made by authority, which establishes the latter statement
in a striking manner. French organzine was submitted to a close compari-
son with that of Piedmont, which had long maintained an European reputa-
tion ; and it was proved that while twenty inches of the best Italian organ-
zine broke at a tension of three inches, the best French organzines yielded
four inches before they gave way ; and that of two fabrics, consisting of 740
threads each, the Italian tore asunder completely from a weight of211bs.,
while the French supported a weight of 261bs. ; and even then, as an addi-
tional proof of superior tenacity, afforded a serrated edge in giving way.
With the advantage of so admirable a material as an article of home produce,
it can be no matter of wonder that the silk manufacture should be fostered by
the French government, which has constantly shown a marked predilection for
patronizing native to the exclusion of foreign produce ; nor is it surprising
that the French silks should, for the most part, be preferred to all others in
the civilized communities of the globe. Appreciation by foreigners is, of all
things, the most certain proof of the real excellence of any product ; and this
is so decidedly manifested with respect to the article of which we are treating,
that four-fifths of the silk fabrics woven in France are exported to foreign
countries.

Herault, Ardeche, Gard, Vaucluse, Lozere, Drome, &c, all departments in
the south of France, and through most of which the mountain chain of the
Cevennes passes, are those in which the raw silk is chiefly produced. Dr.
Bowring, in his " Second Report on the Commercial Relations between France
and Great Britain," has made some curious calculations of the quantities of
the silk annually obtained, the worms, mulberry trees, &c, in the former
country. He says, " It is pretty clearly ascertained that the present pro-
duction (1834) of raw silk in France is about 3,000,0001bs. per annum';
the quantity of cocoons may therefore be estimated at about 36,000,0001bs. It
is calculated that sixteen pounds of mulberry-leaves will be consumed for the
production of a pound of cocoons, so that the annual produce of France must
be 576,000,0001bs. of leaves ; and giving to each tree an average annual
produce of eighty pounds, the number of mulberry trees must be above
7,000,000. One ounce of eggs will, on an average, produce a hundred pounds
of cocoons. An ounce of eggs is calculated to give at least thirty thousand
worms ; the quantity of silkworms annually reared in France cannot, there-
fore, be less than 10,800,000,000." He goes on to say, " The general esti-
mate of the manufacturers is, that the consumption is about one-fourth of
foreign and three-fourths of French silk. The looms of France are estimated
at about 70,000 ; making allowance, therefore, for those which employ other
raw materials besides silk, the average quantity (of raw silk) wrought up
in France is believed to be about 601bs. per loom, which gives an annual
consumption of 4,200,0001bs. It is generally estimated that the present
value of the silk manufactures of France is about 140,000,000 francs,*
(5,600,000?.,) composed of 80,000,000 francs value of raw materials, and
60,000,000 francs of added value by labour, profit, &c. As 20 francs (16*.)
per lb. may be deemed a fair average value for silk, it would appear that about
four million pounds must be the weight annually consumed." (Rep. pp. 3, 4.)
The chief seats of the French silk manufactures are in the south, in the
same region in which the silk is principally grown. Lyons, Nimes, Avig-
non, St. Etienne (a notice of which town and its industry appeared in the
Artizan for November last), Alais, St. Jean de Paed, Tours, and Paris, are
the places in and around which most of the looms are established. In Paris
the silk trade has latterly received considerable extension, but Lyons still
stands at the head ; for, in 1838, the products of the Lyonese silk looms were
estimated at 135,000,000 francs value, — an amount considerably more than
half the value of the total silk goods annually manufactured in France.
Lyons is in an admirable situation for commerce, being built at the conflu-
ence of the Saone with the Rhone, and having thus a free water communica-
tion with a wide and rich extent of country. It had, in 1836, a population
reported to comprise 147,223 persons; but, including the whole of its sub-
urbs, and some adjacent communes, closely connected with it by industry,
&c., the number may be estimated to reach fully 200,000. The city proper
stands on a triangular tongue of land, between the rivers, which is about
three miles in length by an average breadth of three furlongs. To the north
of the city are the suburbs of Serin and St. Clair (conjointly called La Croix
Rouse) ; west of the Saone are those of St. Irenee, Vaise, St. Just, and St.
. George ; and on the left, or east bank of the Rhone, are the fauxbourg Guil-
lotine, and the quartier des Brotteaux. The north and west suburbs are, next
to the city itself, the quarters in which the weavers mostly reside. On the
authority of an official statement, in 1833, there were then about 40,000 silk
looms in Lyons and its vicinity; namely, 17,000 in the city intra muros,
9,000 in the immediate suburbs, upwards of 5,000 in the adjacent portion
of the department of the Rhone, and nearly 9,000 more scattered through-
out the nearest parts of the contiguous departments of Loire, Saone-et-Loire,
Ain, Isere, and Drome. In 1835, it was estimated also, officially, that there
were, in and about Lyons, as many as 38,000 weavers, of whom 8,000 were
masters, and 30,000 compagnons, or journeymen, and other assistants. The
number of silk weavers was apt to vary greatly in the first part of this last
decennial period, the revolutionary movements and emeutes having obliged

* According to the le Encyclop. des Gens du Monde," the number of silk looms
in France was estimated, in 1839, at 85,000, employing 170,000 workmen, and
producing Bilks worth 21 1,500,000 francs (8,440,000/.) a year.

many of the workmen to emigrate, at different times, from France to Zurich
and elsewhere ; but Hugo, (" France Pittoresque," vol. iii.,) only a few years
since, still estimated the aggregate population, depending for a livelihood on
the silk-weaving in Lyons and its vicinity, at 80,000 persons.

The weaving at Lyons is not conducted in large factories, as in the chief
manufacturing towns of Great Britain, but is almost wholly domestic. The
silk merchants, of whom there are from 500 to 600 in Lyons, supply the
weavers with the patterns and raw material, sometimes the remesses and
reeds, and pay them according to the quantity of manufactured goods they
produce. The looms are the property of the master weavers, who commonly
possess each from two to six or eight. These are wrought at by the master
himself, in his own apartments, aided by his family, and by such journeymen
as he chooses to engage. About three-sevenths of the looms are thus sup-
posed to be wrought by the masters, an equal number by journeymen, and
the remaining seventh by children and apprentices. On the lower-priced
plain stuffs women are principally employed. The journeymen are not settled
in Lyons, but only visit it for a longer or shorter time, as work is to be ob-
tained. They frequently live in the family of the master, however, paying
him for their board and lodging, and receiving from him half the wages paid
by the manufacturer for the work they furnish — the other half belonging to
the master, for the use of his loom. The master, on an average, may gain
by his own labour from 2 to 3-£ francs a-day ; and half that sum, or nearly,
by the labour of each of his assistants. The master weaver who has three
looms, is supposed to get by the two which he does not himself work, about
900 francs, or 36/. a-year. His rental will be about 150 francs ; and the
cost of lodging his two compagnons 80 francs ; there remains to him, there-
fore, a balance of 670 francs, or about 27/., from the services of the latter.
Wages appear to have risen considerably of late years. A master weaver
who made 2 francs a-day in 1834, could make at least 2J francs in 1838 ;
and in the latter year the journeyman never made less than from If to 2 francs
a-day. The hours of work commonly vary from twelve to sixteen ; but, on
occasion of brisk demand, may include eighteen or twenty out of the twenty-
four. The master weavers are ill-lodged, seldom having more than two
apartments ; but they are well nourished, as are the compagnons, who pay
them from 45 to 50 cents. (4%d. to bd.) per day for their board. The la-
bouring population of Lyons are said to have much improved, both physically
and morally, of late. Half a century ago they might have been characterised
as subject to scrofulous and spinal diseases, generally ignorant and vicious ;
and, not long since, a fourth of the population could not read nor write. All
this, says M. Villerine, is now altered. The weavers of Lyons do not, indeed,
save money, nor are benefit societies numerous amongst them ; but they are
temperate in their habits; not given to turbulence as a body; much more
educated than formerly ; and their morals will bear contrast with those pre-
valent in most other French manufacturing towns. It would be both interest-
ing and useful to trace that this progressive amelioration in the condition of
the Lyons weavers were coincident with the increase of remuneration for their
labour, conjoined with a sounder system of government than prevailed little
more than half a century ago ; for it would tend to prove that it is in pro-
portion as the laborious classes of the community are stinted to a miserable
and unremunerative pittance, and oppressed by fiscal burdens, from whose
weight they have no hope of escape, that they drown their intellects in gross
sensualities, and damage both themselves and their progeny in mind, body,
and estate.

The eminence which the silks of France have attained, is justly attributed,
not only to the intrinsic excellence of the fabrics themselves, but to the
rapid production of new patterns. It is estimated that not more than twenty-
five new pieces are, on an average, manufactured on the same pattern ; and,
indeed, the patterns are usually exhibited to the wholesale buyer before the
articles are manufactured at all. The importance of the French silks main-
taining their character for superiority of taste is so well appreciated, that a
large school of art has been established by the government at Lyons, in which
the different departments of design are taught, gratuitously, to about 200
students, who attend for a period of five years. The city of Lyons pays
20,000 francs, and the government 3000 francs, for the support of this
school. A botanical garden, hall of sculpture, museum of natural history,
and anatomical theatre, belong to it. There are professors for nine different
classes — the elementary class, the bust-copying, living subject, ornamental,
architectural, botanical, engraving, and anatomical classes ; and another, in
which is learnt the application to manufactures of all that has been previously
taught, and the manner of transferring the designs of the artist to the loom
of the weaver. The advanced students are readily located as draughtsmen to
the manufacturers, their whole attention being devoted to the production of
new patterns. The pay of such artists is from 3 to 10 or 12 francs daily, or
more ; and if their talents are of a high order, they are frequently admitted
as partners in the houses where they are established ; for the success of the
most prosperous Lyons manufactures is almost universally traceable to the
artistical skill of some one of the partners or assistants. The French, as-
suredly, continue to surpass us chiefly in the beauty of their patterns ; for
we can often successfully compete with them in the workmanship of the ma-
terial produced. But it is gratifying to find that we have begun also suc-
cessfully to compete with France on the ground which has been supposed
exclusively her own. Dr. Bowring states, " In the course of my examina-
tion, I found, at every step, spontaneous and often unexpected, testimonies
to the great improvement which had taken place in England (English silk
patterns) since 1826. On several occasions English patterns were exhibited,

110

Porter s Patent Anchor.

[May,

■which, I was assured by the manufacturers, had suggested to them ideas of
improvement, and, sometimes, in particular articles, they informed me that
they could not exceed in quality, nor produce at a cheaper price. During
the prohibitory system, the backwardness of the English silk manufacture
•was a subject of frequent congratulation among the Lyonnese. They met
the English as rivals and competitors nowhere ; they state that they now
meet them everywhere. In 1826, the most intelligent and disinterested ob-
servers estimated the average difference, on the whole silk manufactures of
Prance and England, as 40 per cent, to the disadvantage of England ; and in
1832, the relative disadvantage had been reduced to from 30 to 25 percent.!"
{Bowring's Second Report on the Cornmerc. Relat., 8fc, p. 2fi.) To what
should we attribute such results, but to the fostering influence of peace, the
accompanying regard which has been paid by liberal statesmen to the fur-
therance of the arts in our country within the last dozen or fifteen years, and
•which, we are happy to perceive, is becoming a matter of more anxious and
popular concern ; and to the progress of those free-trade principles which
■will tend to the advancement not only of our own national prosperity, but
of the whole human race, and under the progress of which England will have
less and less to apprehend from foreign competition ?

A few figures will suffice to show the average amount of silk goods ex-
ported from France to different countries in late years, according to the most
recent official returns we possess. Between 1825 and 1834, the manufactured
silks exported from France had increased from 120, 000, 000 francs (4, 800, 000/.)
to 130,000,000 francs (7,200,000/.) in annual value. The French custom-
house reports state, that in an intermediate year (1831) the total value of
such exports amounted to 122,494,361 francs. Of this sum, the plain silks
stood for 60,513,840 francs ; of which the United States, the chief purchaser
of almost all descriptions of French goods, took to the value of 28,000,000
francs (1,120,000/.), and England to somewhat less than half 'this amount.
The import of plain French silks into the British dominions had steadily in-
creased since 1825. Germany, Spain, and the Netherlands were the pur-
chasers next in order ; but the purchases of all these had diminished materially
as compared with what they had been in 1825; and the South American
demand had fallen off by considerably more than two-thirds. Of figured
stuffs, the export in 1831 amounted to 18,750,000 francs, but this was less
than ordinary, for the demand for these goods fluctuates greatly. The
United States was still the largest purchaser ; next to which stood Germany,
Mexico, Sardinia, and England, in their relative order. The export of figured
silks to England had, however, increased from the value of 71,900 francs, in
1825, to 911,940 francs, in 1831. The manufacture of silk goods, em-
broidered with gold and silver, had increased nearly four-fold since 1827 ;
Turkey being by far the largest purchaser ; Germany and Sardinia princi-
pally bought the stuffs embroidered with tinsel. From 5,000,000 to nearly
8,000,000 francs' worth were annually exported from 1827 to 1831, of half-
silken goods, silks mixed with thread, cotton, and other materials. These
were taken principally by the United States, Sardinia, Germany, and the
Netherlands ; the purchases made by England were but small. The export
of silk hosiery from France, chiefly to the United States, Mexico, Germany,
and Spain, had diminished by more than one-third since 1825, and, as re-
spects England, by 6-7ths ; her import by illicit introduction being to 94,800
francs in that year, and to only 14,200 francs in 1831. In silk gauzes, crapes,
and ribands, the United States still purchased most largely ; in net, Spain
did the same ; and in silk lace, England. The export trade of France in
ribands may be estimated on an average at 25,000,000 francs (1,000,000/.)
yearly; of which the purchases of England comprise from l-10th to l-12th
in value, though perhaps only about l-15th in quality, they being principally
confined to the superior kinds of ribands. Germany, Holland, and Spain
generally rank next in importance as buyers.

A pretty fair instance of the futility of prohibitory laws for the prevention
of smuggling is afforded by the fact already alluded to, that the introduction
of French hosiery into England had decreased by 6-7ths by the removal of
the prohibition duty. Dr. Bowring, in his report, goes on to show that the
customs' duties on French silks would be more productive and beneficial to
this country if their reduction were carried still lower. It appears that before
the legal introduction of French manufactured goods into England, the exports
from France had gone on progressively from an amount of 1,744,105 francs,
in 1818 ; to 6,104,103 francs, in 1825 ; so that, adding a difference of 40 per
cent, in the cost of production, the amount of smuggling in the latter year
did not represent a less sum than 340,000/. per annum. By the custom-
house returns, in 1826, 58,996/. were received by the English revenue as
duties on French goods ; while by the French returns it was made clear that
7,596,421 francs represented the value of the goods exported to England ; so
that, on adding 40 per cent, for difference of cost, the import into England
would represent a value of 420,000/. If 25 per cent, were therefore collected
for duty in England, it would seem that about 180,000/. worth of silk goods
were illegally introduced in 1826, so that the change of system immediately
put an end to about one half of the contraband trade. Nor in 1830, when the
imports here had reached an amount 3-5ths greater than in 1825, could the
amount of French silks smuggled into England have equalled that in the last-
named year, under a strict prohibitory system. {2nd Rep. p. 20.) An esti-
mate is made in the same report of the loss which would probably accrue to
the British revenue from any attempt to re-enact formerly existing prohi-
bitions on French silks. Of silks exported from France, amounting to
800,000/., the raw material may be deemed to enter for 550,000/., the manu-
facturing labour for 200,000/., and the profit to the manufacturer, weaver, &c.

50,000/. The value of the same goods when imported (the cost of production
in England being 25 per cent, more) would equal 1,000,000/., which at 20
per cent, would yield to the customs 200,000/., and a fair profit to the im-
porter of 100,000/. Now the articles in which payments are made to France,
as cottons, woollens, iron, &c, are such as are trebled in value by labour, and
of which 800,000/. worth would pay a profit of 50,000/. to the manufacturers,
&c. But if England herself manufactured the silk goods she now imports
from France, she would have to import foreign raw material to 550,000/.,
and employ in manufacturing labour as much as 350,000/., with a profit to
the producers of only 70,000/. ; the result of which would be, that England
would lose jn customs-revenue 200,000/., in manufacturing labour 150,000/.,
and in proflj. ^0 the producers 80,000/. ; making in all a loss of 430,000/. per
annum ! creased introduc

The in -ous influence otion of French silks of late years is proved to have
had no se1^ thrown silk n our own s'lk trade, by the fact, that the amounts
of raw a", t gj,je Dy imported for our own manufactories have steadily
marched a . jg40 jnciside in their increase with the manufactured goods.
From 1831 ■, ^Q 584 usiye> the import of raw silk from France had pro-
gressed fromn(j'0f prenclDS- weigbt in the former, to 1,584,980 lbs. in the
latter year ; a h silk manufacture from 149,187 lbs. to 267,477 lbs.

In 1841, the import into Great Britain, from France, of raw silk, was
1,545,188 lbs. weight, of thrown silk 218,526 lbs., and of manufactured silks
254,120 lbs., which had been near the average proportion maintained for
several previous years.

Art. XIII.— PROMISCUOUS NOTES ON STEAM MACHINERY.

Sole-plate and Condenser. — Every marine engine, of the side-lever kind,
should be constructed with a sole-plate ; and we think it the best way that
the condenser be cast upon the sole-plate. Engines unfurnished with sole-
plates, and with joints between the valve-casing and condenser, below the
level of the keelsons, are extremely objectionable. Those joints, either from
the working of the ship — the movement of the cylinder or condenser — the
de-oxydising effect of the oil spilt about the machinery — or the combination
of all these causes — will be sure, sooner or later, to become leaky ; and it is
almost impossible to re-make or effectually staunch them.

Messrs. Maudslay and Co., in their West India Mail-packets, bolted the
condenser to the under-side of the sole-plate ; by which expedient, the rust-
joints are preserved, in a great measure, from the action of the grease, and
from any strain or vibration consequent upon the yielding of the condenser
or cylinder. Messrs. Miller and Co. adopted the same arrangement of con-
denser, but cast the condenser upon the sole-plate.

There are very few of the engines made in Scotland in which the condenser
is not cast upon the sole-plate ; and in almost all of them the greater part of
the condenser is situated above the sole-plate, and the main-centre passes-
through it. The height of the condenser, in this arrangement, has the ad-
vantage of enabling the air-pump to drain it of water very effectually ; but
the same object is accomplishable by the use of a very large eduction-pipe
immediately behind the valve-casing into which the injection-water is admit-
ted, and which thus becomes, in effect, a tall condenser. This latter is the
arrangement of Messrs. Maudslay and Messrs. Miller. It has the advantage
of leaving the space usually occupied above the sole-plate, by the condenser,
free and unperplexed by any species of machinery except the main-centre,
which is supported by pillow-blocks resting or cast on the sole-plate.

The practice of passing the main-centre through the condenser, either with
or without a pipe, is objectionable. A pipe is calculated to make the sides
of the condenser crack by unequal contraction ; and the absence of a pipe is
almost sure to involve a leakage of air round the main-centre joint. The
keys usually employed to fix the main-centre will sometimes occasion trouble,
from becoming loose ; and, in some instances, we have known a main-centre
boss to be split by the keys being driven too hard. In all cases, too, the
thickness of metal requisite in the condenser sides for resisting the strain of
the main-centre, will make the sides more liable to crack, in consequence of
being suddenly cooled. Upon the whole, the practice of securing the main-
centres by plummer-blocks appears greatly preferable : when the main-centre
is made to pass through the condenser, the hole should be bored out, and the
main-centre ground in with a little taper.

Art. XIV.— PORTER'S PATENT ANCHOR.

New inventions, whatever be their merit, are brought into use only
after an incredible expenditure of money and toil, and we think it the
duty of all right-thinking persons to aid the introduction of new contrivances
of merit, both as an act of justice to the inventor, and an ret of kindness to
the community. Among the inventions deserving of these good offices we
have no hesitation in numbering Porter's anchor — which is equally deserving
of praise, whether regard be had to the ingenuity and scientific excellence of
the contrivance, its practical efficacy, or the important ends it aspires to
accomplish. We must here lay a short account of this invention before our
readers to justify and confirm our commendations.

1844.]

Porters Patent Anchor.

Ill

This anchor, then, like the common anchor, which it is intended to supersede,
consists of three parts — the stock, the shank or beam, and the arms that carry the
Jlukes or palms ; the chief and distinguishing feature in the construction being the
manner in which the parts are connected with one another. In the common
anchor the junction is effected by welding the arms to the shank, a process that is
attended with great uncertainty, as to its effects, in consequence of the unequal
hammering which the mass sustains. In the improved anchor the junction is
formed by a bolt, on which the cross part of the anchor swivels. The shank is
forged with cheeks, or jaws, at one extremity, having eyes, of equal magnitude,
directly opposite each other, for the purpose of receiving the connecting bolt — the
eyes being circular, to allow the free motion of the bolt, in turning upon itself,
as an axis. The arms are worked up in a single bar, of such a thickness as to
pass freely between the cheeks of the shank, and having an eye in the centre, cor-
responding to those in the cheeks already mentioned. The arms are then placed
between the cheeks in such a manner that the eyes shall be concentric with each
other ; through these eyes the bolt is made to pass, and being retained in its place
by a forelock, the junction is completely effected. The reader will perceive that by
this arrangement the arms are free to librate about the connecting bolt, swinging on
either side until the tip of the arm comes in contact with the shank. Persons un-
accustomed to mathematical reasoning, and unacquainted with the laws of me-
chanics, would scarcely believe that a modification, apparently so simple in itself,
should confer upon the instrument such immense advantages. It is this peculiarity
of form that invests it with the great aptitude and facility of penetration for which
it is remarkable — augments, in such a high degree, its holding powers — and increases
its strength to triple or quadruple that of anchors, on the common construction, of
equal size and weight.

It is, indeed, a very rare occurrence in mechanical inquiries that the results of
theoretical investigation and those of practical experiments agree ; yet in the case of
this anchor, they both lead to the same convincing and satisfactory conclusions.
Theory demonstrates the existence of a rapid penetrating power, by converting the
strain of the cable into a downward pressure, acting with full intensity at the point
where the upper arm presses upon the shank. Experiment establishes the fact by
exhibiting a series of results, in which the anchor was never known to move above
a third of its own length before the vessel was brought up ; and even that small
motion is induced by the necessary libration on the crown bolt before the lower
arm attains the altitude of penetration. Theory points to a tenacity of holding
power altogether unattainable by the common instrument — a power that increases
directly with the magnitude of the antagonist force; for the more the strain upon
the cable is incieased, the more violently is the mass of the anchor pressed down-
ward by the action of the upper arm. Experiment verifies the deduction, by show-
ing, in numerous instances of actual trial, that the anchor maintains its hold until
the vessel is brought upon the shortest stay peak, and by requiring an immense
power to bring it home under any circumstances. Theory warrants the assump-
tion of great strength, by transferring the strain from the crown, which is the
usual place of fracture in the common anchor, to points that are more favourably
situated for opposing a bold and effective resistance. Experiment proves the inference
by showing that anchors of this construction will resist a strain three times greater
than that required for testing anchors of equal weight constructed on the common
principle ; and numerous testimonials from naval officers of high standing and
undoubted experience, show, that derangement or fracture has never occurred at the
junction of the arms with the shank; nor has the crown bolt ever been known
to bend or cripple under the most enormous strains — the cheeks maintaining their
parallelism in all situations, and under the most trying circumstances, arising from
shocks and jolts, however violent.

The properties here detailed are sufficient to stamp on the patent anchor an
importance greater than any other invention of the kind can claim ; but it pos-
sesses several other advantages of no mean kind, which it is but right to mention
in order that the value of the improvement may be justly appreciated, and placed
in its proper light, with that class of individuals to whom it is more particularly
an object of interest. This anchor, then, cannot hook the cables of other
vessels in a crowded anchorage. This evil is avoided in consequence of the
pea of the upper arm closing upon the shank, the projection of the toggle on the
back of the fluke being harmless in this respect, the form which it assumes pre-
venting it from entering the. links or retaining the bight of the chain when
formed upon it. It cannot damage the bottoms of vessels that come in contact with
it in shallow water, nor can it be fouled under ordinary circumstances when em-
bedded in the ground. It cannot skid or drag on ground of the most obstinate
description, if penetrable in the smallest degree ; for if the tip of the fluke en-
counter the least protuberance on the surface of the bottom, its tendency to pene-
trate will be instantly called into action ; and the artificial force will there
develope itself with the same intensity as if the penetration were actually
effected.

/V

The improved anchor having now been in use for some years, it is presumed
that the generality of sailors are familiar with its form and the manner of its
operation. It would therefore be superfluous to trace it through its various
positions, from the time it is canted until it attains the attitude of penetration. It
will suffice to exhibit the situation of the instrument when embedded in the ground,
in which case it shows itself as in the marginal figure — the dotted lines representing
1 the arm of the common anchor, supposed to be placed alongside of it, in the same
situation. The mechanical effect produced by the pea of the upper arm coming
down, and resting upon the shank, is here obvious, and the manner in which fouling
and other inconveniences are avoided is quite as easily conceivable.

Such, then, are some of the main features of this admirable invention.
Its efficacy, in practice, is attested by a number of experiments tried at
Woolwich, as well as by the statements of a host of naval and nautical men,
who have had experience of the instrument, at sea. But to these testi-
monies we cannot now further refer than to mention their existence ; nor do
we conceive that there are many of our readers who will desire further proofs
of eligibility than those afforded by the explanation of the ' nature of the
contrivance.

Art. XV.— ANIMAL MECHANICS.

MECHANISM OF CIRCULATION.

Cells, it is well known, perform a most important part in the animal eco-
nomy, and are, indeed, the basis of all subsequently organized tissues. From,
a succession of cells placed end to end, by the obliteration of the partitions
between their cavities, and the continuous union of their membranous sides,
vessels take their origin. The vessels, which are of various kinds — some convey-
ing air, others a fluid to be exposed to the action of the atmosphere, and others
again the fluids destined for the nourishment of the organization, do not, in
plants, appear to exert any compressing force on their contents, so as to
compel them onwards ; they seem, in vegetable structures, to be mere chan-
nels for the fluids, destitute of any action on the latter. But in animal
bodies the case is different. The vessels here, by their elasticity or super-
added powers, contract on their contents, as the blood, &c, forced into
them ; and the fluids they contain are, probably, in every part of their
course, acted upon and changed, more or less, by the vital agencies of their
containing structures. Both these effects are exemplified in the arterial
system of man and the higher animals. The arteries in the human subject
are composed of three distinct coats. The outer is firm and strong, consisting
of condensed cellular tissue. The middle coat consists of a yellowish fibrous
tissue — the fibres of which are disposed obliquely around the vessel, crossing
each other in their course ; this coat is thicker than the external, hut fragile,
and apt to be broken through readily, by force applied to it from either
without or within. Its most remarkable feature, however, and that with
which we have principally to do in this place, is its elasticity. This enables
it both to accommodate itself to the quantity of blood it may be forced to
contain, and to aid the heart in propelling the same blood onwards, into the
smaller vessels. The inner coat, or lining membrane of the arterial system,
is a thin glistening structure, of a nature unlike that of any other through-
out the body, but the function of which is of a vital and secreting, and not of
a mechanical kind.

The arrangement of the circulating apparatus in the animal frame is well
worthy of attention. The arteries start from the heart by one great trunk —
the aorta — which gives off, in its course, numerous branches, large and
small, and finally subdivides, in the abdomen, into two subordinate trunks,
which supply blood to all the lower half of the body. These trunks, as well
as most of the arteries, elsewhere, throughout the frame, themselves sub-
divide into two branches — each of these branches into two more — and so on,
until their ultimate ramifications, called capillaries, are too small to be per-
ceptible to the unassisted eye. Mr. Erasmus Wilson, in his Human
Anatomy, &c, correctly remarks — "In the division of an artery into two
branches, the combined areas of the two branches is greater than that of the
single trunk ; so that if the combined areas of all the branches of the capilla-
ries, at the surface of the body, were compared with that of the aorta, it
would be seen that the blood, in passing from the aorta into the numerous
distributing branches, was flowing through a cone, the apex of which might
be represented by the aorta, (or the heart,) and the base by the surface of the
entire body." Thus the aggregate containing space at the centre of the ca-
pillary system are immeasurably greater than those of the aorta at its emer-
gence from the great centre of the circulation. " The advantage of this," he
adds, " in facilitating the circulation is sufficiently obvious ; for the increased
channel, which is thus provided for the current of the blood, serves to com-
pensate the retarding influence of friction, resulting from the distance of the
heart, and the division of the vessels." But this is not all. The arrange-
ment of the arteries, and of the veins too, for these proceed in a contrary-
direction towards the heart, at which point also terminates the apex of the
cone they may be represented to form — has a material effect in facilitating
the progress of the circulation, on important hydraulic principles. Effectual
aid is further derived to the same process from anatomical peculiarities of
different parts of the vascular system* — as well as from the influence
of elevated temperature on the circulating fluids. To these influences we
shall presently allude.

We need be only brief respecting the structure of the heart. It comprises

* A term applied to the blood-vessels of the body generally, whether arteries
or veins. It also includes the lymphatics; with which, however, we have at
present no concern.

'''"//////Y///7,

112

Animal Mechanics.

[May,

four cavities — the right auricle, right ventricle, left auricle, and left ventricle.
The veins of the body generally convey the blood that has been already used for
its nourishment, and other purposes, into the right auricle— from which it is
Bpeedily transferred into the right ventricle. From the right ventricle, a
strong muscular chamber, the same blood is sent through what is called the
pulmonary artery, into the lungs, to be there exposed to the influence of the
atmosphere (in breathing) and refitted for the purposes of life. From the lungs
the blood returns, by the pulmonary veins, to the left auricle — whence it is
finally sent into the left ventricle ; and from this last cavity (a strong mus-
cular sac, like the right ventricle) it is discharged through the aorta, to be
distributed all over the frame. The four great orifices of the heart — namely,
the opening between the right auricle and ventricle, that from the right ven-
tricle into the pulmonary artery, that between the left auricle and ventricle,
and that from the left ventricle into the aorta, are all furnished with com-
plicated valves.* When the auricles dilate to receive the blood, the valves
between them and the ventricles close so as to make the auricles closed cham-
bers on that side. The chief use of the valves between the ventricles and the
great vessels (pulmonary artery and aorta) is to prevent any regurgitation of
the contents of these vessels back again into the heart.

The force of the heart, or rather that exerted by the left ventricle, in the
propulsion of the blood, has been variously assumed. Borelli extravagantly
estimated it as high as 180, OOOlbs. Keill reduced it to 5| ounces! It is
very difficult to reach absolute truth, on this point ; for the living organs are
placed under circumstances which preclude our attaining the same accuracy
in observations on them as on inert and dead matter. Nevertheless, the
truth would seem to lie between the two extremes above indicated ; and some
approximation has, perhaps, been made to it, by more recent inquirers.
Hales, in his statistical inquiries, found that in an upright tube, the cavity
of which had an area of an inch square, placed in the aorta of a living
horse, at its exit from the heart, the blood at each contraction of the ven-
tricle rose to the height of ten feet. Now a tube an inch square in dimen-
sion holds nearly a pound of water in every two feet of its length. Hence
there is, says Arnott, a pressure of nearly lib. exerted for every two feet of
fluid raised in the tube — on which data 10 feet would give a total pres-
sure of at least 4^1bs on a square inch of surface. But the area of the
human aorta, at its origin, is no more than about three quarters of an inch
square, the size and force of the heart being in proportion ; and circum-
stances have led to the assumption that, in the human subject, the blood
would rise only to 8 feet in a tube such as that before described ; thus
giving a force to the human heart (left ventricle) of about 41bs to the square
inch. Dr. Arnott, however, calculating that the heart has to overcome
the inertise of the blood already in the arteries, and the breaking of its
force, which results from the yielding nature of the sides of the aorta,
estimates the actual force of the ventricle at 61bs to the square inch. And
further estimating that the contents of the ventricle, when distended, have
about 10 square inches of surface, he assumes that the heart (ventricle)
exercises a total force on its contained blood equal to about 601bs. Hales
and other authorities have estimated it at 501bs. Uterque libet. The choice
of opinions is open to all.

But great differences of opinion have prevailed as to whether the heart be
the sole agent of the arterial circulation ; and well-founded doubts have, we
conceive, been urged against the assumption that it is so. We have already
alluded to the elasticity of the middle coat of the arteries — a quality which
cannot be without its influence in promoting the current of the blood in those
vessels. Independently of this elasticity, however, the living arteries are
endued with a vital contractile power, as is proved by various facts. Thus,
if a living artery be cut across, it contracts, by its vital power, to a calibre
much less than that to which the same artery, either living or dead, would,
by its mere elasticity, contract after distension. Again, in an animal bled to
death, the arteries of the body at large contract, during life, closely upon the
blood which they have to carry, how small soever that quantity may become.
It is generally agreed, that the mere elasticity of the arteries is greater the
nearer they are to the heart, and, consequently, the less that an inherent
contractile power is required in tliem ; while, in proportion as the arteries
are at a distance from the heart, and the blood in them consequently removed
from its influence, so much the greater is their contractile force. According
to this arrangement, the capillary vessels ought to be in the highest degree
endued with vital contractile force ; and that they are so, is believed by the
majority of physiologists. We might, a priori, have expected that the force
exerted by them on their contents would be so much the greater than in the
larger vessels, from the calibre of the arteries progressively diminishing more
quickly than the thickness of their coats. The minuteness and tenuity of the
capillaries prevent our following the middle coat of the arteries into their
structure ; but there is no circumstance capable of interposing an absolute
denial of its existence in them ; and, indeed, we are warranted in considering
the elastic tissue as continued through them into the venous system, with
which they communicate ; though the elastic fibres appear, even in the large
veins, in very much smaller number than in the coats of the corresponding
arteries. It may be necessary that the capillary vessels should have power,
whether elastic or vitally contractile, efficient enough to forward the circula-

* For a concise and able exposition of the mechanism and uses of the valves in
the heart, the reader is referred to Sir C. Hell's Treatise on Animal Mechanics,
(Part 2) in "The Library of Useful Knowledge." We make no extracts from
that treatise here, the object of the present essay beinj;, chiefly, to treat of subjects
not entered into by Sir C. Bell.

tion ; since the blood, when it arrives at them, has lost, nearly if not quite,
all the impetus given to it by the heart (and arteries) ; for while it moves in
the aorta, at its emergence from the heart, at a rate of eight inches per
second, in the capillaries its rate of motion is no more than one inch in a
minute. But the great retardation of motion* in the ultimate vessels is of
the highest importance in the animal economy, for the important functions
of secretion, respiration, and, for the most part, absorption, are performed
exclusively in the capillary system.

The agencies which return the blood through the veins back again to the
heart, have afforded a subject for keen controversy among physiologists. The
weight of the high authorities which are ranged on both sides of this question,
does not admit of our pronouncing ex cathedra on this matter ; but we shall
endeavour to explain the process almost wholly on hydraulic principles. We
have seen that the force of the heart and arteries is nearly if not quite ex-
pended by the time that the blood reaches the capillaries or ultimate ramifi-
cations of the arterial vessels ; and that the veins are almost destitute of the
elastic (and contractile ?) fibres which are so abundant in the arterial trunks.
So small, indeed, is the actual force present in the veins, that Hales found
that, while the blood rose to a height of ten feet in a tube placed in the aorta
of a horse, at its exit from the heart, it rose to no more than six inches in a
tube of the same calibre placed in the great vein — the vena cava — at its
entrance into the heart. The blood returning from the head and upper parts
of the body, might certainly descend by the force of gravity alone ; but it is
obvious that the blood returning from the lower parts of the body must ascend
contrary to gravity. But it is a law in hydraulics, that a fluid let down-
wards has always a tendency to reascend to the level of the reservoir from
which it has its source. We should naturally expect, therefore, that the
blood sent downwards from the heart by the arteries would be enabled to
return to the heart in other proper channels by the agency of this law alone,
even without the exertion of any force by the heart in addition to the force of
gravity. But other circumstances come in aid of this effect. It has been
seen that the arteries divide and subdivide, so as to present the greatest total
capacity of the arterial system at the greatest distance from the heart ; and in
a contrarywise, the veins unite and re-unite in a corresponding manner, so as
also to insure the least total capacity of the venous system at the point at
which this system joins the heart. If, then, velocity is lost in the arteries by the
fluid they contain being poured into branches which have collectively a greater
capacity than the trunks from which they arise, velocity must be gained, in a
corresponding degree, by the contents of the veins being impelled into trunks
having a less area than the branches which combine to form them ; and
accordingly the fact is found to be, that the nearer the heart the greater is the
force and rapidity of the current in the veins. Add to this, that the blood in
the veins is perpetually forced onwards by a pressure from behind, which is
re-inforced at every stroke and contraction of the heart and arteries. We need
not dwell upon the assumed effect of a vital contractility in the capillaries,
nor on the agency of atmospheric pressure in urging on the blood through the
venous system ; neither can space be afforded to canvass the averred action of
the right auricle after the fashion of a pump : but some other provisions must
not be so passed over. In proportion as the arteries recede from the centre
of the circulation, the narrower in general is the angle at which their subdi-
visions diverge from each other ; and in proportion also as the veins are distant
from the heart, the more acute is the angle they form by their union. In
both cases force is economised ; and, as respects the veins, by this arrangement
the important hydraulic principle is taken advantage of, whereby a flowing
current assists in emptying a lateral stream which joins it, by the mere im-
petus of its flow. Certain anatomical differences between the arteries and
veins doubtless adapt the latter for their peculiar function. The arteries are
generally deep-seated, being placed as far as possible out of the reach of
external injury, while a large proportion of the veins run near the surface of
the body (where they are supposed to be influenced by atmospheric pressure,)
or are interposed between muscles, the play of which facilitates the impulsion
of the venous current. The veins of the extremities are furnished, in order to
check any regurgitation, with an abundance of valves, which are wholly denied
to the deep veins of the interior of the trunk and to the arteries. In addition
to all these circumstances, the veins (except the superficial) are almost uni-
versally placed beside arteries, the dilations of which, owing to the jets of
blood forced into them, must exert successive pressure on the veins. The
blood in the veins is precluded from retrograding by the valves ; but it is
invited to ascend towards the heart, because there no such pressure is exerted
on the main venous trunk by the main artery.

Some circumstances of arrangement in the circulating apparatus, call for
particular notice and admiration. The heart, not only in man but in other
animals, particularly such as occasionally walk erect, is situated considerably
above the middle of the body, so that it has a much less distance to propel
the blood against the force of gravity than it has in the same direction in
which the gravitating power acts. Again, little, if any, force is lost where it
is so much required, namely, where the blood has to be sent upwards to the
head, &c. against gravity. The aorta, at its commencement, has the form of
an arch, from the ascending portion and summit of which the carotid arteries
have their origin ; so that the blood sent upwards from the heart (on the right
side especially) at first deviates but little from a straight direction. The cir-

* In the large arteries the blood flows in jets at each contraction of the ven-
tricles ; hence the phenomenon of the pulse : in the capillaries it flows with a
uniform current, which is as necessary, as its slowness there, to the due performance
of the animal functions.

1844.]

Page's Ornamental Drawing.

113

cumstance too of the aorta being arched instead of bending downwards
abruptly, secures the greatest available force for the downward current also ;
for it is a well-known axiom in hydraulics, that water flowing in a tube will be
retarded by any sudden angle in the tube ; and, conversely, that a curved tube
will discharge a fluid with considerably more force than another tube bent to
the same extent, but in an angulated manner. In accordance with this, care
has been manifested throughout the frame that arterial branches should not go
off abruptly from trunks, so as to involve a loss of power ; and the farther the
arterial branches are from the heart, the smaller are the angles at which they
leave their arterial trunks. In certain instances, for special purposes, this
provision has been departed from, and certain arteries are given off from a
short trunk in different directions, somewhat like the sails of a windmill. But
these axes, as they are called, arise only from lateral or descending arterial
trunks, where power can be spared, and never from ascending trunks, where
power has to be economised ; they are also at no great distance from the centre
of the circulation.

There is a law of hydraulics, by reason of which a stream flowing from a
cistern through an orifice is contracted to 5-8ths of its original bulk, at a
distance from the orifice equal to half the diameter of the latter. This law
has been beautifully taken advantage of in the construction of the aorta.
This vessel, at its origin, is dilated into a triple pouch, for certain physio-
logical purposes, on which we shall not enter.* But immediately beyond this,
the artery is contracted, and its contraction happens at the precise point at
which the current of the blood as poured from the heart is at its smallest
diameter : the purpose is obviously that no power might be lost by the cavity
being larger than the stream it receives, thereby risking a loss of due elastic
resistance. Want of space prevents our entering more fully on these and
some other points, such as the mode in which the influence of friction is
lessened, &c. But the arrangement of the vessels by which blood is supplied
to the brain, imperatively demands a few words. The overwhelming import-
ance of this great nervous centre requires that it should have a copious supply
of the circulating fluid ; while the great delicacy of its structure imposes a
necessity that the force of the circulation should be very carefully distributed
through it. Now, to meet the first of these demands, the brain, with its mem-
branes, is supplied by four large arteries, the two internal carotid and the two
vertebral, besides some minor branches. The vertebral arteries, in marked
contradistinction to the law that prevails everywhere else in the body, instead
of subdividing, unite as they enter the skull to form a single trunk, branches
from which meet with others from the carotids, to form a great arterial circle
at the base of the brain. From this circle numerous branches are given off,
which wind in a tortuous manner over all the surface of the brain, and furnish
blood to its structure only through a multitude of small ramifications. In
this way, with a great amount and vigour of supply, the brain has that supply
delivered to it in the gentlest and most regular manner possible : it is truly a
practical illustration of the suaviter in modo with the fortiter in re. From
the remarkable union of two arteries into one, of course results an accelerated
circulation, which is the more necessary in animals the more they are habi-
tuated to the erect posture. In grazing animals, on the contrary, where from
the abasement of the head much impetus would be dangerous, the vessels, as
soon as they enter the skull, subdivide into an abundance of small branches.
Force is of necessity expended by such an arrangement, and these animals
rank but low in the scale of quadrupeds, from a consequent inferior develop-
ment of the brain.

We have thus given a hasty sketch of the aids which the function of circu-
lation in animals derives from hydraulic laws. The brevity of the essay must
necessarily have rendered it incomplete ; but we believe that the most promi-
nent considerations connected with the subject have been presented to our
readers ; and we propose to treat in the same brief manner, successively, of
the mechanism of vision — of the voice— and of the joints in the human body ;
all of which equally evince the immutability of the laws of nature, and the
wisdom of their great Framer.

Art. XVI.— METHOD OF COMPOUNDING THE METALLIC
ALLOY NOW BEING INTRODUCED FOR LINING BUSHES
AND OTHER BEARINGS.

We noticed the existence and efficacy of this compound in a former number,
and have received numerous applications, requesting us to describe the
method of its manufacture, which we now do. It does not answer well to
form bushes entirely of this composition, as it is too brittle to be used in that
manner ; but when common bushes are lined with it, the result is a combina-
tion of great efficacy and durability, which has been introduced into practice
with perfect success. The bearings of an engine provided with this description
of bush are not liable to heat, and scarcely ever require to be tightened, the
wear being almost inappreciable.

RECIPE BY THE INVENTOR.

First melt 4oz. copper, and while melted add by degrees 12oz. best quality
Banca tin ; then add 8oz. regulus antimony, then 12oz. more tin. After the
copper is melted, and 4 or 5 lbs. tin have been added, the heat should be re-
duced to a dull red colour, in order to prevent oxidation ; then add the
remainder of the metals as above named. In melting the above, there

* These purposes have been treated of by Sir C. Bell (Animal Mechanics.)

VOL. II.

should be a small quantity of powdered charcoal upon the surface of the
metal. I make the above-named composition (which I call hardening) in the
first place ; then, as I want to use lining metal, add 21bs. of Banca tin to every
one pound of hardening ; this will produce the metal I now use for lining
boxes. I find by experience that this is the best composition I have ever
used ; so that the proportions for the lining metal should be 41bs. copper,
8oz. regulus antimony, and 961bs. tin.

There is economy in first preparing the hardening ; there will be less loss by
oxidation, as the hardening can be melted at a less temperature than either the
copper or antimony separately.

As there will be some loss by oxidation, in using the lining metal, I skim
off the oxide and save it ; when a quantity is saved I put it into a crucible
with fine charcoal, and expose it to a smart red heat, which will restore it to
a metallic state ; add sufficient tin to make it look like the regular lining
metal, and use it in lining.

The box or article to be lined having been cast with a recess for the soft
metal, is to be fitted to an iron, formed of the shape and size of the bearing
or journal, allowing a little in size for the shrinkage ; drill a hole for the
reception of the soft metal, say from i to f of an inch diameter : the box
having been thus prepared, wash the parts not to be tinned with a clay wash,
to prevent the adhesion of the tin ; wet the part to be turned with alcohol,
and sprinkle fine sal ammoniac upon it ; heat the box till a fume arises from
the ammonia, and immerse it in a kettle of Banca tin, care being taken to
prevent oxidation. When sufficiently tinned the box should be soaked in
water, to take off any particles of ammonia that may remain upon it, as the
ammonia would cause the metal to blow when poured into the box. Wash
the former with fine pipe clay and dry it, then heat the box to the melting
point of tin, wipe it clean and place it upon the former, and pour in the
metal, giving it sufficient head as it cools ; the box should then be scoured
with fine sand to take off any dirt that may remain upon it ; it is then fit
for use.

Art. XVII.— PAGE ON ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.

Guide for Drawing the Acanthus, and every Description of Foliage. Il-
lustrated with wpwards of Two Hundred Woodcuts, and Sixty Etchings
on Steel, descriptive of the various Characters alluded to. By I. Page,
Ornamental Draftsman and Designer. London : R. A. Sprigg. 1843.

This is not a work of any great talent or originality, but is one of much
utility to a large circle of readers. It gives very useful rules for delineating
with ease and exactitude the various forms assumed by that most graceful of
all plants, the Acanthus, which is with justice reckoned one of the most im-
portant elements of decorative beauty. The work, however, is not restricted
to the consideration of these forms, but delineates a large variety of others
which we cannot enumerate, and for which we must refer our readers to the
work itself. We prefer books of this kind infinitely before recipes for com-
pounding the five orders, and think such performances calculated to lead to
architectural independence. We must now, however give a few extracts by
way of specimen.

2i " Fig. 1. will show you what subdivision to pro-
ceed with previous to forming the exterior line of the
leaf; and better to prove it, we will suppose that I

3 have a given size to execute an Acanthus foliage, height
2 feet, [base 1 foot. I will make this my outline,
according to the preceding diagram ; now, I have 24
inches to compose six raffled leaves on each side of my
* perpendicular line, the bottom or base of the leaf is
always the largest, consequently we may give most to
that, and gradually diminish as we rise to the top, so
that the bottom raffle will be 6 inches, then 5 inches,
4 inches, 3^ inches, 3 inches, and 2| inches for the
top, which, properly curved, will give the same appear-
ance as fig. 1 ; having done this, the plan is laid for
fig. 2, which shows the exterior plan ; on each intersecting line vou can
form a dot, and from this dot you will carry your pistule and starting of

5 the leaf ; then by gradual curves, rising from these points, and'meeting the
next one as if it were passed through the leaf, as the following diagram
shows.

" You perceive that you have a leaf, in fact, which, on gaining this point
perfect, I may say the greatest part is conquered, as on this rests all the
grace of the foliage afterwards. I will now leave the diagram lines, and proceed

6 with fig. 3, where the contour of fig. 2 is kept by the dotted lines, and by
dividing each of these leaves into three parts, you will have the third process
complete, and gives you where to terminate the centre stalk, or stamina of

the leaf, which runs between each pistule, as the enlarged accompanying diagram
will show; on this alone depends the freedom of the foliage, and this rule applies
to every department of scroll-work whatever, or however curvilinear it may chance
to he, — this is very feasible upon consideration, as this foliage is a portion of a
plant, of course every fibre must arise from the base or root, and to whatever height
or size, the origin is the same, or whatever way it may have grown. I do not say
it is necessary to illustrate this, hut,- to prevent mistakes, another shall be placed
aside the scroll, to prove that, should any other course be taken than heretofore

/ s\

IN

1 r

18

1 r

I

n>

j '

114

Ornamental Foliage — The Acanthus.

[May,

mentioned, a peculiar character would appear, and out of all proportion, yet correct.
You will see by these two diagrams the principle of my ideas.

•PS PSPSPSStem.

" Eeturn to fig. 3, the dotted lines will show the principle of my previous ex-
planation. Fig. 4 will soon convince the reader of the true working of my dia-
grams : here is a leaf, on one side, stript of all adjacent lines, and on the other is
another subdivision of three parts, which complete the leaf to a certain extent, ac-
cording for what it may be required; as on this point the effect of many splendid
designs are lost ; they are worked to the greatest nicety, and when elevated, they
form a confused jumble, and the architect, and others connected with it, are
blamed ; for friezes, fig. 4 is sufficiently cut at the edges. You are not to suppose
that when you have arrived as far as fig. 4, that you have the leaf finished in so
chaste and rich a style as it is sometimes required ; far from it ; the edges ruffling
of that leaf is termed dentata, or tooth-shaped ; this is sufficient when properly
drawn, as fig. 5, for frieze, modillions, mouldings, &c, or where altitude is re-
quired, as the height reduces the parts to the eye, and it looks perfect and rich to
the passing observer; be it as it may, this rule must be got perfect before you com-
mence with fig. 6. Here is a leaf as perfect and chaste as ever used be used on
any department of work, either for foliated capitals, ornamental embroidery, carv-
ing, or modellings, but chiefly for vases, bosses, ceiling ornaments, or wherever this
style is required near to the eye. The same rule may he gone through to draw
this foliage, as figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4 ; and the whole of the leaf may be completed in
the same style and character as fig. 6 ; and for a running scroll, or frieze, on a small
scale, no leaf can look more rich and perfect, as will be shown in the following
numbers ; in which every department of curvilinear foliage will be treated on and
illustrated ; thereby gradually producing portions of foliage, springings, headings, and
terminations of bosses, &c, generally used in friezes and other description of scroll-
work, that every separate piece, when put together, shall form a series of designs,
and prove Jiow easy a student may become his or her own designer."

Fig. 1.

a

* P Pistule.— S Stamina.

Fig. 2.

la this figure you will perceive the perpendicular line is divided into only four
parts, and B B the springing points.

Fig. a

1844.]

A Plea for the Engineers of the Navy.

115

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

Art. XVIII.— DESCRIPTION OF PETER BORRIE'S PATENT SELF-
ACTING SAFETY FRICTION WHEEL, FOR DISCONNECTING
PADDLE WHEELS, AND OTHER MACHINERY.

This improvement is calculated to connect or disconnect the paddle wheels
of a steam vessel by its self action, whether the engines are in motion or at
rest, and may be applied, with very little labour or loss of time, either to
old or new steamers ; it is also applicable to all other kinds of machinery. la
Plate XIII. of the present Number, fig. 1st shows a section of the friction strap
and wheel, with part of the engine framing, &c. Fig. 2nd is a front view, and
fig. 3rd a back view of the friction wheel, a, fig. 1st is a cast-iron friction
wheel, keyed on the paddle shaft, in the position commonly occupied by one
of the cranks, a wrought-iron friction strap b encircles its periphery, and has
an eye-piece/; forged on it, to receive the outer end of the crank pin t, the
inner end of the crank pin is firmly fixed into the crank Q, which is keyed on
the intermediate shaft r. A groove is made in the inside of the friction
strap b, for the fine friction plates d d acting on ; these plates are laid in re-
cesses on the periphery of the friction wheel, and are pressed out upon the
friction strap by the screws e e. The method of working the screws is as
follows : a cast-iron ring c is made to turn freely (when out of gear) on the
nave of the friction wheel a, and carries round with it the toothed wheel g ;
this wheel works the five pinions ff, each of which is keyed on one of the
screw rods ; they are not keyed dead on the rods, but are made so that they
may be lifted out of gear, for the purpose of adjusting the screws ; each screw
rod has a collar h round it, to keep the pinion in its place ; this collar is
divided into two halves, kept together by hinges, thus admitting it to be easily
taken off when the pinions require to be lifted up, for adjusting the screws.
On the back of the friction strap b a stud is fixed, and upon it a link k works,
this link, by taking hold of either of the studs m m, connects the friction
strap b with the ring e, and consequently (through the medium of the wheel g
and pinions ff) with the screws. The link k is represented in the drawing as
being in gear, and when out of gear it is kept out by the spring catch n.

It will be understood from the foregoing, that while the engine is in motion
the crank Q, crank pin t, and the friction strap b are always carried round
with it, whether the paddle wheels are connected or disconnected.

To disconnect the paddle wheels, let the engine be going at full speed,
throw in a catch from any convenient part of the engine framing (this catch
can either be worked in the engine-room or on deck,) so that it may be in the
way of the link k during the course of its revolution, this will lift it out of
gear ; let the same catch be made to take hold of either of the*studs m m (one
of which the link k has just quitted,) thereby preventing the wheel g from
turning round ; now the friction wheel still turning with the friction strap,
will cause the pinions to unscrew the screw rods, thus taking the pressure off
the plates, and consequently allowing the friction strap to turn without taking
the friction w7heel along with it, so that the paddle wheels will be disconnected.

To connect the paddle wheels, suppose the engine to move at full speed as
before, throw in a catch from any convenient part of the engine framing, to
push the spring catch n out of gear, then will the link k drop into gear, and
in moving round will take hold of either of the studs m m, thus the wheel g
will be turned round with the friction strap, and will turn the screws until
there is sufficient pressure on the plates to carry round the friction wheel, and
consequently the paddle wheels.

Thus it will be observed, that the operation of connecting or disconnecting
can be performed (either below or on deck) almost instantaneously, and while
the engines are going at their full speed, and this can be done by simply
working a handle, connected to a catch in the engine framing, which being
pushed in causes the engine to disconnect itself. The engines may also be
disconnected when at rest, by placing a handle in any of the sockets o o, and
turning round the wheel g.

Besides its self action, this apparatus is valuable on account of the property
it has of equalising any sudden jerk the paddle wheels may sustain ; it also
regulates the pressure to be put on the screws, for it will be observed, that as
soon as there is sufficient pressure on them to carry round the friction wheel,
it will cause the wheel g to move at the same speed, and consequently the
screws will cease to turn.

London, April, 1S44.

Art. XIX.— A PLEA FOR THE ENGINEERS OF THE NAVY.

Prince Joinville's pamphlet has had the salutary effect of calling public
attention to the condition of our steam marine ; and of showing, in a stronger
light than ever has been done before, the great power of this arm of the naval
service. The next naval war, we are fully persuaded, will be a war by steam ;
not that a steamer, as at present fashioned, possesses the whole of the
powers of an orthodox man-of-war, but that she may be made to possess them,
all, along with many others that a vessel not impelled by steam power can
never acquire ; and can be more effectual, both in her means of aggression
and means of escape, than sailing vessels. It is, therefore, of great import-
ance that this branch of the naval service should be extended and perfected ;
but we are persuaded it never can be put upon a satisfactory basis so long as

116

A Plea for the Engineers of the Navy.

[May,

the present regulations relative to the rank of engineers remain in being.
Although the office of engineer is one of great anxiety and responsibility, and
the lives of all on board are in his keeping, he is ranked below carpenters,
gunners, and boatswains ; and is exposed to all the insult and annoyance
which midshipmen and other exquisites, dressed in a little authority, may
think fit to put upon him. It is true that the commanders of vessels, if men
of sense, will be sure to treat their engineers well, if they deserve to be so
treated ; and the evils of the Admiralty's regulations are thus, to a great ex-
tent, redressed and counteracted by the good judgment of the more distin-
guished of its servants. But, however safely engineers might rely upon fair
treatment from the higher class of officers, the nature of the existing regula-
tions is perpetually subjecting them to the petty tyrannies of petty authori-
ties, and is a perpetual source of strife and contention. The discontent thus
generated may long lie dormant, without producing immediate fruits ; but, in
the event of a naval war, the engineers of the navy must become the masters
of the fleet: and unless some timely redress be afforded for their grievances,
they will take the means of redress into their own hands so soon as the revo-
lution of events puts them in possession of the power. A pretty figure we
should cut, truly, with the enemy upon our shores, and every engineer in the
navy refusing to put to sea, or purposely throwing his engines into disarrange-
ment ! However culpable such conduct might be, the blame would rest
heaviest upon those who made such excesses necessary to gain attention to
griefs that had long been disregarded, and for the remedy of which all reason-
able remonstrance had been tried without success.

We are perfectly confident that some such act of insubordination as that
which we have here anticipated will be the result of a perseverance in the pre-
sent injudicious policy, of treating our naval engineers as persons of no ac-
count or consideration ; whilst, in fact, it is in them that the most of the re-
sponsibility and anxiety of that part of the conduct of a fleet which is disse-
vered from naval tactics necessarily centres. The efficiency, or otherwise, of
a steam-vessel depends very much upon the engineer ; and whatever position
may be assigned to him among the other persons of the crew, he cannot but
feel that his duties are the most onerous and important of any. He may be
deprived of the dignity of station, but he cannot be deprived of the dignity
due to the exercise of weighty functions ; and the only effect of conferring
upon him a rank different from that which the importance of those functions
indicates is, not to abridge his real power, but to create feelings of exaspera-
tion and indifference most hurtful to the efficiency of the service. In fact,
the engineers of the navy cannot but feel that they are unfairly treated by the
men of cordage and sails. They feel that the engine department of the vessel
has quite as forcible pretensions to be represented on the quarter-deck as the
less important department of the rigging ; and they feel, moreover, that it is
impossible to preserve a proper discipline in the engine-room, when the men
professedly under their direction may be interfered with without their con-
currence, and their instructions countermanded by some juvenile seaman,
who knows as much of engineering as he does of Sanscrit. It is altogether
impossible, under the pressure of such vexations, to preserve any interest in
the proceedings of the engine-room, or any affection for the service, and the
tendency of such griefs, obviously, is either to give rise to perpetual conten-
tions, or to sink a conscientious and energetic class of men into drones of
unscrupulous servility — a condition injurious to the navy while it lasts, and
full of danger in its re-action. We would therefore desire to urge upon the
Admiralty the necessity of raising the engineers of the navy to a higher rank
in the service, if they desire to keep our steam marine efficient in the event
of a European war, or to prevent the skill of our steam navy from passing
into the service of foreign powers. Let chief engineers be suffered to take their
position on the quarter-deck, and let them be controllable by the person in
command of the vessel alone, and the present discontents will be at once com-
posed, and the steam service acquire a strength and cohesion that no power
will be able to disintegrate.

There is only one party, we apprehend, to which this salutary change would
be distasteful — the exquisites of our naval service — who would be shocked
at the obtrusion of rude and ignorant persons, as they take the genus of
naval engineers to be, upon their polished society. We should have little
sympathy with this fastidiousness, even if there were grounds for the objec-
tion, and should, indeed, be disposed to reckon the rough energy of unedu-
cated men as a wholesome leaven to the correct imbecilities of an over refine-
ment. We would beg to assure these tender gentlemen, however, that they are
under a great misconception, relative to engineers, who are not the stupid
and impenetrable race they suppose them — but are often distinguished by
high scientific and literary attainments, refined taste, and lively sensibility.
Some of the best contributions to our pages have come from the engineers of
steam vessels, who, certainly, neither from their exterior appearance, nor
from the position they occupy in the eye of the world, would be supposed
capable of such productions. Engineers, however, are necessarily men of
thought ; and although some of them have never had any great measure of
education, yet they are men of far greater ability, in spite of that defect,
than the greater part of those who plume themselves, in no small degree,
upon their penmanship and orthography. We have a greater contempt
than we need here express for those puny spirits who pride themselves so far
upon the little aids of education, as to look with contempt upon far better
men, merely because they happen to be unpossessed of those trivial acquisi-
tions. All learning is vanity which does not inculcate honourable senti-
ments, and kindly feelings and dispositions ; and becomes a curse so soon as
it becomes a spring of selfishness and vain-glory. We like better, a person

who is wholly illiterate, than one who prides himself on his literary attain-
ments ; and we know very well in how small a degree mere learning can
contribute to efficiency in the concerns of life, or to greatness of mind or
character. We would not be understood as saying anything in disparage-
ment of learning, when directed to useful ends ; but we hate the pride and
pedantry, which are often the accompaniments of learning, far more than
utter ignorance ; and think there is no more characteristic display of those evil
feelings, than the objection to mingle with operative engineers, because they
are uneducated. The objection, however, as a general rule, is without founda-
tion in fact ; and we should like to have the opportunity of setting in
rivalry, in any task requiring intellectual eminence, a few of the despised
race of naval engineers, with a few of those naval nabobs, who carry their
heads in the seventh heavens. We know well enough on which side the
victory would declare ; and the result would, at least, dissipate the illusion,
that in mixing with engineers, they would be mixing with men inferior
to themselves, in any of those qualities which challenge confidence and
admiration.

But while we maintain that the present race of naval engineers are quite
worthy of the distinctions they claim, we think, at the same time, that the
service would be made more secure by the transfusion of a little aristocratic
blood in the steam department ; so that naval engineers might be bound to
the country by a stronger tie than poor men can often possess. To give
effect to this design it is indispensable that the alterations in the rank of en-
gineers which we have indicated should be carried into operation ; for young
men of good families and respectable education -will not enter a war steamer,
to be classed among the most menial of its inmates — and that too, without
the possibility of advancing to a less contemptible sphere. To get superior
men into the navy it is necessary to create situations that superior men will
fill. We do not believe that the duties of an engineer can be discharged with
greater efficiency by any description of person than by the unsophisticated
artizan ; but we think, on other grounds, that the intermixture of a higher
class is extremely desirable, and this intermixture is only to be effected by
means of the changes we have indicated.

There are several of the subsidiary arrangements of the Admiralty relative
to engineers of which we disapprove ; but we cannot, at present, do more
than glance, for a moment, at these imperfections. We think it inexpedient,
then,when a steamer returns home, for repair, after a period of service, that the
engineer should be immediately paid off or transferred iuto another vessel. He
is the person who best knows the nature of the vessel's imperfections, and to
dispense with his evidence and presence, during the repair, is to create a
risk that the repair will be both more expensive and less effectual than it
would have been otherwise. Nor do we think the routine of promotion is
arranged in the best possible way, or initiates young engineers very readily
into the peculiarities of the service. We think too, that all antiquated
general orders relative to the blowing out of boilers, and other things of
detail, in the engineers' departments, ought to be obliterated — as such
orders, if executed, would sometimes be injurious, and their neglect only
brings contempt upon the authority that put them forth. Upon these, how>
ever, and other similar points, it is impossible, at present, to enlarge ; and
indeed they are virtually all comprised in the one essential measure of giving
to chief engineers a rank answerable to their responsibility ; for, in that
event, any representation coming from them, relative to the efficiency of the
service, would be more likely to meet with prompt attention.

Such, then, is our opinion respecting the rank the engineers of the navy
ought to hold ; and, we believe, every unprejudced observer can hardly
fail to arrive at the same way of thinking. We know very well it is most
difficult to move Governments out of the antiquated paths in which they
delight to saunter ; but the present question is one that appeals not merely
to their sense of right, but also to their fears. If it be the fact, that our
steam marine has risen, in a short time, from small beginnings, to a position
of infinite importance, as one of the defences of the country, the rank of
those to whom the management of that power is intrusted, ought, reasonably,
to vary with that progression. In the commercial steam-marine of the country
engineers have already acquired a position answerable to the importance of
their functions ; for, in the engine-room, at least, they are supreme — and
they acknowledge no power except that of the captain. But in the navy,
instances innumerable have fallen under our own observation, of an able and
respectable engineer being subjected to a multitude of vexations, by the
spleen of an empty coxcomb, who mistook, as is very common with such
exquisites, the power to injure for the right to oppress. By only one
company in our commercial steam marine has the application of this same sys-
tem of subordination been attempted ; and there it has been abandoned, after
a most injurious display of discontent and contention. It is neither right
nor possible that men occupying situations of great responsibility, should
have none of the honours which naturally wait upon such posts, but be
treated as mere machines, to whose tasks neither difficulty nor anxiety at-
taches. At present the remedy is obvious and easy, and we are confident would
be sure ; but if these just discontents be suffered to go on accumulating, they
will work their own reparation when the measure of oppression is full, and
chance co-operates with oppression to favour the explosion.

.

1844.]

Stephenson s Report on the Atmospheric Railway System.

117

Art. XX.— STEPHENSON'S REPORT ON THE ATMOSPHERIC
RAILWAY.

Report on the Atmospheric Railway System. By Robert Stephenson,
Esq. Loudon : Weale, 1844.

This Report is, in our judgment, unworthy of Mr. Stephenson. It is a pro-
duction of much ability, no doubt ; and certainly strips away very effectually
certain fictitious perfections in which the atmospheric scheme had been ar-
rayed by a concourse of ignorant admirers. But it is disfigured by the nar-
row prejudices of a technical and contracted mind, and has more the air of a
plea for the existing methods of locomotion, than of a fair comparison of the
merits of two competing systems. We are perfectly confident, at the same
time, that this partiality is by no means wilful ; and, indeed, it is probably
invisible to Mr. Stephenson himself, however conspicuous it may be to other
spectators. We believe sincerely that he was desirous to render justice with
an even hand ; but we, think we can discern in every part of his report the
operation of a certain obliquity of judgment, which is a natural consequence,
perhaps of a practical training ; and which excites our astonishment, in the
present case, only because we think a man of Mr. Stephenson's eminence
ought, long ago, to have risen superior to the influence which grows out of
mere mechanic associations.

It is a remarkable, but incontrovertible fact, that scarce any art has re-
ceived a material improvement from the hands of its own practitioners. It is
almost invariably by interlopers that any important amelioration has been
accomplished ; and such ameliorations have, at the outset, almost invariably
been looked upon, by the orthodox practitioners, as visionary and impossible.
It is not that they are jealous of ingenuity which is the growth of other fields
than that cultivated by themselves, or that they apprehend their skill will be
made antiquated and useless by the novelties it is proposed to introduce ; but
that certain contrivances have been sanctified, in their imaginations, by ha-
bitual associations of perfection, and they cannot reconcile themselves to see
the idols they have long worshipped pulled down by the rude hand of inno-
vation. It is to this secret and subtle influence, we are persuaded, the preju-
dices of engineers relative to new projects in steam improvement are to be
ascribed, and not to those sordid and selfish motives which uncharitable
observers have sometimes insinuated. But. whatever be the motive, the ex-
istence of the tendency should make us careful of receiving a verdict warped
by such influences, as a just representation of the fact; and we may in this,
as in most other cases, fairly assume that the truth lies nearly midway be-
tween the extremes of opinion.

With these precautionary remarks, we introduce this able Report to the
attention of our readers ; and shall commence our extracts with a popular
explanation of the principle on which the atmospheric plan operates, and the
limits imposed on the speed of the trains.

" For the purposes of the present Report, we need therefore only consider the
Atmospheric Railway to consist of air pumps placed at intervals upon a railway, and
connected with a tube lying along the whole line : this tube being partially ex-
hausted of air by means of the pumps, the pressure of the atmosphere is made to
propel a piston, moving in the tube and connected with a train.

B

" In order to explain the action of this apparatus, let us suppose A B in the
above, figure to represent the tube lying along the railway, and a the piston which
is required to be moved with the train towards B. Assuming in the first instance
no train to be attached, the piston will be advanced, during one stroke of the air
pump, through a space a J in the tube, the content of which is equal to the content
of the air pump, and each succeeding stroke of the air pump will produce a similar
advance in the tube. It is evident, therefore, that the maximum velocity of the
train is determined by the proportion existing between the areas of the air pump and
tube, and the velocities of the air pump piston and the piston in the tube must
obviously be in the inverse proportion of the squares of their diameters. For ex-
ample at Kingstown, the diameter of the air pump piston is 67 inches, and that of
the tube piston 15 inches; the velocity of the former is 253 feet per minute, or
nearly 3 miles an hour, and hence the utmost velocity attainable by the latter
will be about 60 miles an hour.

" Suppose now that a train of a given weight were attached to the piston a, it is
clear that no motion would take place until the air in front of the piston were
sufficiently exhausted to cause an excess of pressure of the atmosphere on the other
side of the piston, equal to the resistance of the train ; when the train would be
started, and acquire an accelerating motion until the maximum velocity were attained,
which would then continue uniform ; that is, until the space passed through by the
piston in the tube during a single stroke of the air pump, should equal the content
of the air pump. Hence vve perceive that whether the train be great or small, pro-
vided it can be put in motion, the maximum velocity attainable will in all cases
be the same.

" In taking this view of the process, it is important to observe, that whatever may
be the degree of rarefaction of the air in front of the piston, the same limit is put to
its maximum velocity ; because the pump, whatever may be the density of the air
that is being drawn from the tube, can only extract the same number of cubic feet
at each stroke ; and thus when the motion of the train becomes uniform, the propor-
tion between the velocities of the two pistons will always be the same : and it is
this part of the motion that we are chiefly interested in investigating.'"

Mr. Stephenson then gives the result of a number of experiments upon the

amount of leakage of air into the vacuum tube, from which it appears tha*
the leakage into a mile of the vacuum tube is 186 cubic feet of air of the atmo-
spheric density per minute. It is somewhat surprising that the amount of this
leakage should remain nearly constant at all pressures, yet such is found to
be the case ; and Mr. Stephenson gives a very plausible explanation of the
anomaly, by saying, that at the higher degrees of exhaustion, although the
tendency to leakage is increased, the leaking area is diminished in the same
proportion, by the valve being forced down upon the pipe with a greater pres-
sure ; the amount of loss, therefore, from leakage, may be determined by an
easy computation. But Mr. Stephenson says, that at the higher degrees of
exhaustion the loss of effect from leakage becomes very formidable.

" The relative maximum velocities of the air pump and vacuum tube pistons have
hitherto been considered as totally irrespective of the degree of rarefaction of the
air in the tube, if no leakage were to take place ; but it is evident that all leakage
must be introduced into the vacuum tube, not at the density of the external atmo-
sphere, but expanded according to the degree of rarefaction of the air in the tube,
and hence the effect of this constant amount of leakage upon the velocity of the
piston in the vacuum tube will be various at the different heights of the barometer.
For example, at Kingstown, the leakage of the connecting pipe and pump is 219
cubic feet per minute, and that of the vacuum tube 252 cubic feet per minute, or
471 cubic feet of air at the density of the atmosphere is introduced into the vacuum
tube in each minute : hut if the height of the barometer in the tube be 15 inches,
or the air twice rarefied, the effect of this leakage will be doubled, and the quantity
of air to be extracted from the tube in each minute will be increased by 942 cubic
feet ; and if the air in the tube be five times rarefied, or the barometer stand at 24
inches, it will be increased by 2355 cubic feet, instead of 471 cubic feet in each case.
As the degree of exhaustion advances, the retarding influence of the leakage upon
the speed becomes more and more serious ; for while the velocity of the air pump
piston remains constant, or very nearly so, and the cubic content of each stroke is
the same whatever the density of the air, the effect of the leakage is increased with
the rarefaction, and the maximum velocity attainable by the train is proportionably
lowered."

There are several doctrines laid down both here and in other parts of the
report, to which we cannot say that we subscribe, but as we propose on a
future occasion to go minutely into the subject, we shall not enter upon their
consideration at present. Some errors have already been pointed out by
Mr. Samuda, and we have observed some others in glancing over the report,
but we think, upon the whole, that its facts are correctly stated, and we have
chiefly to quarrel with its inferences. We may here give our readers a speci-
men of the tone by which this report is distinguished. After enumerating
throughout several successive pages the casualties to which the atmospheric
system is exposed, Mr. Stephenson proceeds thus :

" But as a detailed mention here of all these casualties would only extend this
Report, and open topics upon which a variety of opinions maybe entertained, I pre-
fer putting all minor details aside, and confining myself to the mention of such ob-
jections as unquestionably attach themselves to the system. I have therefore not
raised the objections that would be found to exist in working a complicated traffic at
intermediate stations upon a line of railway, where changing the position of the
carriages in a train is constantly required, calling for a backward motion of the train
and the removal of carriages into sidings, &c. Neither have I hinted at the
necessity which exists for having powerful brakes and guards to each carriage, with
the view of stopping the trains whilst the utmost power of the engine continues to
be exerted. These, and numerous other objections of a minor character, I have
deemed it proper to omit altogether, and to call attention only to the main features
of the invention, and to treat nothing as a difficulty which was not obviously inhe-
rent or irremediable in the atmospheric system itself."

Now this strikes us as being a very cheap way of getting credit for liberality.
It is obvious the necessity of brakes and the other objections alluded to are
pretty intelligibly hinted at by the mention of the subject at all ; and we think
it would either have been better for Mr. Stephenson to have stated these
objections fairly, or have said nothing about them at all. As the matter
stands at present, the design would appear to be to secure credit for great
liberality, and at the same time to alarm the reader with a multitude of un-
defined evils, of which nothing further is insinuated than that they exist. We
should not, however, have ventured to complain of this if the present methods
of locomotion were treated after the same fashion ; but while every con-
ceivable objection to the atmospheric method is marshalled forth with large
importance, the objections, either to the locomotive method or the rope, are
passed over without an insinuation even of their existence. This unfairness is
particularly conspicuous in the references to the Blackwall railway and Euston
incline : there is not a word said that we have discovered of the intolerable
noise which obtains in the rope system along the whole line ; though, had such
an objection applied to the atmospheric plan, we can hardly doubt that it
would have been set forth in all its enormity. The fact is, the report, though
an able one, is the report of an advocate, and disentitles itself to our faith by
the special pleading it exhibits.

The following are Mr. Stephenson's conclusions.

"1st. That the atmospheric system is not an economical mode of transmitting
power, and inferior in this respect both to locomotive engines and stationary engines
with ropes.

" 2nd. That it is not calculated practically to acquire and maintain higler veloci-
ties than are comprised in the present working of locomotive engines.

" 3rd, That it would not, in the majority of instances, produce economy in the

118

Analysis of Boohs.

[May,

original construction of railways, and in many would, most materially augment their
cost.

" 4th. That on some short railways, where the traffic is large, admitting of trains
of moderate weight, but requiring high velocities and frequent departures, and where
the face of the country is such as to preclude the use of gradients suitable for loco-
motive engines, the atmospheric system would prove the most eligible.

" 5lh. That on short lines of railway, say four or five miles in length, in
the vicinity of large towns, where frequent and rapid communication is required
hctween the termini alone, the atmospheric system might be advantageously
applied.

" Gth. That on short lines, such as the Blackwall Railway, where the traffic is
chiefly derived from intermediate points, requiring frequent stoppages between
the termini, the atmospheric system is inapplicable ; being much inferior to the
plan of disconnecting the carriages from a rope, for the accommodation of the inter-
mediate traffic.

" 7th. That on long lines of railway, the requisites of a large traffic cannot be
attained by so inflexible a system as the atmospheric, in which the efficient operation
of the whole depends so completely upon the perfect performance of each individual
section of the machinery."

In these conclusions we cannot say that we by any means concur, both
because we do not believe them to be borne out by Mr. Stephenson's experi-
ments, and because the atmospheric system is as yet an embryo scheme,
which it would be hard to judge by the matured results of a system that has
for forty years been advancing to perfection. We do not think it fair to
measure the capacities of the atmospheric plan by what it has already done
any more than it would have been fair to fix the value of the screw propeller
by the earlier performances of the Archimedes. New inventions cannot spring
to perfection at once ; but so far has Mr. Stephenson been, from making
allowance for such circumstances, that he has set down the defects of the
Dalkey air pump as defects of the system. If that air pump be leaky, surely
there is no difficulty in constructing one that is not, and with better machinery
which is known to be attainable, better results will of course be realized. For
our parts we must say, that the atmospheric system has greatly exceeded our
hopes ; engineers were of course against it, as they are against everything new,
but it has risen to a stature that may defy their malignity ; and the past success
of the method has been such as to justify the belief in its extensive adoption.

Art. XXI.— HOW TO SPOIL STEAM-BOATS.

Some engineers boast very largely of their ability to economize fuel, and
certainly they in one sense accomplish their purpose by a cheap and summary
process. Their recipe consists in putting an abundance of lap upon the slide
valves, so that the steam obtains admission to the cylinder during a much
smaller partion of the stroke than formerly ; and steam is saved, and there-
fore fuel, but the power of the engine is lessened. The proportion of loss in
the engine power, it is true, is less than the proportion of steam saved, and
there is, therefore, so far, a gain under favourable circumstances, but there is
not a gain under all circumstances ; and taking the average of circumstances,
we are convinced that a large amount of lap on the valves of steam -vessels is
an injury rather than a benefit. This, however, is one of the expedients re-
sorted to for deluding the public, by creating the appearance of a great pro-
fusion of steam in the case of new boilers, when without such an artifice the
supply might be found deficient ; and as the effect of the contrivance is not
to create a benefit, but only the appearance of one, and is a positive injury,
we shall state in a few words the effect of the application, and the usual way
in which it is conducted.

It is very important in steam-vessels that the power of the engines should
be susceptible of variation in the proportion of the resistance to be overcome,
so that in favourable winds, when the resistance is small, a large degree of
expansion may be employed, and fuel correspondingly economized ; and
under adverse circumstances of wind and weather, the power of the engine
may be altered to the increased resistance, by letting the steam into the cylin-
der during- a longer period of the stroke, or, in other words, by employing
less expansion. In favourable weather a small power is the most economical,
and in adverse weather the most expensive ; and the due adjustment of the
power of the engine to the circumstances of the weather is one of the chief
secrets of economy. In engines which are without lap on the slide valve, or
at least without any inordinate amount of it, this is accomplished by means
of the expansion valve, the action of which may be varied to suit the varying
resistances to be overcome ; but when the expansion is accomplished by
means of lap upon the slide this variation is impossible, as the lap upon the
slide cannot be changed with the circumstances of the weather, but compels
the use of the same amount of expansion, whether the wind is favourable or
otherwise. The effect, indeed, of putting a large amount of lap upon the
slide is pretty much the same as contracting the dimensions of the cylinder,
for it occasions a permanent reduction in the power of every stroke ; and
the power cannot under any circumstances be restored to the point it would
have reached had no lap been applied.

It requires, we believe, but a small amount of penetration, after this ex-
position, to perceive that in a steam-vessel, at least, the application of lap
must be detrimental. In a land-engine, where the speed of the engine may
be increased by altering the resistance, the diminution in the power of each
stroke may be made up by increasing the number of strokes ; and no loss of
power will be the result. But in a steam vessel this cannot be done ; for a

certain ratio must subsist between the speed of the paddle-wheel and the speed
of the vessel ; and if this ratio be altered, by diminishing the size of the float-
boards, so as to let the wheel go quicker, the vessel will go slower than
before, especially in adverse winds. The soundness of these views ex-
perience fully confirms ; for, in some vessels that we are acquainted with,
where a large quantity of lap has been put upon the valve, to save fuel, the
speed of the vessel has been materially diminished ; and, although there has
been a saving of fuel per hour, the consumption per voyage has been greater
than ever. Let vessels, then, be provided with expansion valves, say we,
by which fuel may be saved when the wind is favourable, and the full power of
the engine may be retained for use under adverse circumstances. But do not
permanently lessen the power of the engines by the application of lap, which
will not merely make a quick vessel a slow one, but will defeat the very
economy it is the object of the appliance to obtain. We know very well there
are some engineers fond of sticking by their old plans, and who will be loath
to give up so cheap an expedient for securing an abundant supply of steam
at the safety valve, as the application of lap affords. But throttling the
engines will accomplish nearly the same end — though that trick indeed is
more easily discovered — and at all events people are judged of in these times,
not by their claims to scientific refinement, but by the result.

Art. XXII.— ANALYSIS OP BOOKS.
Suggestions regarding the Windows of the House of Lords, in connexion with a

series of designs. By Ballantine and Allan, Edinburgh, 1844.
Our readers are of course aware of an invitation having been given by the Com-
missioners of the Fine Arts, to artists of every denomination, to send in specimens
of such of their works as would be suitable for the decoration of the Houses of Par-
liament. Among the productions forwarded in acceptance of this invitation, are
numerous designs for stained glass windows, some of which have been furnished by
Messrs. Ballantine and Allan, the authors of this pamphlet, and manufacturers of
stained glass in Edinburgh. Their general scheme for the construction of the
windows of the House of Lords is ingenious, and we think judicious : we give it
in their own words : —

" It is believed that, with strict attention to character and costume, it might be
practicable in the windows of the House of Lords to give an abridged pictorial history
of Great Britain, wherein might be traced the progress of the national mind,
through all its various stages, from the earliest period of which we have any
authentic record, until the present time.

" With this view, the History of Britain has been divided into twelve great cycles.
Th>5 kings, queens, and leading personages connected with the principal events in
each distinct period, are represented. Their armorial bearings, in so far as they can
he had, are introduced. Mottoes from their recorded expressions are selected ;
while ornamental devices, emblematic of usages or customs peculiar to each of these
periods fill up the minor spaces. It is thought that each window would thus have
a distinct historical character ; while, in consequence of the other ornamental de-
tails being in accordance with the style of architecture adopted in the New
Palace, the general effect would be sufficiently uniform and pleasing.

" The following is the arrangement suggested : —

ndow, No. 1. Ancient Britain,

from Caractacus

to Vortigern,

A.D. 50 to

455

... Alfred

... Canute,

871 ...

1039

... William I.

... Henry II.

1066 ...

1189

4

... Richard I.

... John,

1189 ...

1216

... 5

... Edward I.

... Edward III

1272 ...

1377

6. English,

... Henry V.

... Henry VII.

1413 ...

15C9

7

... Henry VIII.

... Elizabeth,

1509 ...

1603

... James I.

... Charles I.

1603 ...

1649

9

... Cromwell

... Charles II.

1649 ...

1683

10. ......

... Will. & Mary

... Anne,

168S ...

1714

11

... George I.

... George II.

1714 ...

1760

... George III.

... Victoria

1760 ...

1844

REVIEW OF PERIODICALS.

Philosophical Magazine, No. CLX. — The greater part of this number is occu-
pied, like too many of its predecessors, with translations from foreign journals, and
the reprint of transactions of societies of rather ancient date. Of the original
articles there is one by Mr. Candell, on the practice of the calotype process, in
which he endeavours to render it more generally practicable, by giving detailed
and accurate directions, respecting the necessary processes and manipulations. He
is of opinion that, had snch minute directions been given for the calotype as ac-
companied the introduction of the Daguerreotype, the former would have become
the more popular mode of taking pictures by light. The disadvantage of obtaining,
in the first instance, a negative picture, is considered by Mr. Candell to be amply
compensated by the facility which it affords for multiplying copies. The sharp-
ness of outline, however, must be considerably affected by the transfer of the
picture, and one of the chief wants of the calotype process appears to' be a suitable
paper, or other fabric, sufficiently thin and fine, and smooth on the surface. There
is an article, by Sir David Brewster, on the law of visible position, with single and
binocular vision, in which he undertakes to disprove a position assumed by
Professor Wheatstone, that " The most vivid belief of the solidity of an object of
three dimensions arises from two different perspective projections of it being simul-
taneously presented to the mind." Sir David Brewster states, that so far from this
position being generally correct, the vision with two eyes is, in certain circum-
stances, delusive ; for it often happens, where an object is looked at, that one eye
sees the whole, and the other perceives only a part — and thus an imperfect idea of
its form is conveyed to the mind. Professor Wheatstone may, however, with
considerable justice, reply to this objection, that in such cases the imperfection does

1844.]

Survey of the Periodicals.

119

not arise from perfect vision with two eyes, but from the partial vision with both,
and that the illustrations adduced by Sir David only serve to prove his position.
Another, and far more important point, is dismissed with a mere notice. We allude
to the phenomenon of an image of an erect object being presented to the mind
from an inverted picture on the retina. Sir David Brewster says that it is demon-
strable, clearly, from the law of visible direction for points, and that the only diffi-
culty he entertains is to discover where any difficulty lies. He does not, however,
proceed to show how " the law of visible direction for points" demonstrates this
phenomenon, the explanation of which has puzzled the brains of many, and has given
rise to the greatest absurdities, in the attempts to account for it. Why there
should have been considered to be any difficulty about the matter is certainly
strange — for it does not require the assistance of " the law of visible direction for
points" to unravel the mystery, so far as man can penetrate into the secrets of
vision. All that the sciences of optics and physiology can do, is to discover that an
inverted image of external objects is presented on the retina — which is an ex-
pansion of the optic nerve, that conveys the impression to the mind. By what
means the image on the retina becomes concentrated in the optic nerve, or in what
manner the impression is conveyed to the brain, or how the action of the
brain produces the sensation of sight, are altogether beyond our powers to develope.
The image on the retina may, so far as human knowledge extends, be placed erect,
and again inverted millions of times, ere it is impressed on the sensorium ; nor
will any one undertake to give the mind its exact position. Therefore, why it
should have been assumed, as it formerly was, from the mere fact of inverted
images on the retina, that the images of objects are also inverted in the mind,
and that the error is corrected only by experience, seems only less extraordinary
than that it should be thought necessary, at the present day, to explain the pheno-
menon by " the law of visible direction for points," or in any other manner
whatever.

The Chemist, LIII. — This periodical is also indebted for most of its articles to
foreign publications, of which the Comptes Retidus of the sittings of the French
Academy of Sciences contribute the larger portion. As there is not any regularly
published translation of the valuable papers contained in the Comptes Rendus, and
as they are but little known in England, in their original form, these irregular
introductions of them are of much value — though we could wish that an English
periodical, devoted to chemistry, were more occupied by the contributions
and the discoveries of English chemists. Among the extracts from the Comptes
Rendus is a report of further experiments on the nutritive qualities of gelatine
recently made by the Royal Institute of the Netherlands. The object of these
experiments was to ascertain whether gelatine, though not nutritive when taken
alone might not be so when mixed with other food. The animals experimented on
were dogs, and the weight of the animals, at different times, was made the test of
nutrition. Where the gelatine extracted from horses was given unmixed, the
animals ceased to take it after the third day, and would have died from exhaustion,
if other food had not been supplied. In the other experiments, the gelatine was
mixed with rye-bread, in different quantities : but it appeared that the loss of
weight sustained by the animals was the same when equal quantities of bread were
given with gelatine or without it — from which it is inferred that gelatine is
not nutritive, even when mixed with other food. In an original article on the
operation of excise restrictions on the progress of chemical science, the effects
of those restrictions, in obstructing improvements in manufactures are forcibly
shown and illustrated by a statement of facts connected with calico-printing and
soap. According to the excise regulations soap manufacturers are restricted to the
employment of certain materials, and the article is to be produced in a given
form. For the production of certain colours it is necessary that the soap
used in the preparation of the cloth should sometimes contain an excessive, and
sometimes a small quantity of alkali, and ammonia should be sometimes added to
it; but the licensed soap-maker is forbidden to supply any but the stated article.
To overcome this difficulty, the calico-printers were permitted to manufacture their
own soap free of duty ; so that the soap-maker is deprived of his best customers
by these fiscal regulations; and improvement in the quality of soap is almost for-
bidden. The oppressive character of the excise laws has alway6 been severely felt
by manufacturers subject to them ; and they are not only oppressive but absolute
checks to improvement in many branches of the arts. This is evidenced by the
fact that the manufactures which have been emancipated from the excise restric-
tions have made great advances, whilst those over which the control is retained
remain nearly in statu quo.

The Nautical Magazine, No. V. — In this number several previously discussed
topics are resumed without being concluded. Among these are the phenomena of
thunderstorms, and the destructive effects of lightning on the royal navy. There
is more concentration of facts in this than in the preceding articles ; and we gather
from it that during twenty-three years of the war commenced in 1793, the positive
loss on account of material alone was from 80,000?. to 100,000?. ; whilst between
the years 1810 and 1815, the damage done by lightning to the navy is estimated at
45,000?. The number of seamen killed by lightning during the war was 70, and
158 were severely hurt or crippled. All this loss of life and property,
besides the numerous contingent losses and evils, was occasioned by neglecting to
apply the known means of safety which lightning conductors afford. The
pendulum marine artificial horizon, invented by Captain Becher, forms the
subject of one of the best articles in The Nautical Magazine. The invention
consists in attaching to a properly suspended pendulum a plate of glass, at a right
angle to the pendulum-rod. By this means the plate of glass preserves, at all
times, even during the motion of the ship, its true position to the horizon, which it
represents. To overcome the effects of vibration the pendulum is suspended in oil.
Some further explanation is given respecting the mode adopted by Mr. Walker to
prevent mechanical oscillation in the compass card. We stated, in a previous notice
of this improvement in the compass, that it consists in correcting the dip of the

needle mechanically, by causing the card to rub against a stop or regulator, instead
of applying a small piece, of brass to the south pole, to bring the needle again to
a balance. It was objected that the friction of the card would prevent the needle
from acting freely ; but this objection it appears is removed by having a double
suspension — so that if the motion of the card should be obstructed by the
compensation collar, the compass would still move freely on its second point of
suspension.

Fisher's Colonial Magazine, No. IV. — The first article in this number of
Fisher's Colonial, entitled " Communication between London and Paris, or
Fifteen Hours via the Brighton Railway," we recognise as an old friend with a
new face; for though it is put thus prominently forward, and is dressed up in the
typography of originality, a portion of it appeared in No. XIV of the Artizan, and
it formed the text whereon we founded some observations on the proposed means of
communication between London and Paris. The article on the communication
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, which was commenced in a former number, is
now brought to a close— and a most impotent conclusion it is. The result seems
to be that if a water communication be made by canal, the best route would be by
the lake of Nicaragua up the river San Juan, and by canal from the lake to the
Pacific Ocean, a distance of fifteen miles, with the chain of the Andes interposing.
The difficulties are, however, considered too great to be at present overcome. In the
meantime communication across the isthmus of Panama, by railroad, is recom-
mended, or, in default of that, a Macadamised common road, for keeping up the
mercantile communication between the two oceans !

Dublin University Magazine, No. CXXXVII. — We would fain find some ar-
ticle in this talented periodical, from which we might glean scraps of information
fitted for the Artizan ; but, unfortunately, party politics occupy too much of its
pages, that are not filled with " light reading." The opening subject, " The Cen-
sus of Ireland," promises favourably ; but even statistics serve but as pegs whereon
to hang party invectives. It is not generally known that one of the marked features
in the Irish census of 1841, which distinguishes it from that of 1831, is the great
increase of domestic servants which it exhibits. The number of male servants in
1831 was stated to be 98,742 ; and in 1841 we find the same class estimated at
227,937, being an increase, in ten years, of nearly three-fold. The number of
female servants had not increased in a corresponding manner : in the last census
they were stated to be 275,914, in the preceding census they are numbered at
253,155. The census commissioners consider the increase in the number of ser-
vants to indicate an improvement in the condition of Ireland. The writer in the
Magazine, in the first place, doubts the accuracy of the returns of this class in 1831 ;
and secondly, even admitting the increase, the correctness of the inference drawn
by the commissioners is denied ; since an increase in the number of male domestic
servants, it is contended, " proves little more than the increase of expensive habits
anioDg those whose increased means of expense can add little to their happiness."
Surely the " increased means of expense" must, in other words, signify an increase
of wealth, which is all the commissioners could intend ; for the question whether
happiness depends on riches is altogether foreign to statistical inquiries.

Literary Gazette. — This monthly part of the Lilerary Gazette contains few ori-
ginal articles, besides the reviews of books, that call for observation. A contribu-
tion on London architecture, from a correspondent with whose opinions those of
the editor do not altogether coincide, is deserving of notice, as he suggests improve-
ments in some of the public buildings, which might be adopted without much ex-
pense. The removal of the incongruous sarcophagi, urns, and other funereal em-
blems, from the top of the Bank of England, for instance, would be not an expen-
sive improvement ; and it would remove the cemeterial aspect which the building at
present presents. One of the points on which this writer lays great stress is the
beauty of a long and uninterrupted balustrade, or range of columns ; and he pro
tests against the frequent practice of breaking the regular line of continuity by the
introduction of other ornaments. A proposition is also made, deserving consider-
ation, for collecting together, in one open space, all the statues of eminent men
scattered throughout London, in different places, where they are seldom seen, and
scarcely ever noticed. The site of St. Margaret's Church, where the statue of
Canning now stands, is mentioned, as capable of forming a fitting area for the
purpose.

The Athenmum, Part CXCVI. — There is a long essay on the vindication of pub-
lic taste in this part, in which the writer endeavours, with great ability, to support
the judgment of the public on modern poetry, against the dictum of critics. This
is not a subject into which we can here enter, but the principles endeavoured to be
established are worth stating. The test of true genius and morality in poetry, it is
contended, is to excite profound sympathy for human suffering in any form, whether
guilty or innocent. " The whole soul is purified by our sufferings for others ; and
the influence is ever to soften and refine, to make us more forgiving to others, more
lenient, to warm the inflexible sternness of mere justice." The exclusive admiration
for philosophical, and, what is usually termed moral poetry, is ridiculed by the
writer, who, on the principle of upholding the excitement of the feelings as the
true object of poetry, defends Lord Byron, and depreciates Wordsworth. Mr.
William Howitt holds forth on the snbject of international copyright in a very in-
dignant strain, against those American authors who have ventured to poach on his
manor, by translating works which he either has translated, or intended to translate.
He takes occasion, when venting his wrath on the American authors and publish-
ers, to advertise more forthcoming publications of his own ; and he mentions, as the
climax of his grievances, that works of his, published at one guinea in England, can
be bought in America for two shillings. This is carrying the argument too far, and
is calculated to injure the cause Mr. Howitt undertakes to support. Much as we
object to the robbery of authors committed by the republication of their original
works in another country, it would be carrying the principle of international copy-
right too far to impose restrictions on the translation of similar works in America.

120

Marvels of the Day.

Art. XXIII.— MARVELS OP THE DAY.

77;e icood Engravers. — The School of Design has heen memorialized by the
wood engravers, who desire the abolition of that department of the government
school in which the art of engraving on wood is taught to females. We must say
we are advocates for free trade in every department of industry, and are as unwilling
to see a monopoly established in wood engraving as in anything else.

Patent fuel. — Some specimens of patent fuel, lately put on board a steamer pro-
ceeding to a warm climate, and which was nicely packed, in cubical guise, con-
creted, after a little time, into a solid mass, which was as difficult to separate as if
it had been as much Indian-rubber. Hammers and picks had scarcely any effect
upon it; and much inconvenience was sustained from the want of fuel to sustain
the fires, reliance having been placed upon the supply of this treacherous
material.

Sir James Murray's Hydrometer. — Sir Jas. Murray has addressed to us a letter,
vindicating his claim to the invention of an ingenious instrument for ascertaining
the specific gravity of liquids by the relative heights at which they stand on a syphon
tube, and to which some other person had laid claim. From the inquiries we have
made we have not the least doubt of Sir James being the real inventor ; and, in-
deed, the contrivance has so striking a family likeness to some of the previous pro-
ductions of his ingenuity as nearly to make other proofs superfluous.

Metropolitan Improvements. — The project of a street along the side of the river
has of late excited a good deal of attention, in consequence of the publication of the
Report of tho Commissioners appointed by the Government to investigate that
subject. The plans of Sir F. French and Mr. Martin, the Commissioners have
set aside as impracticable, and have considered three plans only as worthy of
investigation : these are the plans of Mr. Walker, Mr. Page, and Mr. Barry.

Mr. Walker's plan consists in the formation of a quay along the river side,
nearer the centre of the river than the present wharfs — the quay being connected
all along with the shore, wherever such connexion is convenient, and docks being
left in the other parts between the quay and the shore, for the accommodation of
the wharfingers. Mr. Page's plan consists in the formation of a quay or pier some
distance from the shore, and communicating with it only at the ends, leaving docks
all along for the accommodation of barges. Mr. Barry's plan more nearly resem-
bles the plan of Mr. Walker than that of Mr. Page. Mr. Page's plan is the one to
which the Commissioners have given a preference.

It appears to us that the docks formed according to any of these methods would
be very liable to silt up. A structure raised on cast-iron piles supporting cast-iron
arches, would, in our humble judgment, be greatly preferable, as the deposition of
mud would be prevented by preserving the continuous run of the water ; and ellip-
tical cast-iron piles would offer very little obstruction in this respect.

The removal of the hoarding from the space around the Nelson pillar displays
that work of masonry in unclouded folly. A pillar we at any time think unfit for
a monument. How unfit, then, must be such a pillar as a monument to such a
man ! George the Fourth, with his wet blanket thrown over his shoulders, does
not redeem the injury, to say nothing of the specimen of asphalte pavement with
which the centre of the square is laid, and which is shrivelled up like a piece of
wizened parchment.

From our own Correspondent.

Calcutta. — New Steam Company. — Our new Steam Company ripens apace.
A prospectus has been issued, specifying the nature of the management, and the
distribution of the shares, and enumerating the Directors and office-bearers, and the
banking and mercantile houses at home to which the allotment of shares has been
intrusted. Of the 2000 shares created, 1000 are appropriated for Calcutta, 500
for the other parts of India, and 500 for Europe. The excess of the receipts over
the disbursements is anticipated to be 26,500/., which is equivalent to a dividend
of 13^- per cent, on the capital; of which it is expected only one-half will require
to he called up before the vessels are completed. The present Directors, it is pro-
vided, shall remain in office for three years ; after which time, three will retire
annually ; and a managing Director has been appointed, to whom the general con-
duct of the enterprise will be confided. This step appears to me a most judicious
one ; and the selection, in filling up this difficult office, also appears to be singalarly
happy — the choice having fallen upon Mr. Stephenson, well known to your engin-
eering leaders as the inventor of a most ingenious machinery for theatres, and an
engineer of much promise and proficiency. The idea formerly entertained of buy-
ing up the old steamers belonging to the Government has been abandoned, as well
as that of constituting Capt. Johnson sole superintendent ; and, upon the whole,
the affairs of the Company wear a much more cheerful aspect than when I last
wrote, or than could have been expected in so short an interval.

The qualifications for a Director are, that he shall bo resident in Calcutta, and be
a holder of at least five shares. The Company is proposed to be incorporated by
an act of council ; and a clause will be inserted in the deed of settlement, providing
that an amalgamation may at any future time be accomplished, " on equitable
principles," with the Steam Tug Association. Tins is the only part of the scheme
that raises a doubt here ; for the Tug Association has been so notorious for job-
bing, that the very name raises ideas in most minds of artifice and corruption ; and
it is conceived any new scheme can hardly escape pollution that is associated with
so much impurity.

Steam YuclU on the Ganges. — A very neat little steam yacht, the " Windsor
Castle," has lately been sent hither for sale ; but, as a purchaser did not present
himself, the persons to whom she was consigned placed her on the Ganges, to run
between Calcutta and a place called Hooghly, about forty miles distant. Unfor-
tunately, the number of passengers was too small to justify her continuance on the
station, and, after a few days' ailing, she was withdrawn.

In following the very excellent example of the steamers on the river Thames, it
appears to have been overlooked by our speculators hero, that the Thames is not a

river in India, and that the living tide which rushes forth from London, in auspi-
cious seasons, to taste the pure air and unsophisticated sunshine, has no counterpart
in this land of indolent habits and unclouded skies. Of the European population,
it is the universal aspiration to make money as quickly as possible, so that they
may return home to enjoy it ; and, whatever time they are content to spare from
this pursuit in present amusement, they will rather spend in England in the
lump, by taking a passage thither, than in the small disbursements of a day at a
time. Of the natives, there are few who would be disposed to expend so large a
sum as 12s. — for that was the fare — on a trip to and from Hooghly ; so that the
enterprise appears to have been destitute of all the elements of success. Its failure,
however, is to be lamented, as the tendency of such a result is, undoubtedly, to
throw a damp upon internal steam navigation — as people at a distance, or, indeed,
negligent spectators on the spot, are unable to discriminate between a good and bad
scheme of the same genus. The only plan by which this vessel might have been
made to do, appears to me to be, by starting from the Mjo-river stations in the
morning, and returning at night, so as to encourage men of business to reside in the
country, by providing them with a regular and convenient means of transport. In
this case, however, the fare would require to be reduced, as, to most business-men,
12s. a-day is a consideration. The "Windsor Castle" is well fitted up, and, in
point of speed, acquits herself respectably. Her machinery is of 60 horses power.

Steam-boat Engineers. — When talking about river steamers, I may mention that
the Government has never allotted pensions to any of the engineers employed in
these boats, and, indeed, has never held out any prospect of pensions being granted.
This has always appeared to me a most unfair and impolitic proceeding ; for engin-
eers have certainly as great claims upon the pension-fund as any other class of the
Company's servants, if mere service be a sufficient title; and if hard work, and the
risks of death and sickness, be requisite to earn a claim, the title of these men must
necessarily stand pre-eminent. If these steamers realized to Government an annual
profit of 12 per cent., the plea of poverty can hardly be urged in extenuation of
such parsimony ; and the men to whom such a measure of success was in a great
measure owing, might surely have been treated with a more politic liberality.

New Dock. — Government is at present constructing a dock, which will admit a
vessel drawing 18 feet water, " even in the month of January, when the river is at
its lowest." The want of a dock of such a size has long been felt to be a serious
inconvenience, and one which ought to have been sooner remedied. Had the
" Hindostan " steamer, when she grounded last month, sustained any damage, such
that she would require to be laid up, we have no dock large enough to receive her,
and it would have been necessary for her to have gone round to Bombay, in order to
be repaired. I believe that a ship-builder here proposed to the Peninsular and
Oriental Company to enlarge his dock, so as to reeeive their vessels ; but then the
Company were to advancehim the money requisite for the alterations, and he would
allow them the privilege of docking for only three years. The new Government
dock is to be 300ft. long at bottom, and 75ft. wide at the entrance, which is to he
provided with an iron caisson. It is to be constructed of brick, at a cost of
43,000Z., and to occupy from three to four years in building.

Shipwreck at Mauritius. — The Mail carries home the news of the wreck of six
ships at the island of Mauritius. These ships were all lying outside of the harbour
of Port Louis, and consequently had but little shelter from the Has de Marie, or
Roller, which proved so fatal. Several of these ships were freighted with Coolies
(Indian labourers), for the Mauritius; but, having no cargo, they thought it better
not to go into harbour, but to disembark their Coolies from without, so that they
might avoid the port dues : and thus, from the sordid economy of a few ship-
owners, the lives of 800 beings were placed in most imminent danger. Fortu-
nately, out of 800 souls, only one was lost, an English sailor, who attempted to
swim ashore, but failed. Were it only for the sake of underwriters, ship-owners
should be compelled to manage their vessels with greater precaution ; and at least
as much solicitude should be shown for the safety of a cargo of human beings as
for one composed of bales and boxes. Such negligence and illegitimate thrift espe-
cially deserves the notice of the Legislature, which sanctions the importation of
Coolies into the Mauritius. And had the good people of that island been less able
or less willing to afford assistance, than their noble exertions proved them capable
of, few of these poor emigrants would have survived to tell the tale of the terrible
Has de Maree, and the shameful conduct of English ship-owners. Those vessels
which had only entered Port Louis harbour the day before this sad occurrence
escaped scot-free.

Pilot Charges. — In the hurry of finishing my last letter, I omitted to mention
that of the amount paid to the Steam Tug Association for towing a vessel out to
sea, one-eighth per cent, is borne by the assurers of the vessel, as, by the em-
ployment of a steamer, the risks of navigating the Hooghly are proportionately
lessened. And, for the same reason, when a tug is employed, the Honourable
Company refunds a certain portion of the regular pilot charges (not the douceur),
varying from one-third to one-sixteentb, according to circumstances. But these
facts do not in the least alter the general features of the case. The chief argument
used in palliation of the pilot's expectation of a gratuity, is, that they are not obliged
to bring any vessel drawing upwards of 17ft. of water more than halfway up to
Calcutta; and that by their taking the vessel actually up to town, they incur the
risk, in case of accident, of being dismissed the service. This, however, is merely
one of the pretexts for which extortion is never at a loss; but it is, unfortunately,
far too transparent to be available for the purposes of deception. The majority of
vessels arriving here draw more than 17ft. water, and reach Calcutta without diffi-
culty or disaster ; so that there can be no pretence of making a special case of every
vessel exceeding that draught, and so recompensing the pilot, as if some new and
unheard-of difficulty had been surmounted. In any case, the pilot can only exer-
cise the amount of skill he possesses, which, by his engagement, he is bound to do ;
and there must be something radically wrong in a service which permits a man to
say to a customer of his employers, " Unless you give me a bribe, I shall not treat
you as I do other people." Mac.

PLATE XV.

M: 'Watt's. 1782.
Fig. I.

PROJECTS tbr ROTATIVE STEAM ENGINES .

W.' Murder's . 1733 .

Fia . 3.

PLATS XVI.

BOILER OF THE PENINSULAR & ORIENTAL STEAM C °> STEAM SHIP TAGUS : Ml LLER , R AV ENHILL & C?

LONGITUDINAL SECTION.
S ff>

~w

SCALE.

J.R.,Totl(n.s lUKu

THE ARTIZAN.

No. XVIII.— JUNE 29th, 1844.

Art. I.— PRINCIPLES OF THE ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY.

The atmospheric railway is no longer a mere speculation. Differences of
opinion exist respecting the advantages of the atmospheric system of propul-
sion compared with locomotive steam power ; but the practicability of the plan
is no longer doubted, and nearly all agree that, on a short line of road, with
steep gradients, and curves of small radius, as on the Kingstown and Dalkey
Railway, near Dublin, where the atmospheric system has been successfully
applied, it offers many facilities, and overcomes difficulties that cannot be
surmounted by locomotive traction according to the existing modes of con-
struction.

The principle of the atmospheric railway was first tested experimentally on
a practical scale, a few years ago, on a short length of railway laid down at
Wormwood Scrubbs, by Messrs. Clegg and Samuda, who are the patentees
of the continuous valve that runs along the top of the atmospheric tube, to
keep it air-tight, at the same time that it permits the passage of the connect-
ing arm from the piston traversing within the tube to the train of carriages
on the railway. Numerous were the objections raised to this mode of pro-
pulsion, after its practicability on a short length of line had been proved ;
and even now that it has had a more extended successful trial on the Kings-
town and Dalkey Railway, doubts are entertained by many engineers whether
it is generally applicable. Numerous experiments have been performed
for the purpose of testing the applicability of the system to extended lines
of railway ; and several ingenious and elaborate reports have been drawn
up detailing those experiments, and embodying the opinions of the indi-
viduals by whom they were performed ; but those opinions are by no means
unanimous, and it is difficult to say how far that want of unanimity may in-
fluence the public mind, and thereby prevent the general adoption of a sys-
tem which, to say the least of it, is exceedingly plausible and singularly
ingenious. There can be no doubt, however, that it will be applied to some
extent on lines of a medium length, and in localities to which it is more par-
ticularly adapted ; and, since this is likely to be the case, we think it will be
interesting to many of our readers to be put in possession of the theoretical
principles on which the system rests.

In contemplating the atmospheric apparatus as applied to the propulsion
of trains on a railway, it is necessary, in the first place, to consider the laws
by which the pressure and motion of the air are regulated ; for when these
laws are properly understood, the investigation of the principles that are
brought into action in propelling the trains becomes a matter of the greatest
simplicity.

It has been proved by experiment, that when the column of mercury in the
tube of the barometer stands at the height of 30 inches, and when the tempe-
rature of the air, as indicated by Fahrenheit's thermometer, is 55 degrees,
the specific gravities of air and of mercury, as compared with that of water
at the temperature of 60 degrees, are 1§ and 13,600 respectively ; that is, if a
cubic foot of distilled water, at the temperature of 60 degrees, weighs 1000
avoirdupois ounces, a cubic foot of air, at the temperature of 55 degrees, will
weigh If ounces, while a cubic foot of mercury weighs 13,600 ounces. These
numbers are important, as they are made the standards in all our calculations
in reference to atmospheric pressure, except in cases where very great accuracy
is required, and then the effects arising from the variations of temperature
must be taken into the account.

If the air of the whole atmosphere were of the same density as at the sur-
face of the earth, it would reach to the height of 27,818 feet, or 5-268
English miles, very nearly ; and every column of it occupying a square inch
of base, is equivalent in weight to 30 cubic inches of mercury : it hence ap-
pears, that the pressure of the atmosphere on a square inch of surface is
equal to 14-757 lbs. ; for, since one cubic foot, or 1728 cubic inches of mer-
cury weighs 13,600 ounces, it follows that 30 cubic inches will weigh 236"1
ounces, or 14-7571bs. ; for we have

1728 : 13600 : : 30 : 236-1 = 14-757 lbs., or, in round numbers, 15 lbs.

We have already stated, that if the air of the atmosphere were all of the
same density as at the earth's surface, it would extend to a height of 27,818

VOL. II.

feet : that such would be the case, may be shown by comparing the specific
gravity of air with that of mercury ; for it is

If : 13600 : : 30 : 333818-18 inches, or 27,818 feet.

It will be perceived that the first term is the specific gravity of air ; the
second, the specific gravity of mercury ; the third, the height of a column of
mercury in inches, which is equal to the pressure of the atmosphere ; and the
fourth is the height in inches of a uniform column of air, the weight of which
is equal to a column of 30 inches of mercury standing on an equal base.
When, therefore, the number of inches thus obtained is reduced to feet, we
get 27,818, which becomes a standard in all the calculations that have for
their object the determination of the motion and velocity of atmospheric air.

It is a well-known principle in the theory of hydrodynamics, that the velo-
city with which a fluid issues through an orifice in the side of a vessel, de-
pends on the altitude of the fluid above that orifice ; and when the motion is
made into a vacuum, the velocity of influx is equal to that which would be
acquired by a heavy body in falling freely through the altitude of the fluid
above the orifice. Supposing, therefore, that the air is permitted to flow
into a perfect vacuum that is constantly maintained, the velocity of influx
will be 1337*768 feet per second, for it is equal to a/64£ x 27818, where
64i is the proper coefficient for the motion of a fluid when free from friction
or cohesion, and 27818 the height in feet of the uniform atmosphere pro-
ducing the velocity; in round numbers, the velocity may be taken at 1338
feet per second. From this we infer, that all motions which have reference
to the velocity of air, as generated by its own weight, must be limited by
1338 feet per second of time ; for, if a higher velocity than that should be
required for any particular purpose, it must be obtained by some mecha-
nical arrangement ; as, from what we have just shown, it cannot be produced
by the weight of the atmospheric column alone.

If the air of the atmosphere, instead of flowing into a vacuum, as has been
supposed above, should flow into a vessel containing rarer air, the velocity
of influx will not be that which is due to the whole height of the uniform
column equivalent to the atmosphere, but only such as is due to the difference
between this height and that of another column corresponding to the density
of the rarer air ; the height of this latter column being determined from its
density or specific gravity, after the manner exemplified in the determination
of the column for atmospheric air ; or thus : —

Let s denote the specific gravity of atmospheric air in its usual state of
density,

and s' the specific gravity of the rarer air, into which the air of the atmo-
sphere is supposed to flow ;
then, since the height of the column corresponding to s has already been
found, that corresponding to s' will be obtained as follows : —

s : 27818 : : *'

x 27818.

The result just found is the height in feet, of a uniform column of atmo-
spheric air, that will produce a pressure equal to the pressure of the rarer
air. Consequently, the difference between this height and that of the uni-
form column corresponding to the pressure of the atmosphere, is the height
which produces the velocity sought ; hence, if v be put to denote the velocity
of influx, we shall have

v = V 64* (27818— * x 27818).

This expression, however, admits of a much simpler form ; for we have
already seen that -/64£ x 27818 is equal to 1338, very nearly ; therefore,
by substitution, we get

v= 1338 n/( 1—-);

and, finally, by restoring the value of s, it becomes

v

403422 J 11 — 9s'.
a

122

By this equation, therefore, can the velocity with which the air of the atmo-
sphere flows into a space containing rarer air be determined, when the
density or specific gravity of the rarer air is known ; and the velocity thus
obtained will manifestly continue constant as long as the rarer air maintains
its original density ; but when the density of the rarer air is not maintained,
the formula can only represent the first velocity, or that which obtains at the
instant of initial influx ; and this velocity must continually decrease during
the motion ; for if the air be confined, its density will increase, and the velo-
city will be nothing, at the instant when the equilibrium between it and the
air of the atmosphere takes place.

It may be interesting to trace the variation of velocity corresponding to
any given change in the density of the air ; and for this purpose we shall
suppose that, when the motion commences, the rarer air is only one-tenth
the density of the atmosphere ; or, in other words, we shall say it is ten times
rarefied ; thereby indicating its pressure to be three inches of mercury, or
one pound and a half to the square inch. We shall, moreover, suppose that
the density varies by one-tenth of that of the atmosphere, increasing conti-
nually until the equilibrium takes place, and the motion ceases. Thus we
have

= 1 338 feet per second ;

Principles of the Atmospheric Railway.

[June,

1269

In a perfect vacuum, v = 403-422 V 11 — 0
but when*' = -^ s, it is v = 403-422 V 11— 1-1

s' = tos> v = 403-422 V 11 — 2-2 = 1197

* = TTT *>
»' = TTf *.
»' = -To *>

v = 403-422 V 11 — 3-3 = 1119
v = 403 422 V 11 — 4-4 = 1037
v = 403-422 V 11 — 5-5 = 946

= 403-422 V 11 — 6-6

= 403-422 V 11—7-7 =

403-422 V 11 — 8-8 =

= 403-422 V 11—9-9 =

846
733
598
423

By examining the series of results here obtained, it will readily be per-
ceived that although the increment of density is constant, yet the decrements
cf velocity vary very considerably ; the decrease being much more rapid near
the termination of the motion than at the beginning. This, however, is only
what might have been expected, in consequence of the increasing density ;
but we shall have occasion to allude to this circumstance in another place,
when we come to notice the effect of leakage on the velocity of the piston in
the vacuum tube of an atmospheric railway.

If we reverse the process by which we obtained the foregoing series of re-
sults, the specific gravity or density corresponding to any given velocity can
readily be found ; but since this is a case of the general problem of less
utility in the present inquiry than that which we have exemplified, we need
not do more in this place than merely indicate the process. Thus, by recur-
ring to the equation which represents the value of the velocity, and dividing

both sides by the constant co-efficient 403-422, we get _ = V 11 — 9«';

therefore, by squaring both sides, it is -

403-422
= 11 — 9*';

and again,

403-422
by transposition and division, we finally obtain

jf-jJll- * 1.
J I 403-4222J

Here we have an equation from which, when v is known, the value of s', or the
specific gravity of the rarer air, can easily be found for any velocity whatever
not exceeding 1338 feet per second ; because, since that is the velocity with
which the air of the atmosphere rushes into a vacuum when impelled by its
own weight, it constitutes a limit to all our inquiries in reference to velocities
thus generated.

We have thus considered the pressure of the air in its natural state of den-
sity, from which the pressure corresponding to any other density can readily
be found. We have, moreover, determined the velocity with which it flows
into a vacuum when impelled by its own weight, on the supposition that the
vacuum is constantly maintained. We have also assigned the velocity with
which it insinuates itself into a partial vacuum, or into a space containing air
somewhat rarefied ; and have shown the decrease of velocity corresponding to
any increase of density, admitting the air to be confined in a close vessel, and
tending continually, during the motion, to an equilibrium with the atmo-
sphere ; and, finally, we have given the expression for the density of the air
in the vessel, when it is known with what velocity the air of the atmosphere
is admitted into it ; and, since these are the principal points that require
determination in reference to the air abstractedly considered, we shall now
proceed to examine its operation when brought under the conditions that
are a necessary consequence of its passage through the apparatus on an
atmospheric railway.

The apparatus to which our attention has now to be directed, consists of a
cylindrical tube or pipe lying along the whole line of a railway, and
which is connected with air-pumps at convenient distances, after some

e£^

3H

v\1

such a manner as is represented in
the subjoined diagram. This tube,
which is fitted with an air-tight
piston, p, is partially exhausted of
air by means of the air-pumps with
which it is connected ; and the at-
mosphere acting with its full inten-
sity on the other side of the piston,
urges it in the direction from A to
B ; and this piston being joined to
the train, carries it forward in the
same direction with a velocity that ,,, ... ==
will be considered hereafter. II p H?

In order, however, to simplify and A
abridge the description, we shall

suppose the tube AB to be closed at B, the other end at A being considered
open to the atmosphere, for the purpose of giving free admission to the air to
act upon the piston. The pump-barrel P, is also fitted with an air-tight piston
a b, in which there is a valve V, that opens upwards, for the purpose of per-
mitting the air that is in the tube AB to pass into the pump-barrel. There is
also an exit valve at v that opens outwards, in order to permit the air that is
in the pump to escape into the atmosphere during the ascent of the piston
a b. The piston, p, which is carried along the tube by the pressure of the
atmosphere, when the equilibrium of density has been destroyed by the action
of the air-pump, is connected with the train by means of a bar or rod of iron
that traverses a slit or groove on the upper side of the tube, displacing, in its
progress, a flexible longitudinal valve extending the whole length of the tube,
which is again immediately closed, and rendered as nearly as possible air-
tight, by a particular process invented for that purpose.

In the first place, however, we are, for the sake of simplicity, to consider
the piston^ as moving along the tube without any train attached to it ; and
we shall, moreover, conceive it to be void of weight, perfectly air-tight, and
free to move in the direction from A to B without friction or resistance of any
kind, other than what arises from the air in front of it during its compression ;
and, at the same time, we shall suppose the air-pump, with all its appur-
tenances, to be of the very best construction, performing its office without
loss from any cause whatever, extracting its full quantity of air from the tube
at every stroke of the piston. In short, we are to consider the apparatus as
being perfect in all its parts, and the action to be altogether uninfluenced by
any other agent besides the exterior and interior air, together with the power
that puts the pump in motion.

Let us first conceive the piston a b to be at the bottom of the pump-barrel,
with the valve, V, open, and the outlet valve at v shut ; then it is manifest
that, in this state of things, the entire space of the tube and pump-barrel from p
to P is filled with air of atmospheric density ; and in this case the whole system
is in a state of equilibrium, the pressure of the air within being an exact
counterpoise to that without. Suppose the piston p to be prevented from
moving, by means of some force or power applied to it, and let a b begin to
ascend from the bottom towards the top of the pump-barrel ; then it is clear
that the instant motion commences ; the valve V will close downwards, in
consequence of the pressure of the air above it, which becomes compressed as
soon as the piston a b begins to ascend ; by continuing the ascent of the
piston a b, the force of compression will overcome the resistance of the air on
the outside of the pump, and the valve v will open outwards, thereby permit-
ting the compressed air above the piston a b to make its escape into the at-
mosphere, while that in the tube will become dilated in proportion to the
greater space which it now occupies ; that is, the additional space of the
pump-barrel.

The piston a b being at the top of its stroke, or the highest point of its
ascent, conceive it to remain there for an instant, and let the force which pre-
vented the motion of the piston p be removed, leaving it free to advance
towards B, which it will do in obedience to the superior pressure of the at-
mosphere on the after-side of it towards A, the air in front being somewhat
rarefied, in consequence of the quantity that has been abstracted ; then it is
evident that p will begin to move with a velocity due to the degree of rare-
faction in the tube, according to the principle already explained ; this velo-
city, however, will be continually retarded from the commencement, and the
retardation will be in proportion to the decrease of the space containing the
rarer air, or in proportion as the air in front of the piston becomes more and
more compressed in consequence of the motion towards B. The decrease of
velocity in this case will manifestly be similar to that which we have repre-
sented in the foregoing table, the piston condensing the air in the one in-
stance in the same manner as the influx of the atmospheric air condensed it
in the other.

When the piston p arrives at p', the motion will cease -, for in that position
the equilibrium of pressure is again restored, the density of the air in front
of the piston p' being equal to that of the atmosphere. Here it is manifest
that the piston, during its motion, must have described a cylindrical space
of the same capacity as the pump-barrel, since it has compressed the contained
air into its original state of density, which could only happen by diminishing
the space by a quantity of the same magnitude as the abstracted air.

The same phases as those described will show themselves at each return
of the piston a b, or for each pump-barrel full of air that is expelled ; thus the
motion will be continued until all the air that was originally in front of the
piston is exhausted, or till the piston itself has reached the extremity of its

1814.]

Principles of the Atmospheric Railway,

123

range. In this view of the subject, however, it is evident that the motion
of the piston is not regular, being performed by a series of stages or intervals,
in which the velocity is continually varying from the commencement of each
interval, where it is greatest, to the end of the interval, where it is nothing.

Instead, however, of supposing the pump and tube-pistons to be alternately
in motion and at rest, as in the case that we have just described, we have now
to examine the circumstances that obtain when they are both in motion toge-
ther ; that is, when the piston p is free to move in obedience to the pressure
of the atmosphere, at the instant that the air in front of it begins to expand
in consequence of the action of the piston in the pump-barrel.

This is an interesting case of the inquiry ; for, if the apparatus were per-
fect, it involves all the calculations that are necessary in this mode of propul-
sion ; it being evident that a continuous motion can thus be maintained under
such a velocity as is determinable by the ratio that subsists between the dia-
meter of the piston in the tube and that in the pump, the velocity of motion
being wholly dependent on the relative magnitudes of the two pistons, their
separate velocities being inversely as the squares of their diameters.

la order the more easily to trace the cause and extent of the motion in the
case now under consideration, we shall, as before, conceive the apparatus to
be as perfect as possible, the piston, p, being divested of weight or inertia,
and free to advance in the direction AB without friction or resistance of any
kind ; that is, we are to consider it as offering no resistance whatever to the
motion of the atmospheric air.

When the piston is at p, let a b be at the bottom of the pump, with the
valve V open, and that at v shut ; the air in the tube and pump-barrel, or
that which occupies the space between p and P is then of atmospheric density,
and a perfect equilibrium obtains between the internal air and that without,
since there is no motion of any of the parts ; but when, by the action of the
power that works the air-pump, the piston a b begins to ascend, the valve at
V closes, while that at v opens ; and, by continuing the motion, the piston
a b reaches the limit of its ascent, and the air previously within the cylinder
or' the pump has been expelled into the atmosphere through the valve at v,
while the air in front of the piston p has become rarefied by following after
a b, and filling up the space which it evacuates. Here, however, we must
observe, that, at the instant the expansion of the air begins, the equilibrium
of pressure in the tube is deranged ; consequently, the piston p must begin to
move on towards that side on which the pressure is least ; for we have sup-
posed it to be perfectly free to move in obedience to the pressure of the
atmosphere at the instant the equilibrium is destroyed.

Since, therefore, the pistons p and a b begin to move simultaneously, it
follows, that if the motion of a b be uniform, that of p must be uniform also,
and the velocity of the one must obviously depend on that of the other ; for,
as we have already observed, they must both describe the same quantity of
cylindrical space in the same time. The action here adverted to is evidently
analogous to that of the common sucking- pump for drawing water ; and the
principle which it involves may be applied to the production of any mechanical
etfect, such as that elicited in its application to the atmospheric railway.

We have already stated that the piston p is advanced, during one stroke
of the air-pump, through a space in the tube AB, the solid content of which
is equal to that of the air-pump ; and each returning stroke of the air-pump
will produce an equal advance in the tube ; it therefore follows, that the
greatest velocity that the piston p can attain is determined by the proportion
existing between the diameters of the tube and the pump-barrel. If these
diameters are equal, the motions of the pistons will also be equal ; but when
the diameters are different, the velocities will be reciprocally as the squares
of the diameters — a relation which has already been stated to obtain.

Put D = the diameter of the air-pump piston in inches ;
V = the velocity of its motion in feet per minute ;
d = the diameter of the tube-piston also in inches ;
and v = the velocity of its motion in feet per minute.
Then, in order to satisfy the condition of equal spaces in equal times, the
following analogy must have place, viz. : —

V : v : : d? : D2 ;
consequently, the equation of the momenta becomes

v d2 = VD2 ;
and, by division, the maximum velocity of the tube piston is

_ VD,
d-

If the apparatus were absolutely perfect in all its parts, so that the air-
pump might extract from the vacuum tube its full content of air at every
stroke, the above expression for the value of v would be constant at all pres-
sures ; for, whatever may be the density of the air in the tube in front of the
piston, the pump can only extract the same number of cubic feet at each
stroke ; consequently, the same limit is put to the maximum value of the
velocity of the piston in the vacuum tube.

The above is the true theoretical expression for the maximum uniform ve-
locity of the tube piston, on the supposition of absolute perfection in the
construction of the several parts of the apparatus ; but since this can never
be expected even in the most diminutive and delicate examples, the practical
maximum velocity will not attain the amount which is indicated by the fore-
going theorem ; it will therefore require to be modified, in order to meet the
causes of retardation that may be expected to take place during the motion.

The chief, and indeed the only cause of obstruction that we have to consi-
der in this place, is the leakage at the various crevices and inlets throughout
the arrangement. The amount of this leakage, in any particular case, can
only be ascertained by experiment ; but when once it has been ascertained,
its effect in retarding the motion of the piston in the vacuum tube becomes a
subject for calculation. By Mr. Stephenson's experiments, performed on
the apparatus that is now in operation on the Kingstown and Dalkey Rail-
way, it appears that the quantity of leakage is constant, or nearly so, what-
ever may be the degree of rarefaction of the air in the tube. This is, indeed,
a singular result, and very different from what would be inferred from in-
spection of the foregoing table of velocities ; for it there appears, that the
higher the degree of rarefaction, the greater the velocity of influx, conse-
quently the greater the quantity of air admitted in a given time. But this
is a case precisely analogous to that of the leakage at the several small open-
ings in the atmospheric apparatus : the uniformity of leakage at all degrees
of rarefaction of the air must therefore depend on some cause not hitherto
explained.

Admitting, therefore, that the quantity of leakage in a given time is the
same at all pressures, yet the effect of this leakage in obstructing the motion
of the piston is very different at different degrees of density of the air to be
extracted. This arises from the additional space which it occupies when ex-
panded in the tube ; for the additional quantity of air which is thus admitted
and expanded must be extracted, and the velocity of the piston will there-
fore be reduced in proportion to the time required for the abstraction of
the air admitted by the leakage.

Put h = the height of the barometer gauge corresponding to a perfect va-
cuum ;
h'= the height corresponding to any degree of rarefaction ;
n = the number of times the air is rarefied ; and
I = the leakage per minute into the vacuum tube in cubic feet.

Therefore, by having the height of the barometer gage at any instant dur-
ing the operation, the extra quantity of air to be extracted in consequence of
the leakage can readily be found ; for, by the principles of pneumatics, we

h
have n — , _ ., for the number of times the air is rarefied at the height h' ;

Ih
consequently I cubic feet, similarly rarefied, becomes z — t,. Now, sup-
posing the resistance offered by the piston, with the train of carriages at-
tached, to be equal to the pressure produced by the given degree of rarefac-
tion, and that the air admitted by leakage, when expanded, be equal in volume
to the quantity extracted by the air-pump in one minute, the velocity of the
piston in the vacuum tube will be wholly destroyed, the action of the pump
being exerted in extracting the leakage alone. This is a very important con-
sideration, and shows the necessity of limiting the leakage to as small a
quantity as possible, by insisting on correct workmanship in the apparatus.
By the rules of mensuration, the quantity of air extracted by the pump per
7T D2 V
minute, in cubic feet, is 5?(. , where ?r = 3-1416 ; and this, when no

leakage takes place, must be equal to the space passed over or generated by
the tube piston in the same time ; that is, —

7rD2V tt d!v
57g = ~TJu , or D2V = d2v, as shown elsewhere.

But in the case of leakage expanded according to the degree of rarefaction
of the air to be extracted, we get —

■k D2V Ih 7T dH

576 ~ h— h! = 576
And by reducing this expression in respect of v, it gives—

1 r 576" Ih -\

v = ~J D2V— ., .,,1

d- I 7r(A — h)j

This equation expresses the velocity of the tube piston in feet per minute ;
but in practice it is convenient to have the velocity in miles per hour, and
the equation, modified for this purpose, becomes —

1 i 576 Ih •)

' n air — ' t

D2V-

~8S<P( " ' 7r(h—h'_

This, therefore, is the final form of the equation, as it ought to be em-
ployed to calculate the maximum uniform velocity in miles per hour, taking
into account the effects of leakage, the amount of which has been previously
determined by experiment. The form is rather complicated ; it does not,
however, admit of a simpler analytical arrangement ; but the steps of reduc-
tion may be described in words, as follows : —

Rule. — Multiply the number of inches of mercury in the barometer gauge
due to a perfect vacuum by 576 times the leakage per minute, expressed
in cubic feet, and divide the product by 3-1416, drawn into the difference
between the heights of the barometer gauge, as due to the vacuum, and to the
density at the time of observation ; subtract this quotient from the square
of the diameter of the pump piston, in inches multiplied by its velocity in
feet per minute ; then divide the difference by 88 times the square of the
diameter of the tube piston in inches, and the quotient will be the velocity
in miles per hour.

To illustrate this rule, we shall select an example from Mr. Stephen-
son's experiments, as connected with the Kingstown and Dalkey Rail-

124

The French Cotton Manufactures.

way, that being the only existing case in which the several particulars
have been accurately ascertained. In this arrangement, the diameter of the
air-pump is 67 inches, and that of the vacuum tube 15 inches, the usual velo-
city of the pump piston being 253 feet per minute. The quantity of leakage
from the air-pump and connecting pipe is 219 cubic feet per minute, while
that from the vacuum tube is 252 cubic feet in the same time. This latter
quantity Mr. Stephenson divides by 2, to give, as he says, " the mean amount
of leakage during the time the piston is passing through the whole length of the
tube." The amount of leakage from these two sources is therefore 219 + 126
= 345 cubic feet per minute. Suppose now, that at the time of observation the
mercury in the barometer gage stands at 24 inches, then the process of cal-
culation, by the rule, will be as follows : viz., —

576 x 345 x 30 = 5961600, first product ;
(30—24) x3-1416 = 188496, second product;
and the quotient of the one by the other is 59616004-18-8496 = 316323-9
very nearly.

Again, the square of 67 is 4489, which being multiplied by 253, gives
1 135717 ; therefore, by taking the difference of these results, we get

1135717 — 316323-9 = 819393-1 ;
and finally dividing by 152 x 88 = 19800, we get

= 819393-1 _ 41.38 miles hour .
19800
Mr. Stephenson's result is 41 -3 miles — a difference that need not be regarded,
as he probably did not carry out the numbers to such a degree of accuracy.

We have already stated, that the equation which represents the velocity of
the piston in the vacuum tube, as diminished by the effects of leakage at the
various inlets unavoidable in the construction, is, in its general form, of too
complicated a character to admit of a ready and expeditious application ; but
in any particular case, such as that of the Kingstown and Dalkey Railway,
where the several conditions and circumstances of construction are known, it
becomes greatly simplified in its arrangement, and can be brought into use
with the greatest ease and facility whenever the same data occur ; for, since
the numerical values of V, D, and d, are given, the first term on the right-
hand side of the equation reduces to 57"359, which gives the theoretical
uniform velocity in English miles per hour. Thus we have

672 x 253 1135717

D2V

88 d2

88 x 152

19800

: 57-359.

In like manner, since the numerical values of all the quantities in the
second term are known and constant for the same arrangement, excepting
only h', which denotes the height of the barometer gage at the time of obser-
vation, we obtain

576 ZA _ 576 x 345 x 30 _ = 95-84

88^7r(A —h') ~ 88 x 152 x 3-1416 (30 - h') 30 — h' '
This latter quantity, it will be perceived, expresses the loss by leakage in
miles per hour ; consequently, the uniform velocity that ought to obtain in
practice, or the distance passed over in one hour by the tube piston, on the
supposition that there is no other loss, is

5 = 57-359— 95'84 .
30 — A'
It is scarcely necessary to remark, that an expression of the same form will
show itself for any other case where the arrangement of the apparatus is
similar, and where the corresponding particulars have been similarly ascer-
tained ; but, for the purpose of showing the application of the formula in the
present instance, we shall calculate the several velocities given by Mr. Ste-
phenson, in the IVth Table of his Report on the railway already alluded to.

Thus we have,

Miles
per hour.

When h' = 6 S = 57-359 — _95'84_ = 57-359 — 3-993 = 53-366

h' = 8 8 = 57-359 ■

h' = 10

h' = 12

h' = 14

o = 57-359

57-359 —

57-359-

h' = 16 - - - S = 57-359 —

h' = 18

S = 57-359

h' = 19 - - - o = 57-359

30 — 6

95-84
30 — 8

95-84
30 — 10

95-84
30 — 12

95-84
30 — 14

95-84
30 — 16

95-84
30—18

95-84

57-359— 4-356 = 53-003

57-359— 4-792 = 52-567

= 57-359— 5-324 = 52-035

= 57-359— 5-990 = 51-369

= 57-359— 6-847 = 50-512

57-359— 7-987 = 49-372

h' = 20 - - - o = 57-359 —

30 — 19

95-84
3U — 20

57-359— 8-713 = 48-646

= 57-359— 9 584 = 47-775

When h' = 21

h' = 22

h' = 23

h' = 24

S = 57-359

3 = 57-359

8 = 57-359

8 = 57-359 -

95-84

h' = 24-4 - - 8 = 57-359

30-

-21

95-84

30-

-22

95

■84

30-

-23

95

•84

30-

-24

95-84

[June,

Miles
per hour.

= 57-359 — 10-649 =46-710

= 57-359 — 11-980 = 45-379

= 57-359 — 13691 = 43-668

57-359 — 15-973 = 41-386

30—24-4

= 57-359 — 17-114 = 40-245

It will be observed, that the lowermost line in this table contains the same
data, and exhibits the same result, as the example by which we illustrated the
reduction of the general formula ; and we have only been induced to repeat it
here, as it completes the series tabulated by Mr. Stephenson. Whatever
discrepancy may appear to subsist between the tabulated numbers in Mr.
Stephenson's Report, and those computed by our formula, can readily be
accounted for ; but the differences are of no consequence in a practical point of
view, and need not, therefore, be regarded. We have yet to compare the effi-
cacy of the atmospheric method of propulsion with the more orthodox modes,
but we have already trespassed too far on the patience of our readers, and
must now leave what we have to say on that subject to some future occasion.

Art. II.— THE FRENCH COTTON MANUFACTURES ;

WITH A NOTICE OF THE INDUSTRY OF LOWELL, IN THE

UNITED STATES.

Except in silk and iron, the great manufactures of France are, as in England,
mainly conducted in the northern and central parts of the country. Thus,
Rheims, Amiens, Sedan, Louviers, Elbenf, Beauvais,Vire, Tours, and Abbeville,
all towns in Normandy, Picardy, French Flanders, and adjacent provinces, are
the places in which the French woollens are mostly made ; though some are
manufactured at Castres, Aubusson, Carcassonne, Vienne, and other towns in
the south. Rouen, Lille, Roubaix, Turcoing, St. Quentin, Mulhausen, &c,
besides Valeuciennes, Chantilly, and Bayeux, for lace, are the principal seats
of the French cotton manufactures ; and many of them, together with Laval,
Rennes, and other towns in Brittany, Cambray, Douai, &c, the places whence
the linen goods chiefly come. Paper, pasteboard, and paper-hangings, in-
deed— important articles of produce, since their annual value is as much as
43,000,000 francs {Berghans Allg. Lander, SfC.) — are made principally at
Annonay, Angouleme, Vienne, Montauban, Nismes, and other places in the
south and west ; as are kid gloves, morocco leather, watch machinery, (Be-
sancon, Montbeliard,) wedgewood and other earthenware, mirrors, &c. But
beet-root sugar, which is produced to an amount yearly averaging
112,000,000 francs (4,480,000/.) in value (Ibid.),* comes wholly from the
northern departments, and eminently from that entitled " the North," in which
the towns of Dunkerque, Lille, and Valenciennes are situated. Sevres, which
has an European fame for its porcelain, is in what is officially regarded as one of
the northern departments ; and Paris (in the adjacent department) almost mo-
nopolizes the manufactures of gold and silver lace, bronze and some other
metallic wares, joiners' goods, several chemical products, tapestry, artificial
flowers, watches, and articles of taste and virtit, which come under the rea-
dily understood, though indefinite, name of " French goods." We may here
mention, that so greatly has the trade of Paris, in these and other goods, in-
creased within the last dozen or fifteen years, that, in 1838, the prefect of the
Seine estimated the value of its manufactures exported to foreign countries
at 80,000,000 francs yearly, and of those sent into other parts of France at an
equal sum ; thus making the total value of the goods manufactured in Paris
about 6,400, 000/. per annum \ — (M'Culloch's Geog. Diet. ii. 471.) At pre-
sent, the cotton manufactures of France are those only which claim our atten-
tion. A few of the principal seats of these will first be described ; and a
concise general view of the French cotton trade, as compared with that of
our own country, will follow : —

As in our own country, Manchester stands forward as the head-quarters
of the cotton manufacture, and cotton fabrics of certain descriptions are
popularly known as " Manchester goods ;" so in France, Rouen has attained
a similar eminence, and the checked printed cotton cloths for women's dresses
are known generally by the term of Rouenneries. The city of Rouen also
holds a geographical position in several respects like that of its English pro-
totype : thus, it lies in a north-west direction from the metropolis, and at no
great distance from the great commercial port in the north-west of the
kingdom. Situated on a noble navigable river — the Seine — by which it
communicates with the capital (sixty-seven miles direct distance) on the one

* This amount, and that of the value of the paper, &c, have been adopted from Bcr-
shau9, who, as a foreigner, and an author of acknowledged correctness, is more to be
depended on than many of the French authors, on the subject of their national com-
merce. We have heard it said, on pietty high authority, that even the French
" Official Tables" are little worthy of credit; and that, by a slight alteration, they
might as well be written down " Official Fables." Perhaps the sarcasm is too
literal to be merited in its fullest extent.

i

1844.]

The French Cotton Manufactures.

125

hand ; and with Havre (forty-four miles direct west) on the other, Rouen
is surrounded by a fine and fertile country ; and its numerous spires and
towers, and the vessels that throng its quays, give it a very imposing external
appearance. But to this its interior presents, in most parts, a striking con-
trast : it is generally ill built ; the streets are narrow, crooked, and dirty ;
and the houses— particularly those in which the weavers reside — are built prin-
cipally of wood, or rather of lath and plaster, and are dark, and consequently
greatly unfitted for manufacturing industry. In the west and newer quarters
of the city, some buildings are constructed of more solid materials, and in a
more suitable style ; and the mercantile halls are well adapted to their des-
tination : as, for instance, the cotton cloth-hall, a fine edifice, 290 feet
in length, by 53 in breadth. The weavers, &c, in this quarter, inhabit
dwellings of a better stamp. But M. Villerme, who visited most of the French
manufacturing towns, bears testimony that the work-people of Rouen are,
after those of Lille, the worst lodged of any that he had known ; though,
from the prevalence of better habits, they are in a much less depressed condi-
tion than those of the latter-named city.

Rouen, like Lyons, is the centre of a branch of manufacturing industry
which occupies, more or less, the inhabitants of the rural districts within a
considerable distance round. In 1833, M. Lelong, vice-mayor of the city,
estimated that in the entire department of the Lower Seine (of which it is the
capital,) 107,000 individuals were employed in the cotton manufacture, or in
i.ids to its prosecution ; viz., cotton-spinners 21,000, weavers 65,000, dyers
5,000, cotton-printers 9,000, builders and repairers of machinery 5,000 ; and
others, carrying on accessory trades, 2,000 more. But the weaving industry
in Normandy went on augmenting rapidly after the above epoch ; and in
December, 1835, the prefect of the Lower Seine estimated that the indivi-
duals then engaged in the manufactures of cotton and woollen goods within that
department comprised 130,000 persons, of whom 106,000 inhabited Rouen
and its vicinity ; being, to the total population of the department,* as about
1 to 5^. Villerme estimated, in 18-10,1" that 50,000 persons in Rouen, or at
least half the population of that city, derived their subsistence from the cot-
ton and woollen manufactures.

Down to the middle of the last century, the workmen employed at Rouen
were nearly all foreigners, — Germans, Dutch, or Swiss — who stayed in France
only during a part of the year, returning to spend the remaining months in
their own countries : and less than fifty years ago, the cotton yarn used in
its manufactures was wholly spun by hand. At present, both water and steam
power are extensively employed. Mr. Symons says, " The manufacturers of
Rouen pride themselves greatly on the superiority of their products ; and it
is but justice to say, that I have seldom seen printed cottons so good, in co-
lour and texture, at Id. per ell, as those of Rouen at that price." — {Hand-
loom Weavers RepGrt.) The goods produced by the Norman looms are in
direct competition, in third markets, with those from Glasgow and elsewhere,
in the west of Scotland. The wages of Norman weavers are, if anything,
lower than in Scotland ; but provisions are at least 20 per cent, cheaper, so that
do marked difference exists in the condition of the artizans in the two coun-
tries. From a table given by Villerme', it appears that women and young per-
sons, in the cotton-cloth mills at Rouen, get about 1£ franc (1*. l\d.) daily ;
weavers of Ronenneries, from l^V to 'l\ francs (Is. 3d. to Is. \0d.) ; and Jac-
quard loom-weavers, from 2f to 3 francs daily. Children get from 50 centiemes
to a franc (ad. to 10c?.) a day. — {Tableau des Ouvriers, 6fc, 1834.) Hand-
loom weavers, in the rural districts adjacent, working on their own account,
upon pullicates, calicoes, &c, may obtain about 1 franc a day, or 5s. weekly.
This amount is, however, rather above than below the average. Cotton-
spinners in the mills earn from 15 to 20 francs (say 12s.) weekly, working
from thirteen to fourteen hours a day ; and women and girls, employed in
carding and drawing, obtain from 7 to 10 francs weekly. M. Villerme fur-
nishes copious details respecting the average current expenditure of the work-
people at Rouen. To repeat these would be tedious here ; but the inferences
he draws are that, with constant work, at the average rate of wages, the
Rouen weaver or spinner and his wife, without family, may live decently, and
even save something ; with one child it will be difficult for them to put by
anything ; and with two or three, impossible : nor can they then exist without
the aid of public or private charity.

If Rouen be in France the great centre for the production of woven cotton
goods, Lille (or Lisle) is equally so for that of cotton yarn, as the well-known
designation of " Lisle thread" will, perhaps, in some degree indicate. Since
the peace of 1815, cotton-spinning has become an important branch of indus-
try in the French dominions ; and if we except some of the highest numbers
tor the muslin looms of Tarare and St. Quenttn, and the lace manufactures,
France now produces sufficient cotton yarn for its own demand. The city of
Lille, the capital of the most northerly department in France, is situated on a
canal, between the rivers Scheldt and Lys, less than ten miles distant from
the Belgian frontier. It is somewhat of an oval shape, and surrounded by
bastions and outworks, which render it one of the strongest fortified places in
Europe. Its interior is, for the most part, well laid out, but it suffers from
a bad supply of water ; and to this circumstance is doubtless due, in part,
the deplorable condition of its working population. We have no hesitation in
believing and asserting, from all accounts that have come before us, that the

* Next to the North and the Seine departments, in which latter Paris is situ-
ated, the Seine Inferieure is the most populous department in France. It had, in
1836, 720,525 ; and in 1841, 737,501 inhabitants.

t Rouen had, in 1836, a population of 9^,093.

poverty and utter misery which prevail in Lille are — in so far as there are
means of ascertaining it — greater than in any other spot on the surface of the
globe. In 1833, the inhabitants of the city receiving charitable relief
amounted to 22,205 ; the proportion had augmented in 1835, and still further
in 1837 ; so that at the latter date — the total population being about 72,000 —
M. Villerme estimated that four- thirteenths of the number were in a state of
absolute pauperism ! The Viscount de Villeneuve-Bargemont, formerly
prefect of the department of the north, describes, in the following passage,
the condition of a large part of the population under his official inspection : —
" Devoid of instruction, destitute of forethought, brutalized by debauchery,
worn out by labour, crowded in dark and damp cellars, or in garrets, where
they are exposed to all the severity of winter, the work-people attain an ad-
vanced age without having lain by the least savings, and without being able to
provide for their progeny, which is almost always numerous. They are so
addicted to intoxication, that, to satisfy their cravings, fathers and mothers
pledge or sell all they are possessed of, even to the garments they have derived
from public or private charity to cover their nakedness. Many are a prey to
hereditary diseases. In 182S, 3,687 individuals were found lodged in subter-
raneous caves, narrow, low, and deprived of air and light, full of the most dis-
gusting uncleanness ; and where parents and children, and sometimes grown-up
brothers and sisters, sleep in the same bed." — (Economie Polit. Chretien.)
By those who know nothing or little of manufacturing towns, this passage
may be supposed to convey an exaggerated picture ; but it is more than
borne out by Villerme, an author not apt to indulge in a dramatic style ; in
addition to whose personal evidence we have a Report of the Commission of
Public Health for the department, the reading of which, some years ago,
made on the mind of the writer of this article a most vivid and painful im-
pression, which has never since been effaced. The details given in it are really
too repulsive for the pages of the Artizan ; and those who desire to know
the actual sufferings of their fellow-creatures are referred to an extract from
this Report in Villeruoe's Tableau de I'Etat, fyc, des Ouvriers (i. 186-7),
which we have already so often quoted. In Manchester, and many other manu-
facturing towns in England, many of the population live wholly in cellars, it
is true ; but we rejoice to say, that in no town in our own country does there
appear to be the same amount of human wretchedness, coupled with human
degradation, as is inclosed by the ramparts of the city of Lille.

What is the cause of all this ? The author of the Tableau ${c. roughly
estimates, that a man, his wife, and child, of ten or twelve years old, all
employed in the cotton manufacture at Lille, might earn together 915 francs,
(say 38/.) a year, if constantly employed. Rent might cost them, perhaps,
60 francs ; food (for selves and younger members of the family,) about 740
francs; leaving only about 115 francs, (4/. 3s.) for furniture, clothing,
washing, firing, candles, tools, &c. Any sudden want of employ, illness,
slight indulgence, or other event entailing the least additional expense, will
reduce such a family to the greatest straits. But Mr. M'Culloch remarks,
" It is not easy to see why, with such average wages, the labouring population
of Lille should be so depressed. A family of three persons, who should
receive 50/. a-yearin England, would be reckoned anything but badly off ; and
if it be true, as is commonly affirmed, that the cost of living is one-third less
in France than in England, a Lille workman with 38/. a-year should be as well
off as a Manchester workman with 50/. In truth and reality, however, there
is no such difference between the cost of living in the two countries ; and
both it and the rate of wages in each, approach much more nearly to an
equality than is generally supposed." — (Geographical Dictionary , ii. 178.)
Now it is a remarkable fact in juxtaposition with the rest we have mentioned,
that no French manufacturing town has so many mutual benefit societies as
Lille ! But the very organization and conduct of these may give a key to the
problem of the misery in the city. Their meetings are all held iu beer-shops ;
and at the end of the year, all the money remaining in the chest above a small
amount, is divided among the contributors, to be spent on the spot ; and
with the new year commences the formation of a new fund, the destination of
which is the same as that of its predecessor. Dram-drinking is, in fact, the
besetting vice and sole amusement of the work-people in Lille ; the condition
of whom stands forth as a striking and imperishable example of the fatal effects
of intoxication.

Mulhausen, another great seat of the cotton trade, is in the east of France,
in what may be called ' French Germany,' it being on a tributary of the
Rhine, near the latter river, and only 16 miles N.W. of Basle in Switzerland.
It has important relations with this city, many of its mills and factories being
mortgaged to individuals of Basle ; and, indeed, the manufacturers of Alsace
are furnished with a large share of capital from Switzerland. We have
already stated, in treating of the Prussian Commercial League, (p. 30,)
that all along the Rhine, cotton weaving and spinning has of late years
advanced with great rapidity. The Alsatian (Upper and Lower Rhine)
departments of France have hand-looms, chiefly for muslins and fine calicoes,
scattered over nearly the whole of their surface ; and Villerme asserts, that
in 1834, in the former department alone, 100,000 persons, or one-fourth of
the whole population, were partially, if not wholly, employed in cotton
manufactures. Wages are pretty good at Mulhausen: first rate cotton
printers get from 2 J francs to 3 francs 30 cents, daily ; inferior ditto, 1 to If
francs ; weavers and cotton spinners from 1£ to 3 francs a day. Dr. Bowring
says that the cotton prints and muslins of Mulhausen and its neighbourhood
are second only, for the perfection and variety of their patterns, to the silk
goods of Lyons. The spinning is not, however, so flourishing as the w eaving
trade ; and this fact is worthy of remark, as indicating the superiority of the

126

The Experimental Squadron of Brigs of 12 Guns.

[June,

fine English over the French twist. Mulhausen used to supply fine yarns to
many of the French looms ; but since those of Manchester and Glasgow (as
low as No. 170) have been admitted into France at a low rate of duty, high
numbered cottons have ceased to be spun at all at Mulhausen. — {M'Culloch's
Geoff. Diet., ii. 357.)

Only a brief space can be spared for notices of other cotton manufacturing
towns. Roubaix and Turcoing are near Lille : in the former and its neigh-
bourhood about 30,000 hands are occupied alternately in manufacturing cotton
and woollen goods — the latter from June to September, and the former during
the remainder of the year. Thibets, waistcoat-pieces, and thick cotton goods
are those chiefly made. Mr. Symons (Handloom Rep.) says that Roubaix is
one of the most prosperous towns in its department. Of 12,000 looms in
its district, half are Jacquard looms, on which a weaver may gain net wages
of from 12 to 13 francs weekly. Respecting Turcoing, at which similar
goods are made, what we have most to remark is, the testimony of the same
authority, that " the weavers are the most moral class of men in the town."
At St. Quentin, a town of 20,000 inhabitants, on the Somme, the cotton has
all but thoroughly superseded the linen trade. Striped and spotted muslins,
yarn and bobbinet, are among its chief products. Tarare is a town in the south
of France, only twenty miles from Lyons. Its manufacture of muslins
employs wholly, or in part, 50,000 persons, within a circle of from 10 to 20
leagues round. Most of the weavers work at their own homes in the rural
districts, and few houses at Tarare carry on business upon a large scale ;
though one factory, belonging to proprietors from Glasgow, employs from 160
to 200 hands.

To draw any comparison between the condition of the French and English
workmen, the number of hours they are accustomed to work daily, &c, would
demand a greater space than can be here afforded. But we may well compare
the gross amount of the cotton trade of the two countries, in order to show
that we have no reason to fear in this particular the competition of our
powerful rival. At the close of 1835, there is reported to have been in
France, in all 1448 steam engines of an aggregate power of 19,126 horses,
variously employed in mills, mines, factories, beet-root works, &c. The
number, at the most liberal estimate, had probably not increased by more
than a quarter in 1839 ; in which year the Revenue Tables of the Board of
Trade state, that there were in Great Britain 3051 mills with an aggregate
power of 74,094 horses employed in the cotton, woollen, silk and flax mills
only. And admitting the entire steam power in France in 1839 to be equal
to that of 24,000 horses, this would be less by the force of upwards of 3000,
than the power employed in Great Britain in the woollen, silk, and linen
mills — to the total exclusion of the cotton mills, in which a power of 46,827
horses was exercised, being not very far short of two-thirds of the entire steam
force employed in the British mills ! The steam-power, therefore, used in the
cotton manufacture of France must bear but a very small proportion to that in
Great Britain. Some French writers have extravagantly estimated the total
annual value of the French cotton goods at 600,000,000 francs, or 20,400,000/.
yearly ; a gross exaggeration, as Mr. M'Culloch remarks, who estimates it at
no more than ten or eleven millions sterling at most, seeing that the con-
sumption of raw cotton in France does not amount to a third part of its
consumption in Britain. — (Geoff. Diet., i. 857.) According to the Board of
Trade Reports, there were imported, in 1840, into the United Kingdom,
592,488,0 lOlbs. of cotton wool: and exported 790,631,997 yards of cotton
piece goods, worth 16,302,220/.; cotton yarn to the value of 7,101,308/. ;
and hosiery and lace to that of 1,265,090/., making an aggregate amount of
24,667,618/. Mr. M'Culloch, in fact, estimates the total value of the cotton
goods of all kinds yearly made in the British dominions at 35,000,000/., or
more than the entire rental of the empire ; the total number of persons
actually employed in their production at 700,000 ; and the total number of
individuals depending for support on this great branch of industry at
1,400,000 ! — (Statistics of the British Empire, and Geoff. Diet.)

We are unwilling to dismiss this subject without giving a brief account of
a town which has been supposed by some to be marching onwards in pros-
perity, with strides rapid enough to make it, at no distant date, a transatlantic
Manchester. Lowell, founded no further back than 1813, yet already next
to Pittsburgh, the most important manufacturing city in the United States, is
in Massachusetts, on the Merrimack, where it is joined by Concord river,
24 m. N.W. Boston. It is in a healthy, picturesque situation, well laid out
and well built, having wide streets and many elegant structures. In 1840, it
had 20,796 inhabitants. A canal bringing water from the head of Pawtucket
falls, 1-J mile distant, and distributing it by a number of branches to all the
mills in Lowell, is the property of a company which builds most of the
mills and the machinery used in the place. A railway, 26 miles in length,
connects the town with Boston. Lowell had, in 1840, thirty cotton mills, with
194,300 spindles; and 5,852 looms, employing in all 8,720 hands. 1,257,000
yards of cotton piece goods were then woven there weekly, or upwards of
70,200,000 yards in a year; 22,568,0001bs. of raw cotton were annually
consumed. Coarse sheeting, shirting, printed cloths, calicoes, and cotton
yarn are the goods mostly produced ; in addition to which, gunpowder, glass,
flannels, hardware, boots and shoes, carriages, &c. are made in the city ; and
the yearly value of the goods made at Lowell, including machinery, railway
engines, &c, was estimated in 1839 at 8,000,000 dollars. The average
wages in the cotton mills, (clear of board) are to females If dollars per week ;
to males, 4$th ditto ; and the average amount of wages paid per month has
been set down at 106,000 dollars, much of which is paid into savings-banks.
But notwithstanding the prosperity of Lowell, which has been progressive,

it is obviously still far in the rear of any of our own great manufacturing
towns, and so is likely to remain, owing to various causes. Labour is dearer
in America than in Europe, machinery is more expensive, the profits of live
stock are higher ; and, indeed, the sole advantage on the side of the Americans
is the facility of obtaining supplies of raw cotton, — though as all this has to
be brought from the Southern States, it is very doubtful whether the cost of
conveying it thence to Lowell is less than that of sending it to Liverpool or
Glasgow.

In treating of this subject, Mr. M'Culloch, whose sagacity as a political
economist few will gainsay, has declared " Our manufacturers may be of
good cheer. What they have really to fear, is not foreign competition, but
the spread of agitation and disturbance at home." If this be the case it
amounts to an imperative obligation on whatever minister holds the destinies
of this empire, not to peril the stability of a branch of industry on which
1,400,000 human beings are dependant for support, by suffering the
existence of any real or supposed evil, capable of remedy, which, by its con-
tinuance, may produce popular agitation or disturbance. When these arise
there is uniformly some great grievance to be remedied, though the remedy
itself may be greatly misapprehended, or very obscurely perceptible. And
popular concessions of a legitimate nature, while they tranquillize the public
mind, actually leave the different grades of society in the same relative situa-
tions as before ; for the humbler classes, though invested with privileges
withheld from them previously, must ever feel that wealth — wealth, the road
to which is opened to all by honest industry — will continue to maintain that
due influence in civilized communities, which, when properly used, it has every
right to exercise.

Art. III.— THE EXPERIMENTAL SQUADRON OF BRIGS OF 12

GUNS.

The sailing qualities of these brigs will shortly be put to the test ; and we
acknowledge we feel, in common with all who are interested in the improve-
ment of the navy, a great degree of interest in the approaching trial.

The rival constructors are Sir William Symonds, (the surveyor of the navy,)
Mr. White, the yacht builder of Cowes, three of the Members of the School
of Naval Architecture, and the master shipwrights of Portsmouth and Chatham
Dock-yard : and their friends are naturally desirous that the merit due to their
favourite constructors shall be awarded to them respectively. Among them
are to be found those who are staunch advocates of the present official system
of naval construction ; and they carry their advocacy so far as to assert that
the other gentlemen have " taken a leaf, a little rumpled, out of the surveyor's
book ;" implying that he has published but one book, which we believe to be
the case.

Many have been the inquiries after this book, in order to ascertain to which
leaf the advocates can have made reference ; in consequence of which we
have been at some trouble to obtain possession of a copy, and have succeeded
in finding it in a communication from the author to the " United Service
Journal " for July, 1832, the first edition of 1824 being out of print. By
transferring to our columns the sum and substance of the " system," we shall
satisfy our inquirers ; and the generality of our readers will be gratified at the
sight of the exposition of the principles of naval architecture, on which the
navy of England has, for the past twelve years, been constructed, and on
which several millions of the public money have been expended.

The gallant author says, with characteristic frankness, that " he is at all times
ready to afford proof of the integrity of the system he advances, and to stand
the test of any examination or controversy." The system is explained in the
answers to the following questions : —

" Q. What is tonnage ?

"A. Tonnage is the contents of a vessel measured by the ton. Vide Johnson,
Arbuthnot.

" Q. Upon what theory is the present system of British admeasurement grounded ?

" A. It differs from the system practised by all other countries, and cannot be
grounded on any theory, because it does not demonstrate the quantity or weight that
a vessel will stow and bear.

" Q. Is there any duty on tonnage, and how does it affect a ship-owner?

"A. Yes, there is a duty upon vessels' tonnage, which tonnage is ascertained by
the present fallacious method of admeasurement, which is called the register
tonnage.

" Q. Does the present established rule for the admeasurement of vessels admit of
any evasion, or can the builder give the vessel the qualification to carry more than
she admeasures by the established rule ?

" A. It frequently happens that a vessel is so preposterously built, that she may
carry double her register tonnage, in which case the duty on half her contents would
be evaded.

" Q. What are the preposterous proportions, which enable a vessel to carry more
than she admeasures, and by which the duty is evaded?

" A. Overhanging extremities, (termed raking,) which become a vessel's bearing
when deeply loaded, depth of hold, wall sides, flatness of floor, and extraordinary
length in proportion to the beam.

" Q. Suppose the present mode of admeasurement discontinued, and that the
cubic space in a vessel's interior was the criterion of her burden by admeasurement,
is it to be apprehended that any intention of the legislature with regard to duty
might be evaded ; and in the event of a rule being founded on that principle, would
it be so chimerical and vague as the present mode of calculating tonnage ?

1844.]

The Experimental Squadron of Brigs of 12 Guns.

127

" A. If that was the method by which vessels were measured, the duty could not
be evaded. The timber in the formation of a vessel's bottom would then be so
disposed, as to make her seaworthy and a good sailer; it would encourage breadth
and stability under canvass, and, in fact, good formation to meet all the purposes of
navigation ; and commerce would thereby be encouraged, because the fine bottom
would only pay duty in proportion to its contents.

" Q. How would such a mode of admeasurement affect naval architecture ?

"A. It would encourage the construction of shipping on the finest theory and the
best approved plan, and it would become the general interest to have the fastest
sailing ships in the world.

" Q. If such a mode was adopted, could a vessel carry as much more weight in
proportion to her internal space, as in the present mode she has a pre-eminence of
space in proportion to her power of carrying; dead weight, supposing her shape altered
by raising her floors, and thereby extending her beam aloft ?

" A . Yes, she would have the property to carry more dead weight if her beam was
increased, although measuring no more cubic feet internally, and although her
bottom was wedge-like in foim.

" Q. What may be termed bearing in naval construction ?

" A. Bearing is that feature in a vessel's form which protrudes or swells the
body to any extent longer or wider than that which the body possesses at the line of
flotation ; and being above the water's edge, sustains her when pressed by wind, and
when embarrassed by shipping a sea.

" Q. Is a flat floor, or any other full feature in a vessel's body, to be termed
bearing, when a sufficient weight has been produced to immerse it?

"A. Nothing under water can be considered bearing, because any additional
weight applied after it is immersed, would be the means of sinking it; try a full
cask, a full tub, or anything having a round or flat substruction, provided that
there is no expansion or protrusion above the water's edge.

" Q. Where ought the feature of bearing or swell on a [vessel's exterior to exist,
which constitutes real bearing?

"A. It is presumed from six inches to three feet (according to the size of the
vessel) above the line of flotation, in a man-of-war when fitted for six months, in a
merchant vessel when deeply laden.

" Q. If that extended or increased breadth is formed above the line of flotation
when the vessel is charged, would it prove detrimental to progression ?

"A. Certainly not, but would sustain the ship when carrying sail ; and if the
bottom was not of round formation, would prevent the rolling motion ; and, in the
event of shipping a heavy sea, would serve to sustain her under its pressure.

" Q. What propensity has a cask when filled with water? May the rotundity
of its form be styled bearing, when charged with water, or anything as heavy?

" A. The least increase of weight would sink it, and it inclines to roll on water
as it does on shore.

" Q. Does a narrow or a broad body admit of most depth of hold, and upon
what principle?

" A. Undoubtedly the broad body, because it has hearings to support depth.

" Q. Does a narrow or a broad body produce the most resistance against drifting
to leeward, or making lee-way?

" A. Doubtless the broad body, because it is most upright, and, being so, pro-
duces a rectangular resistance on the water against drifting to leeward.

" Q. Which form in section 1 will contain most cubic feet, ABF or HDF? and
which form will actually bear the most dead weight, the surface of the exterior,
or of the frame BF and DF being of the same contents in square feet ? The same
query holds good with regard to the figures in section 2, ACF and AEF.

Section 1.

Section 2.

" N.B. These figures are meant to represent the greatest extent of a ship's frame
at the extreme breadth.

" Q. Which figures will move most upright?

" A. The figures ABF and ACF will stand most upright with a small degree
of ballast when under sail, from being wider, and the bearings being gradually in-
creasing, and could not fall quite over on their side, as might the other two figures.

" Q- Which figures would be most inclined to roll ?

" A'. HDF and AEF have nothing in their forms to prevent rolling.

" Q. Which figures are most capable of velocity ?

" A. The sharp, broad figures.

" Q. Which form would most prevent and least favour the shiftin" of car"o or
ballast?

" A. It could not shift in the sharp body, but might in the round one.

" Q. In which form might bilge-pumps be dispensed with or become unneces-
sary ?

"A. In the sharp form they could not be required, as the water will always
find its way to the limbers amidships.

" Q. Which would prove the most expensive style of building, and why?

" A. It is humbly presumed that the expense of building would prove nearly
the same if the cubic space in the vessel's interior was the criterion of her burthen
by admeasurement, because the superfices of both forms would contain the same
number of square feet in timber and work in her bottom.

" Q. Which form would require the highest top-side and bulwaik?

" A. That which moves least upright, and rolls the most. The broad form,
from being more stanch under canvass, need not have her ports so high from the
water's edge. This argument (in the foregoing query) it is presumed favours the
broad, sharp form.

" Q. Which form would afford the most roomy deck for working the ship in
action ; for spacious hatchways, the stowage of boats, spars, &c. ?

" A. The broadest, unquestionably.

" Q. Which form, having space for every purpose in the interior, would best
affoid the sensible and approved system of tumbling home aloft, in older to concen-
trate the weight above water, and to make the guns on all the decks water-borne
when the ship heels or rolls?

" A. Most assuredly the broadest form ; and after pursuing the principle of tum-
bling home aloft, would still afford a deck as spacious as the present narrow style
(with a wall side) possesses.

" Q. Upon which form are contracted top-sides most obviously necessary?

" A. Contraction aloft is most needful where the construction, or form, is crank,
and liable to roll much.

" Q. Which form would float most erect and steadily, without being in danger
of oversetting when the cargo is removed, and with only a small degree of ballast?

" A. The broad, sharp form ; because that with a flat floor would have no hold
of the water, and might easily fall on its side.

" Q. Which form is most likely to become hogged, or broken-backed, when laid
up at moorings in a light state?

" A. That form, it is imaginable, where the centre is very full, and the extre-
mities suddenly tapered and overhanging ; while that which has a gradual increase
of breadth upwards, and no sudden overhanging bearings, cannot be distressed with
the weight of moorings,

" Q. Which form would swim deepest, provided that an equal weight be depo-
sited in each?

" A. The broad, sharp form, when partly laden ; the narrow, flat-floored form,
when charged.

" Q. Which form most ensures the safety of the masts?

" A. Undoubtedly the broad form, being steadier, and affording a greater angle
to the standing rigging.

" Q. Is an upright posture, or an inclined one, most favourable to the action
of the rudder ?

" A. The upright, or vertical posture.

" Q. Upon which form, in the foregoing figures, would the helm, upon the ac-
knowledged principle, have the greatest effect ?

" A. It often happens that a narrow, deep body heels so much in a squall, that
her rudder is entirely ineffective, whereas the body which moves upright cannot
lose its effect and influence.

" Q. What is the foreign mode of gauging a vessel ? How would the altered
system, if effected, affect vessels in their communication with foreign ports?

" A. In France, depth of hold is taken into the calculation of a vessel's capacity.
The owner of the ' William,' of Malta, was agreeably surprised to find that he paid
no more duty on the tonnage of his vessel at Barcelona, in Spain, beyond the quan-
tity of beans that she could stow, although admeasuring, according to her British
register, nearly twice as much.

" Q. By what method might a rule be established for quickly calculating the
void internal space in a vessel, and thereby to ascertain her burden ; or what may
be termed gauging her contents?

" A. ~* * * * * *

" Q. May it not he presumed, if ever a change in the method of admeasure-
ment is effected, that merchant vessels which are not embarrassed on their super-
structure with ordnance, will sail even faster than vessels of war, and in that case,
might perform their voyage independent of convoys in war time?

" A. They undoubtedly might, if masted and rigged in the same proportion.

" Q, Conceive the form of a vessel altered by taking from the flat roof, and
adding that fulness to the beam or breadth above the water-line (as demonstrated
in the figures,) without any increase of timber ; and put the established weight of
stores, provisions, and muuitions within it, — what effect will such a change have
upon the capacity ? How will the body swim ?

" A. The capacity will be much increased, because the body will swim higher
out of the water, or apparently lighter, and might contain more weight.

" Q. Why, then, should the established or present mode of admeasurement, evi-
dently ruinous as it is to the art of construction, and in favour only of preposterous,
crank, and unwieldy bodies, be any longer continued.

"A. * * * * * *

To conclude these queries, the writer begs leave lastly to observe, that in
sea fights the comparison of number of guns and weight of metal is more
considered than the comparison of tonnage or dimensions, of which the go-
vernment of the United States appear wisely to take advantage. Observe
the ships of their service in the late war, and those also which they have
lately launched, and which in dimensions (by our rule of admeasurement) are
more than equal to our first-rates, although by them denominated seventy-

128

Remarks on Cuttincjs, Earthtvorks, and Embankments.

[June,

fours and eighties ; whereas the mode of our admeasurement differs from all
others, gives us the disadvantage of fighting the same number of guns, placed
upon a battery less roomy and less stable, although the form may possess as
much cubic space, which the foreigner might say equalises the size of the
combatants, from the argument of our own admeasurement, or rule of calcu-
lation ; which, in truth, is to the British navy ruinous, and, like the scor-
pion's sting, self-destructive.

The evils of the old method of " casting the tonnage" of ships, had been
pointed out very many years prior to the publication of the above category,
as well as the certain advantages to be derived from an increase of the dimen-
sions of all classes of our ships. We have yet to see the benefit of increasing
not merely the breadth, but likewise the length, of every class of ships
composing the Royal Navy.

The views of the writer respecting "bearing," or stability, and displace-
ment, are novel ; and, he truly remarks, are " borrowed from no other
source." We invite the advocates of the " System " to attempt to demon-
strate that they are not at variance either with the laws of nature or with ma-
thematical truth, and to say which is the borrowed rumpled leaf; for we are
unable to discover a line in the book which any one would borrow who is at
all acquainted with the principles of naval architecture.

The new class of brigs will have very nearly the same load displacement as
the old brigs, of 18 guns ; and we are glad to see that each of the rival con-
structors has improved on the dimensions of these vessels according to his
own ideas. The following shows by how much the length and breadth of
each of the new brigs exceeds the same dimensions of the old 18-gun
brig :—

Longer than the o'd]
18-gun brigs . . f

Broader than the old "I
18-gun brigs . . J

Daring.

Flying
Fish.

4 ft.
lOin.

3ft.
1ft. lOin,

Espiegle.

4ft. 8in.
lft. 2in.

Mutine.

lft. lOin
lft. 4in.

Osprey.

lft. lOin.
lft. 4in.

Art. IV.— REMARKS ON CUTTINGS, EMBANKMENTS, AND
OTHER EARTHWORKS.

In former numbers of this Journal we have considered, at some length, the
general subject of clay cuttings ; and have traced, throughout the greater part
of England, the geographical position of the principal clay formations, from
the most recent tertiary deposits down to the lias and the new red sandstone.
We have also described a method of insuring perfect drainage in the slopes of
clay cuttings ; and of rendering them, at the same time, so substantial that
no slips will ever be likely to occur. We proposed to effect this by a series of
parallel trenches, cut one below the other, from top to bottom of the cutting,
and ranging in the longitudinal direction of the railway. (See cross section
of a cutting so executed, in No. 12, page 279 of the Artizan.) Since the
publication of this plan we have heard of so many inquiries as to the mode in
which the trenches are to be relieved of the water percolating into them, that
we take the present opportunity of offering a few words of explanation. It
is intended that all the trenches shall be cut of the same depth, namely, about
six feet, and shall have only a sufficient fall longitudinally to allow the How
of the water draining into them. It is evident, that all these trenches being
executed in parallel lines, each will meet the surface of the ground at points
more or less distant from the summit, or deepest part of the cutting. Now,
at the point where the bottom of each trench comes to coincide with the
soak ditch at the top of the slope, the water contained in that trench will be
drained into the open soak ditch, and carried off, according to the natural
fall of the ground. The expense of executing these trenches will vary with
the circumstances of the case, and will correspond to the facilities of procur-
ing gravel, rubble, or broken stone, suitable for the purpose of filling the
trenches. There are few districts which will not furnish some material of this
kind ; and where no stone can be procured within a reasonable distance, it
might be allowable to make use of burnt clay, vitrified to such an extent as
to resist the action of water. All that is required, in fact, is this, that the
trenches shall be filled with some materials sufficiently pervious to admit of
the free percolation of the water draining into them from the adjacent land.
With a strong puddle in the front of each trench, it might even answer to
fill them with sand, which, if not too clayey, will admit the percolation of
water with sufficient freedom. It will readily appear, to any inquirer who
will take the trouble of estimating the cost of executing this plan for any
particular cutting, that it will effect a considerable saving, in consequence of
the steeper slope which may be adopted, in conjunction with the system of
drainage propounded.

Whether we look to the positive saving of expense which may be thus
realised in executing new works, or to the security which may be given to the
y lopes of old cuttings, it is quite certain that this subject of the prevention of
slips is daily assuming a character of greater importance.

Unlike those expedients which are now being introduced into railway con-

struction, for the purpose of reducing their cost, at the sacrifice of strength
and durability, here is a method which combines at the same time greater
economy, and, in every sense of the word, greater efficiency, than any hitherto
applied to the slopes of earthwork.

During the present year, the subject of slips has been engaging the atten-
tion of a great many railway engineers, and a variety of precautions have
been followed, with the view of giving greater security to the slopes. On the
Croydon railway in particular, operations of an expensive nature have been
long in progress ; and, in addition to the usual system of cutting back the
earth at a greater angle — a system which has been attended with that com-
plete failure which we long ago predicted — an attempt at drainage has been
recently introduced, but with what success we are not at present able to say.
Mr. Gregory, the engineer of that railway, has attempted the drainage in
question by means of gravel counterforts, placed at right angles to the line of
railway, and penetrating some distance into the face of the slope. We have
somewhere seen — probably in the pages of one of our learned contempora-
ries, or in the Minutes of the Institution of Civil Engineers — a description
of this work of Mr. Gregory's, in which these gravel counterforts, which are
nothing but trenches filled with gravel, are perseveringly termed revetements.
For the benefit of the individual who has been thus adopting, from a French
vocabulary of engineering words, of whose meaning he is innocent, it may be
useful to explain that " revetement' ' means a wall used as a front or casing,
commonly supporting a bank of earth, answering to our English word, retain-
ing wall, therefore it cannot, with any propriety, be used to designate the
gravel- filled trenches in the Croydon Railway cuttings, since these are not
used as a casing, a front, or protection of any sort, but are simply in the
position of real buttresses or counterforts.

We do not hesitate to pronounce that these counterforts will prove utterly
inefficient as a means of draining the slopes. They are placed at intervals of
many yards apart, and will intercept only a very small proportion of the
innumerable minute springs which are continually percolating through the
irregularly porous earth of the cuttings on that railway. It is evident, in
fact, that no system can effectually drain a mass of earth, except that of com-
plete catchwater drains, so contrived as to intercept, atone point or other, all
the water which finds its way through the porous part of the soil. The suc-
cessive tiers of longitudinal trenches which have already been described in
these pages, are calculated in this way to effect that perfect drainage without
which the slopes of clay cuttings can never be considered safe.

Mr. Gregory's plan, although far from being an efficient one, is certainly
superior to the ordinary process of cutting zigzag gutters on the mere face of
the slope. His counterfort drains penetrate farther into the mass to be
drained, and they intercept larger quantities of water than those minute drains
in which some engineers appear to place so much confidence.

The system of cutting small grips on the surface of the slope has been fol-
lowed in the clay cuttings of most railways. In some cases the grips are left
open, and in others they are cut from one to three feet in depth, and filled
with gravel, chalk, or rubble stones. Sometimes these small drains are cut
in straight lines, at right angles to the line of railway, and commonly about
ten yards apart ; and sometimes they are cut in a raking or diagonal direction,
in order that they may intercept more water than the rectangular drains are
capable of doing. We need scarcely say that this insignificant system of sur-
face drainage is utterly ineffectual for the prevention of slips. It may serve
to carry off the water which falls on the face of the slope ; but can scarcely
affect, in the least degree, the injurious operation of the water contained in
the soil, and which is constantly working against the stability of the slope. It
is no uncommon thing for slips to take place at the very spot where a slope
has been most perseveriDgly intersected by these surface drains — a circum-
stance which appears clearly to point out their worthlessness as a precaution
against slipping. Yet, notwithstanding such examples, in spite of the fre-
quent spectacle of fallen earth, the rubble of the drains, and sometimes of
bushes placed in them to aid their effect, — in spite of the frequent falling
down of all these into one mass of confused debris, the engineer persists in
adopting, for the drainage of his slopes, a system which every intelligent per-
son has long since abandoned for his land, namely, the system of surface
drains, as distinguished from that of subsoil or thorough draining.

Surely the engineer, whose peculiar province it is to lead the way in all
applications of practical physical science, and to whom the principles of
drainage should be familiar as the alphabet of his native land, surely he should
not be found practising absurd and antiquated expedients and plans of
working which have been exploded even among a class not always celebrated
either for skill or ingenuity. One thing is certain, if engineers themselves
will not, or cannot see the necessity of exertion, with the view of preventing
those frequent slips which are occasioning such a heavy expense to most
railway companies, it is too much to expect, that the directors and shareholders
of such companies will for ever put up with the management of an engineer,
who is not able to bring about a result so simple as that of security to their
works from the danger of slipping. Already is one unfortunate company
nearly ruined, — although they possess a railway which is daily becoming more
of a trunk line, and the highway of an increasing amount of traffic. AJready
have the brilliant prospects of this company been completely annihilated for
years to come, by the unforeseen occurrence of successive and alarming slips,
and all this time they have in their service a salaried resident engineer, besides
a consulting engineer of high name, who would both certainly do well and do
nothing more than their duty, in applying their skill and talents to the preven-

1844.]

The Forms of Cog-Wheels.

129

tion of these slips, which have so long disgraced themselves and their
railway. .

Where very considerable springs of water have been met with in the slopes
of railwav cuttings, a method somewhat different from that of the small
surface drains above described, has been put into practice. A well has been
sunk vertically into the slope at the spot where the spring breaks out, and a
paved channel formed from the well down to the ditch at the foot of the slope
These walls are of various sizes, from 4 to 12 feet, according to the magnitude
of the spring, and are bricked round like an ordinary well or shaft. There
are several of them in a cutting on the Brighton railway, between Balcombe
and Hayward-heath station. This expedient may answer very well for
carrying off a copious spring of water concentrated in one spot, from which it
would otherwise flow out over the slope ; but it would evidently fail m
draining a soil irregularly saturated with water, and composed of irregular
mixtures of clay and sand, like most of those which are commonly called clay
cuttings.

An opinion appears to be very generally gaining ground, that railway
cuttings are peculiarly subject to slips, on account of the vibration produced
by the constant passing of trains. In support of this view, the fact has beeu
cited, that in the ordinary excavations for canals and roads, slips are seldom
met with after the first year or two ; that is, after the effects of the first winter
have passed over; whereas, in railway cuttings, no length of time appears to
offer perfect security, since there are slips in progress on works which have
been executed many years, and which, up to the present time have maintained
a substantial condition. This opinion as to the effect of vibration in railway
cuttings, is alluded to and concurred in by General Pasley, in one of his recent
reports to the Board of Trade ; and it certainly carries with it an air of great
probability, when applied to cuttings of sand, chalk, and other strata of a com-
paratively loose and inadhesive structure.

Whatever may be the cause of failure in cuttings of an old date, it is certain
that the subject is eminently deserving of attention by railway companies and
their engineers ; for it is quite possible that the system of simply executing
cuttings with plane surfaces for slopes, although perfectly well adapted for
ordinary excavations, may not be suitable for works subject to the peculiar
destruction which is found so serious in the case of railway woiks, even many
years after their construction. May it not happen that in some cases
retaining walls of brick, stone, or concrete, would be advantageously substi-
tuted for a slope of earth, both in cuttings and embankments ? Is it not
possible, that economy, in the first instance, with lasting security and con-
sequently great saving of expense for the future, may alike be best consulted by
substitutions of this kind judiciously decided on, after an attentive study and
examination of the circumstances of any particular work ? It appears, in fact,
scarcely reasonable to assert, that the same uniform system of sloping clays,
marls, sands, and other strata, should be equally applicable to all, under all
conditions of dryness, moisture, adhesion, porosity, &c. It would naturally
be supposed, on first considering the subject, that the infinite variety of com-
position which prevails amongst the strata which are met with in the works of
railways, would require an immense difference in the mode of treatment, and
it will be found, on going further into the subject, that this first impression is
amply confirmed by the experience of existing works, and the varying circum-
stances which they bring to light, for the guidance of future practitioners.

' It is found, for example, that chalk cuttings, which are left exposed to the
action of the atmosphere without any protection in front, are subject to an
extensive degradation, the effect of which is to accumulate all along the base
of the slope a mass of debris, which it is necessary to remove immediately
after the frosts of winter. The chalk cuttings on the London and Birmingham,
the Great Western, and the London and Brighton railways, afford examples of

this. From a number of observations which have been made on this subject
it appears, that in deep cuttings, not less than a cube yard of debris per yard
in'length, will accumulate at the base of such slope ; and the removal of even
this quantity is a source of considerable expense, besides which there is a
constant danger of the outer rail being covered by the flints and pieces of
chalk which become loosened by the fall of the softer and more yielding parts.
It will now probably be admitted by some of those engineers, who, a few
sessions ago, so confidently gave their evidence before Parliament on the
subject of chalk cuttings, that they were most seriously mistaken in supposing
that bare slopes of chalk would remain for any length of time without being
disintegrated by the action of frost, winds, and rain. Notwithstanding the arro-
gant and ignorant pretensions of the mushroom race who were then rising into
existence, it was thought by more than one practical man then, as it is now,
that no railway cutting should be executed through chalk, without having the
slopes cut into benches or terraces, and without being faced with some material
capable of protecting the surface of the soft chalk. Whilst this method would
be cheaper than the present slopes given in chalk strata, it would possess the
important recommendation of preventing the surface of the slope from being
acted upon ; in which case there would be greater safety, as well as consi-
derable saving of expense in the future working of the railway.

Art. V.— THE FORMS OF COG-WHEELS.

As the steadiness and equability of transmitted motion depends materially on
the form of the teeth of cog-wheels, too much attention cannot be paid to the
form of their construction. It is with this view, therefore, that we lay before
the readers of the Artizan the methods recommended by Mr. Lewis Gom-
pertz for procuring steadiness of motion in machinery by means of cog and.
pin-wheels.

When the common method of using straight teeth, rounded at the ends, is
adopted, the motion must always be irregular, and the irregularity will be
greater in proportion to the increase of the comparative size of the teeth.
The known method to remedy this defect, is, to curve one side of the teeth
of one wheel into epicycloids, while the teeth of the other consist of pointed,
saw-shaped teeth, the points of which alone touch the tooth of the other
wheel. (See Emerson's Mechanics.) But this does not accomplish all we
wish, as the wheels can then only turn in one direction, and as the action on
the curved tooth takes place only after the pointed tooth has passed the line
which joins the centres of the wheels. If, therefore, it be attempted to turn
the other way, the body of the pointed tooth interferes with the wrong side
of the tooth of the other wheel, as the same track is not pursued by the point
in approaching as while leaving the centre line. The irregularity of a single
straight tooth, if not interrupted by the next tooth of the same wheel, is
always of two kinds : the one in approaching the centre line, and the other
in leaving it ; but with teeth properly formed, the points of contact never
take place twice during the action, though with straight teeth it does.

In order, then, to turn in either direction, Mr. Gompertz forms the pointed
tooth wheel, not of saw-shaped teeth, but with pins projecting from their
faces, as in his old pin and curve wheels, (see Jamieson's Dictionary of Me-
chanical Science), and the teeth of the other wheel are made of an epicycloid
on both sides, so as to act properly in approaching as well as in leaving the
centre line ; in which case, the pin or tooth of the one wheel does not, as
with straight teeth, enter at the point of the tooth of the other, then proceed
to the base, and leave at the same point at which it entered, but it actually
runs round the other.

130

The Building Arts.

[JuN]

Tigs. 2 and 3 show these wheels, of two constructions, each of them acting
perfectly uniformly with its partner, though the teeth of each differ much in
form. In fig. 3, the driving teeth act only while leaving the centre line of
the two radii; and in fig. 2, only while approaching that line. In figs. 1 and
3, the pin-wheel and the curve-wheel are of equal sizes ; hut in fig. 2, the
curve-wheel must be a trifle smaller than the pin-wheel, because, when this
Is not attended to, the teeth diverge to a point, leaving no room for the cir-
cumference of the pin, the centre of which describes the curve, and of course
the circumference must thus overlap ; but, by its being made a little smaller,
each tooth gains a little in the motion, and causes the smaller wheel to keep
pace with the larger. This causes the teeth to become broad at the point, so
as to allow of being cut away to suit the circumference of the pin. But the
plan, fig. 3, by which the teeth drive only while leaving the centre line,
seems far preferable to the other, fig. 2. It is possible to do with only half
the number of teeth, by using the teeth both as they approach and as they
leave the centre line. In this case the teeth will form grooves, and the curve-
wheel must be a little smaller than the pin-wheel.

^Toothed wheels may be so constructed, that, although both wheels are of
the same size, the curve-wheel shall turn twice to one turn of the pin-wheel.
Pig. 6 shows the shape of the teeth of such wheels, which are also in grooves ;
but the latter plan is not recommended by Mr. Gompertz for its practical
utility, because the direction or curvature of the teeth, though they appear to
consist of two right lines, so nearly coincide with a circle described from the
other wheel, that the slightest inaccuracy may cause the teeth to be real
circles described from that centre ; in which case, it is obvious that the cog-
wheel would be unable to transmit motion to the other.

The most exact method to find the proper curvature of the teeth, is to roll
one wheel over the other, continuing the size of the curve-wheel a little over
the face of the other, so that the tooth of the other wheel shall mark it. But
a more convenient method is this : — Describe a circle, AN, for the curve-
wheel, and divide it into twelve equal parts, TS being one-twelfth, which

Fi^,5

twelfth must be subdivided above R into two ; and a circle, BM, represent-
ing the pin-wheel, on which the pins are shown, must be described cutting
the circle AN in the three points T, S, and the part above R, which will give
the depth of the teeth. A circle, CM, must then be described from the
centre N, passing through the centre M of the pin-wheel, and twelve radii
must be drawn from N, reaching this circle. The twenty-fourth part, TR,
of the circle AN, must then be divided into a number of parts, say 4, and
through each of these divisions a circle must he drawn making five circles
from the centre N, and these must be marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, as shown.
Each twelfth of the circle CNM must then be subdivided into four parts,
and numbered as in the diagram, namely, "5234 on the outside, and the same
on the inside ; but the 3 on the inside to come with the !5 on the outside.

The J5 is not intended to signify fifteen, but for one, and also five, one and
five being the same in effect.

Then take with the compasses the shortest distance from the circumference
of the small circle, 5, to the large one, CNM ; set one foot at 25 of the exte-
rior figures, and with the other foot intersect the circle 1 ; then from division
2 to circle 2 ; then 3 to 3, 4 to 4, and 5 to 5 ; and this will sketch the general
shape of the tooth (which must be completed by tracing the intermediate
parts between the marks) ; and in order to get back again, set one leg of the
compasses on *5 of the interior figures, and the other in a corresponding
circle, and mark as before. The whole tooth will then be complete ; and the
operation from the exterior division, J5, of the large circle, to the small circle,
5, showing the track of the teeth while approaching, and those from the inte-
rior showing how they leave it. This operation must be repeated for every
tooth, and will produce twelve teeth, and between each tooth another must
be placed, making 24.

Suppose, then, the wheels are regularly working the way of the arrows ; the
pin of the one wheel will, while approaching the radius of the two centres,
trace the shape of the tooth, or work against its side ; and trace the same of
the other side while leaving this line ; consequently, teeth made of this shape
will cause the wheels to go regularly, and will also allow two wheels which
vary in size to act together with the same angular velocity. The curves in-
dicated by b i in the diagram are the shapes of the teeth of fig. 3, which ac
while leaving the centre line ; and c c, those which act while approaching tha
line, before it is cut away to make room for the circumference of the pin ;
and a a is the tooth which acts in a double capacity. The circle AN is made
a little smaller than BM, to suit the teeth which act while approaching the
centre line ; but for those which act while leaving that line, it is recommended
that these circles should be the same size.

To find the shape of the teeth in fig. 6, when the curve-wheel turns twice
as fast as the pin-wheel, the same operation must be followed, excepting that
the foot of the compasses in the small circles must be moved two numbers,
while the foot in the large circle, MNC, is only moved one ; and only six
teeth are contained in this sort of wheel. BB, in the diagram, shows the
shape of these teeth.

These motions, and a variety of others, Mr. Gompertz affirms, are accom-
plished by the old pin and curve wheels with inclined surfaces. These wheels
are only applicable when the planes are parallel ; in other circumstances,
different forms and arrangements are required; but this forms a distinct
branch of the subject.

Art. VI.— THE BUILDING ARTS.

CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY.

Proposition 5.— If a heavy beam be placed in an inclined position, with its
upper end hanging on a pin or pivot, about which it is moveable, while the
lower end is supported by an upright prop or wall, chamfered at the top to
meet the inclination of the beam ; then, if the weight of the beam, its position
with respect to the horizon, its length between the points of support, and the
position of its centre of gravity, be given, the pressure on the prop or wall,
and the force exerted on the point of suspension can readily be found, toge-
ther with the directions in which those forces act.

Let the beam AB, fig. 5, be hung
on the pin or pivot at A, while the Fig. 5>

other end is supported by the up-
right prop or wall, as represented at
the point B. Draw AC perpendi-
cular to the horizon, and BC parallel
to it ; and let AR and BD be re-
spectively perpendicular to the
length of the beam at A and B, the
points of support ; then through G,
the centre of gravity of the beam,
draw the straight line RGD perpen-
dicular to the horizon, and meeting
AR and BD in the points R and D ;
join AD, and complete the parallelo-
gram GERF ; then if GR denote
the whole weight of the beam acting
in the direction of gravity, GF or
ER will denote the pressure on the
support at B, and GE or FR the
force on the point of suspension
at A.

This is evident, for the end B is
sustained by the plane on which it
rests perpendicular to the direction
BD, and the end at A may either be
conceived to be sustained by the
plane AK at right angles to AD, or by a cord, AH, in the direction of DA,
produced beyond A. Then, in order to calculate the forces GF and GE, we
have, from the principles of construction, the similar triangles ABC, GRA,
and GDB ; from which the parts of the triangle DAR can be found. But

1844.]

Tlie Building Arts.

131

the triangle DAR is similar to the triangle GER ; hence the angle ADR is
equal to EGR or FRG ; consequently the angles GRA and GRF are known,
GRA being equal to ABC, is given by the question ; and GRF being equal
to ADG, is found by calculation as follows : —

Since the length of the beam AB, and ABC the angle of its inclination to
the horizon, are given, as well as the distances AG and BG, the distance GD
can readily be determined ; for, by the principles of plane trigonometry, it is

sin. GDB : BG : : rad. : GD = BGcosee. GDB.
Then in the triangle AGD there are given the two sides AG and GD, and the
contained angle DGA to find the angle ADG, which is equal to GRF.
Therefore it is

AG + DG : DG - AG : : cot. § AGD : tan. | (DAG — ADG).
From these two analogies, therefore, may the angle ADG be calculated, as
will be seen by the resolution of the following question : —

Example. — A uniform beam sustained according to the conditions speci-
fied in the proposition, is 28 feet in length between the points of support,
and weighs 9801bs. ; what is the pressure or force on each support, and in
what directions, in respect of the horizon, do the forces act, supposing the
inclination of the beam to be 34 degrees, and the centre of gravity at the
middle of its length ?

Since the whole weight of the beam is conceived to be accumulated in its
centre of gravity, which, bv the question, is situated at the middle of the
length between the points of support ; it follows, that BG is 14 feet, or half
the length of the beam : hence we have

GD = 14 cosec. 34° = 14 x 1-7883 = 25-0362 feet.
Consequently, the sides AG and DG are 14 and 25-03,62 feet respectively ;
but the contained angle AGD is 90° + 34° = 124°; therefore, by the second
of the above analogies, we get, by using the logarithms as follows,

25-0362 + 14 = 39-0362 or, co. log. 8-4085325

25-0362 - 14 = 11-0362 log. 1-0428196

124° -r- 2 = 62° log. cot. 9-7256744

therefore, f (DAG — ADG) = 8° 32' 56" . . log. tan. 9-1770265

but I- (DAG + ADG) = 28° ; consequently, by subtraction, the value
of the angle ADG becomes 28°— 8° 32' 56" = 19° 27' 4".

Having thus determined the angle ADG, which is equal to EGR, the sides
ER and EG can readily be calculated ; for, in the oblique angled triangle
REG, there are given the three angles and the side GR, which is the linear
representative of the weight of the beam ; hence, by trigonometry, it is

GER : sin. EGR : : GR : ER = GR x sin. EGR x cosec. GER

sin.
sin.

GER : sin. GRE : : GR : GE = GR x sin. GRE x cosec. GER.

Now GER is the supplement of the sum of the two known angles GRE and
EGR ; but the sine of an angle and that of its supplement have the same
numerical value ; consequently, the sine of GER, which is the first term in
each of the above analogies, is the same as the sine of

EGR + GRE = 19° 27' 4" + 34° = 53° 27' 4" ;

therefore, by substituting the numerical quantities in above expressions for
ER and GE, we obtain the following : —

ER = 980 sin. 19° 27' 4" cosec. 53° 27' 4",
GE = 980 sin. 34° cosec. 53° 27' 4".

And again, by taking the angular functions from the trigonometrical tables,

ER = 980 x 0-333 x 1-2448 = 406-2, and
GE = 980 x 0-5592 x 1-2448 = 682-2 ;

therefore the pressure at B is 406-2 lbs., and the force at A is 682-2 lbs.

But each of these forces may be resolved into two other co-ordinate forces,
one of them perpendicular to the horizon, and the other parallel to it ; for we
have only to draw through G, the position of the centre of gravity, the
straight line mn parallel to BC, and from the points E and F to demit the
perpendiculars Em and Fn, which will represent the respective forces in the
direction of gravity. This is important in the disposition of beams, for it
points out what part of the weight acts directly on the supports, and what part
of it is neutralized in consequence of the inclination.

With respect to the second part of the question, (namely, the direction of
the forces by which the beam is sustained,) there can be no difficulty, for they
are respectively inclined to the horizon in angles that are the complements of
those which they make with the direction of gravity ; consequently, the angle
FGra is 90° — 34° = 56°; and EGm is 90° — 19° 27' 4" = 70° 32' 56".

Now, with these angles, the active and neutral portions of the weight can
easily be expressed in numbers ; for, by trigonometry, we have as follows : —
Fre = FG x sin. 56° ; and Gn = FG x cos. 56° ; that is,

¥n = 406-2 x 0-82904 = 336-8 ; and Gn = 406-2 x 0'55919 = 2272.
Therefore, at the point B, the force in the direction of gravity is 336'81bs. ;
and that which is neutral, or in the direction of the horizon, is 227'21bs. ;
and, by pursuing a similar process for the point A, it is
Em = GE x sin. 70° 32' 56"; and Gw = GE x cos. 70° 32' 56" ; that is,

Em = 682-2 x 094293 = 643-2; and Got = 682-2 x 0-333 = 227-2.

Hence it appears that the force in the direction of gravity at the point A is
643#21bs. ; while that in the direction of the horizon is 227'21bs., the same
as at the point B, as it manifestly ought to be ; for in all cases of inclination,
the horizontal forces at the points of support do mutually balance, and destroy
each other's effects. This principle receives a beautiful practical illustration
in the construction of suspension-bridges, and in the erection of trussed
roofs.

The example which we have here illustrated constitutes only a particular
case of the general problem, viz., that in which the centre of gravity of the
beam is situated at the middle of its length : this, indeed, will always happen
when the beam is uniform, or when the load which it supports is uniformly
distributed ; but the principles of construction and calculation are the same
at whatever point in the length the centre of gravity may happen to fall ; the
only difference being in the process of calculation, which in some instances
may happen to be a little more difficult and laborious, but in all cases the
parts to be determined are the same.

Fig. 6.

Proposition 6. — If a heavy beam be inclined to the horizon in a given
angle, and supported on two props which are also inclined and moveable
about their lower extremities ; then, if the weight of the beam and the posi-
tion of its centre of gravity are known, the position of the props, when the
system is in a state of equilibrium, can easily be found, as well as the pres-
sures and directions of the forces at the points of support corresponding to
those positions.

Let AB, fig. 6, be a heavy beam reclining
in a state of balanced rest on the summits
of the two props or posts AC and BD,
whose positions are required to be found.
Through the point B, the lower extremity
of the beam, draw BN parallel to the hori-
zon, and let fall the perpendicular, AN ;
then is BN the horizontal projection of the
beam.

Through G, the given position of the
centre of gravity, draw the straight line GH,
intersecting the horizontal projection of the
beam in H ; then, by the principles of the
lever, if BN represent the whole weight of
the beam, BH will represent the part of it
acting at A, and NH that which is sup-
ported at B. But BG and AG are propor-
tional to the projections BN and NH ;
therefore, BG and AG may be considered
as the representatives of the forces acting at
A and B respectively.

Produce AN to I, and make AI equal to BG ; produce also BA to K,
making AK of any magnitude at pleasure, and complete the parallelogram
AKCI ; join CA, which produce to meet HG continued upwards in R, and
draw RB ; then is RB in the line of direction of the post supporting the beam
at B ; produce RB to D, and AC, BD will be the positions of the posts
required.

It will readily be perceived by the above construction, that the posts may
be placed in innumerable positions, and still retain the beam in a state of rest,
the positions being altogether dependent on the magnitude given to the arbi-
trary quantity AK ; but at the same time it will be observed, that the pres-
sures at the points of support will also be different, since that must obviously
depend on the angle of direction. If, however, the position of one of the
supports be given, the position of the other is fixed, and is easily assignable ;
and this is the case that we mean to illustrate, by applying the general prin-
ciples of construction to the resolution of a particular example.

Example. — A beam, of an irregular form, 24 feet in length, is inclined to
the horizon in an angle of 36 degrees, and supported at its extremities by two
posts, one of which makes with the horizon an angle of 73 degrees ; what
must be the position of the other post, so that the beam may be supported in
a state of rest, and what will be the pressure on each post in the direction
of its length, the whole weight of the beam being 840 lbs., and the centre
of gravity at the distance of 7 feet from the higher end, and 17 feet from the
lower, admitting the post, whose position is given to support the higher end
of the beam ?

To render the solution of this example the more evident, we shall detail
the steps of construction according to the data ; and for this purpose, let BN
in the above figure be the horizontal line, and make the angle ABN equal to
36 degrees, that being the given inclination of the beam ; make BA equal to
24 feet, the given length of the beam ; then at the point A make the angle
BAC equal to 71 degrees, the supplement of the inclinations ; that is, the in-
clinations of the beam and the post, and CA will be the position of the post
which supports the upper end of the beam.

Set off BG equal to 1 7 feet, then is G the position of the centre of gravity ;
through the centre of gravity G draw GH perpendicular to the horizon, and
extend it upwards to meet CA produced in R ; join RB, which continue to
D, then is BD the position of the other post by which the beam is supported.
Let GR denote the weight of the beam ; and on GR, as a diagonal, construct
the parallelogram GERF ; then is RE the pressure on the post AC in the
direction of its length, and RF the pressure on BD also in the direction of its
length.

132

The Building Arts.

[June,

In the triangle ARG all the angles are known, together with the side AG ;
hence the value of the side GR can be determined in linear ; for, by the prin-
ciples of plane trigonometry, we have

sin. ARG : sin. GAR : : AG : GR = AG x sin. GAR x cosec. ARG.

Now GAR is manifestly equal to the sum of the given angles, or
36° + 73° = 109°, and ARG is the complement of the post's inclination;
that is, 90° — 73° = 17° : but, by the question, the numerical value of the
side AG is 7 feet : therefore, by substituting these several quantities in the
above expression for the value of GR, we obtain as follows, viz. : —

AG = 7 sin. 109° cosec. 17° = 7 x 0-94552 x 3-4203 = 22-638 feet.

Then in the triangle BGR there are given the two sides BG and GR, with
the contained angle BGR, to find the angle BRG, which determines the posi-
tion of the other support, being the complement of the angle which it makes
with the horizon. Therefore, by the rules of plane trigonometry, we get

(BG + GR) : (GR — BG) : : cot. i BGR : tan. -| (GBR — BRG).

Here follows the process of calculation by logarithms : —

BG + GR = 17 + 22-638 = 39'638 . . or, co. log. 8-401888

GR — BG = 22-638 — 17 = 5-638 log. 0-751125

£BGR = | (90° + 36°) =63° cot. log. 9-707166

Therefore we obtain i(GBR — BRG) = 4° 8' 42" . . . tan. log. 8-860179

But i (GBR + BRG) = 27° 0' 0" ; consequently, by sub.
traction, we get BRG = 22° 51' 18"; hence the angle of inclination of the
support at the lower end of the beam is 67° 8' 42".

We have next to ascertain the pressures or thrusts on the points of sup-
port when estimated in the direction of their lengths ; and for this purpose
there are given in the parallelogram of forces GERF, or in the triangle of
forces GER, all the angles, and the side GR, to find the other sides ER and
EG : hence it is,

sin. GER : sin. EGR : : GR : ER = GR x sin. EGR x cosec. GER ;

and again,

sin. GER : sin. GRE : : GR : EG = GR x sin. GRE x cosec. GER.

But, by the property of the parallelogram, the angle GER is the supplement
of the angle ERF, which, again, is the sum of the angles GRE and EGR, the
values of which are known, being equal respectively to 17° and 22° 51' 18" ;
therefore, by substituting the numerical values of the angles, and of the side
GR in the above expressions for ER and EG ; recollecting that, in this case,
GR denotes the weight of the beam, we obtain

ER = 840 sin. 22° 51' 18" cosec. 39° 51' 18",
and EG = 840 sin. 17° cosec. 39° 51' 18".

Therefore, by taking the angular functions from the trigonometrical tables,
and substituting in these expressions, we get

ER = 840 x 0-3884 x 1-5604 = 509-04 ;
and EG = 840 x 0-29237 x 1-5604 = 383-22.

Consequently, the thrust at A is 509-04 lbs., and at B it is 383-22 lbs.

If we resolve each of the forces whose values we have just determined into
their equivalent co-ordinate forces, one of them perpendicular to the horizon,
and the other parallel to it, we shall then be able to discriminate what part
of each operates as a thrust, and what part as a pressure ; by which means
we shall be enabled to counteract the effects of both. This is a very important
consideration in Constructive Carpentry, and is what more particularly dis-
tinguishes the works of a skilful artizan from those of one who is unac-
quainted with the laws of Mechanics, and the Composition and Resolution
of Forces.

Through G, the centre of gravity of the beam, draw the straight line mn
parallel to the horizon, and from the points E and F let fall the perpendicu-
lars Em and Fn, meeting the horizontal line mn in the points m and n ; then
is Fn the measure of the vertical pressure at the point A, and Gn the thrust
in the direction of the horizon : and, for the same reason, Em is the measure
of the vertical pressure at B, and Gm the thrust in the direction of the hori-
ron. But the thrusts Gm and Gra are equal to each other, and they act in
opposite directions ; consequently they destroy each other's effect, so that if
the beam and its supports be jointed at A and B, but movable about these
points, as well as about the points C and D, the horizontal thrusts will have
no influence whatever on the stability of the system.

The amount of vertical pressure and horizontal thrust at each point of sup-
port, are very easily calculated ; for in each of the right-angled triangles,
EGm and FGn, all the angles and the hypothenuse are given, to find the
other sides : thus, in the triangle FGn, the angle GFra is equal to the angle
ERG, or 17° ; and in the triangle EGm, the angle GEra is equal to the angle
FRG, or 22° 51' 18"; and the hypothenuses GF and GE are equal to
509'04 and 383-22 respectively : hence we get

rad. : 509-04 : : cos. 17° : Fn ; and rad. : 509*04 : : sin. 17° : Gn.

And again, rad. : 383-22 : : cos. 22° 51' 18" : Em ;
and rad. : 383-22 : : sin. 22° 51' 18" : Gm ;

and by substituting the proper functions in each of these analogies, we obtain

F» = 509-04 x 0-9563 = 486-78 ; and Gn = 509-04 x 029237 = 148-83 ;

and by performing a similar process in respect of the triangle EGm, we get

Em = 383-22 x 0-9215 = 353-13; andGm = 383'22 x 0-3884 = 148-83.

Here, then, the vertical pressures at the points A and B are 486*78 lbs. and
353-13 lbs. respectively; the horizontal thrust, which is the same at both
points, being 148-83 lbs.

"We have been very minute in detailing the steps of solution for this par-
ticular case, and we have been so from a thorough conviction of the practical
utility of the principle which it involves — the composition of parallel forces
being here brought into play — an operation that had no place in any of the
foregoing propositions ; and we would earnestly solicit the attention of our
readers to the manner of its application, as, in some of the more delicate
inquiries that are to follow, it will be found to exercise a very important
influence.

Proposition 7. — If several beams, which are situated in a vertical plane,
be mutually joined together at their extremities, and movable about the points
of connexion, the lower ends of the extreme beams being fixed, then, by con-
ceiving the several beams in the system to be divested of weight, let us sup-
pose that given weights, or masses of matter, are laid on or suspended from
the several angles or joints, in such a manner as to maintain the system in a
state of equilibrium ; it is proposed to determine the geometrical condition
that must be satisfied by the position of the beams when the equilibrium
takes place

Fig. 7.

Let AB, BC, CD, DE, and EF,
fig. 7, be a system of five beams,
joined together at the points B,
C, D, and E, on which they are
moveable as centres, the extreme
beams AB and FE being also
moveable about the lower points
at A and F.

Now suppose the beams which
constitute the system to be en-
tirely divested of weight, and let
the equilibrium be produced by
suspending the weights w0, w
w2, and w3, from the joints or
angles B, C, D, and E, respec-
tively.

Let BC, CD, and DE, be three
of the beams in immediate connexion ; these would obviously constitute an
equilibrium among themselves, independently of the others, provided the
extreme points B and E were fixed, and the beams BC and DE moveable
about these points as centres. Let w and «•„ denote the weights which, bein
applied at the angles C and D, produce the equilibrium, and extend thi
beams or sides of the polygon BC and ED to meet each other in the point P
then by the principles pointed out in the first and second propositions, th
straight line PQ, drawn through the point of concourse at P, perpendicular
to the horizon, must pass through G, the common centre of gravity of the
equilibrating weights to1 and u>r Here, then, it is manifest that the beam
CD, at whose extremities the weights act, is urged by three forces, two of
them in the directions PB , PE, and the weights w. and k>2, which must be
considered as a single weight applied at the common centre of gravity. From
the points C and D, the extremities of the middle beam CD, let fall the per-
pendiculars Cm, and Dn meeting the vertical line PQ in the points m and n ;
and let <p denote the angle PC>», 9 the angle DCm, or CDn, which is equal
to it, and w the angle PDn, these being respectively the angles that the di-
rections of the beams BC, CD, and DE, make with the horizon.

By the property of the centre of gravity, the straight line CD is divided in
G into the two parts, CG and DG, that are to each other reciprocally as the
weights that are applied at the angles C and D. If Cm be made the radius,
by plane trigonometry we get

rad. : tan. PCm : : Cm : Pm = Cm tan. <p ;
and rad. : tan. GCm : : Cm : Gm = Gm tan. 9 ;

therefore, by subtraction, we get as follows : —

PG = Gm (tan. 0— tan. 0).

Again, by making Dre radius, the rules of trigonometry give

rad. : tan. PDn : : Dn : P» = Dn tan. ir ;
and rad. : tan. GDw : : Dn : Gn = Dn tan. 9 ;

therefore, by addition, we obtain

PG = Dn (tan. 9 + tan. -r).

Now these values of PG must manifestly be equal to each other ; therefore,
by comparison, we have

Gm (tan. $ — tan. 9) = Dn (tan. 9 + tan. tt).

1844.]

Researches on Light.

133

But here it must be observed, that since, in the instance assumed, the angle
GDn is under the horizontal line T)n, its tangent must be considered negative
in respect of all the other angles which are above, and to subtract a negative
quantity, is the same thing as to add a positive one ; hence the reason for the
change of sign on the right-hand side of the equation ; but it must be borne
in mind, that the general form is affected with a negative sign.

We have already observed, that CG and DG are reciprocally as the weights
which, acting at C and D, produce the equilibrium ; but by similar triangles
Cm and Dn are in the same proportion ; therefore, if for D» and Cm we
substitute ivi and u>2 respectively, the above equation becomes

w,, (tan. <p — tan. 9) = w1 (tan. 9 + tan. 7r).

Let this equation be transformed into an analogy, and we have

w1 : tan. <p — tan. 9 : : w., : tan. 9 + tan. tt.

Hence results this general property, that, in an equilibrated polygon, the
loads on any two angles or joints are, to each other, as the differences of the
tangents of the angles which the sides about those joints make with the hori-
zon ; provided always that the affection of the terms is considered. If the
symbol n be put to denote any constant quantity, such as the thrust in the
direction of the horizon at the several joints or angles, which, as we have
already shown, is always the same in the case of an equilibrium, whatever
joint may be made the subject of examination, then we have

wl — n (tan. <p — tan. 9) ;

and this is the condition that the proposition was to satisfy.

It therefore appears, that if the weights at the several joints, and the angle
which any one of the beams makes with the horizon, be given, the angles
made with the horizon by all the other beams can readily be found.

This is perhaps the most prolific proposition in the whole range of prac-
tical geometry ; its principles enter less or more into almost every arrange-
ment of Constructive Carpentry; and it has been made the foundation of one
of the most simple and elegant theories of bridge-building, and the general
formation of arches. Some of its most important and interesting applica-
tions will be particularized hereafter, but our space will not allow us to con-
sider it more at large on the present occasion.

ART. VII.— BAR HARBOURS.

A Treatise on Harbours, vnth a Demonstration of the Theory of Bars. By
Wm. B. Prichard, C.E., F.S.A., &c— Fisher, Son, & Co.

The subject of bar-harbours has been on more than one occasion adverted
to in the Artizan, and our observations were founded on communications
received from Mr. Prichard, whose theory for the prevention of such ob-
structions at the mouths of rivers and of artificial harbours we advocated.
Mr. Prichard is one of those civil engineers who possess more knowledge of
facts than of the means of expressing and compressing them ; and in dealing
with his communications, we were compelled to make many alterations and
numerous omissions before we considered them to be presentable to our
readers. Mr. Prichard, however, with the irritability rather common to
authors, was not pleased with the mode in which his manuscript was treated,
and determining to give it to the public in its entirety, he has presented his
lucubrations on harbours in a quarto volume, price \l. sterling. This, more-
over, is but the precursor of another and, we imagine, a larger volume, for
the subjects announced are numerous, and Mr. Prichard gets over the ground
very slowly. His style is so discursive that it is with some difficulty the
facts and opinions worth noticing, and bearing on the subject, can be found
out. The principal part of his theory may be shortly enunciated. He
contends that bars at the mouths of rivers are produced by the deposition
of the sand and alluvial earth, which were previously suspended in the
water. When the current mingles directly with the large and comparatively
stagnant mass of water in the ocean, its motion is checked, and the action
. of the particles of water can no longer suspend the solid matter against the
force of gravitation. As a means of preventing this deposit in a position to
block up the entrance to the river, he recommends that the current on
entering the sea should be directed obliquely along the shore, and not enter
the larger mass at right angles, as is generally the case. Though this is
briefly the substance of the recommendations Mr. Prichard has to propose,
he continues to dilute it with so much irrelevant matter, that it becomes
rather puzzling to find out what are the principles of the theory he advances.
The formation of shingle bars on the south-eastern coast is traced to the
quantity of shingle propelled forward from the west by ihe waves, the force
of which is on that coast generally felt from the south-west. Mr. Prichard
contends that the attempts to prevent the deposition of shingle at the mouths
of harbours by means of groins are generally inadequate and unscientific,
because the groins enter the sea at right angles instead of obliquely ; and
the westerly ones do not sufficiently overlap those on the east.

These, then, constitute the principles of Mr. Prichard's theory and plans
of improvement, which are well worthy of consideration, but they need
pot certainly a quarto volume for their announcement. This is the age of
book-making, and it should be one of the duties of critics to endeavour to
check the mass of literature that is daily adding to the stock of unreadable

materials. It is with this view that we protest against the publication of
such a costly tome, the materials of which might, with great advantage,
have been comprised in a sixpennj' pamphlet ; or the author might have
been satisfied with the publicity previously given to his views, in an
amended form, in the Artizan. The work is, indeed, well got up, and is
illustrated with several coloured plates not badly executed, but it is altogether
disproportioned to the subject-matter, and is put together in the most
inartificial style. As a specimen of the manner in which the work is divided,
we quote from the opening sentence of Chapter II., when it might be
assumed that a distinct branch of the subject was to be considered, instead
of drawing an inference from the concluding paragraph of the chapter pre-
ceding : " The principal aim of this treatise will be, therefore, to call the
serious and, it is hoped, the deliberate attention of the engineering pro-
fession," &c. As a specimen of the style of composition, let this sentence
suffice : " The origin of the mischief is in the facility given by rectangular
piers to enter the harbour's mouth, and those piers assisting instead of pre-
venting its (?) ingress." There is one good purpose Mr. Prichard's book
may serve, should it be fortunate enough to find purchasers ; it may serve
as a caution to civil engineers against rushing into print without taking (and
following) the advice of those who know of what materials a book should
be made, and how they should be fashioned.

Art. VIII.— RESEARCHES ON LIGHT.

Researches on Light ; an Examination of all the Phenomena connected with
the Chemical and Molecular Changes produced by the Influence of the Solar
Rays. By Robert Hunt. Longmans and Co.

Investigations into the nature and properties of light serve rather to per-
plex the inquirers by the additional facts disclosed, which show the extended
and previously unthought-of operations of that mysterious agency, than to
elucidate and to arrive at fixed principles of knowledge. In this, as in many
other departments of science, the more we learn, we see the less reason to
despise the opinions of ancient philosophers, whose powerful and specula-
tive minds, though without the aid of modern science and arts, were enabled,
as it were by intuition, to penetrate the recesses of nature, and to indicate
many of those extraordinary facts which have since been established by
analvtical proofs. Even some of the exploded and laughed-at notions of
the alchemists respecting the transmutation of metals, appear to have re-
ceived countenance from the experiments of modern philosophers ; and
some of the ancient opiuions respecting the important influence of light on
all bodies, animate and inanimate are in progress of being confirmed.

Sir Isaac Newton, the discoverer of the compound nature of the rays of
light, entertained the notion previously promulgated by Homberg, that
light enters into the constitution of all bodies, modifying their forms and
qualities. Sir Isaac, indeed, rather suggests the possibility of this extended
agency of light, than affirms it ; for he advances his opinions interroga-
tively: "Are not," he asks, " gross bodies and light convertible into one
another ; and may not bodies receive much of their activity from the parti-
cles of light which enter into their composition ?" This supposition he
founds on the fact that all solid bodies, when heated to a certain point, emit
light, and that the rays of light are arrested by the solid bodies against
which they impinge.

The discoveries respecting the influence of light which have been made
since attention was more prominently directed to the subject by ihe inven-
tion of the Daguerreotype go far towards confirming these views ; and
they have opened a new field of inquiry, that possesses the greatest interest
not only in a scientific point of view, but as regards its practical effects. Iu
the " Researches on Light," Mr. Hunt, the author, has endeavoured to
make a clear and comprehensive exposition of the state of knowledge on
.this subject to the present time ; prefacing it with a short history of the
progress of the invention of the Daguerreotype, the photographic and other
processes, by which pictures are obtained by the impression of light.

The Daguerreotype, like most other important inventions, was due to the
progress of time, and the result of many and long-continued experiments ;
for, though, when announced in its completeness, it appeared like a miracu-
lous power, suddenly called into operation, yet, for many preceding years,
the attempts to obtain pictures drawn by light had been made, and had suc-
ceeded to a great extent. In 1802, an account was published in the jour-
nals of the Royal Institution, of the means adopted by Mr. Wedgwood, the
scientific porcelain manufacturer, of copying paintings on glass, by the
agency of light on nitrate of silver. Mr. Wedgwood's process was, in fact,
that more recently known by the title of " photography ;" and by its means
all was effected in the way of copying leaves of plants, the wings of insects,
&c, that has since been accomplished by that art ; but Mr. Wedgwood,
and the late Sir Humphry Davy, failed to obtain a composition sufficiently
sensitive to receive an impression from the images of a camera-obscura. It
would seem that they failed, also, in the more important object of protect-
ing the other parts of the paper from being subsequently acted on by the
rays of light.

Though the invention was thus nearly attaining perfection at the com-
mencement of this century, no further attempts were made, in England, to
improve it for many years. The next person who brought the subject for-
ward was M. Niepce, of Chalons, who commenced his experiments on the

134

agency of light in 1814, and directed his attention to fixing the images of
the camera-obscura by the action of the rays on different resinous bodies.
In 1826 he attained such a degree of perfection in his process, that, in the
following year, he -was induced to coine to England to obtain the patronage
of the Royal Society. From that exclusive and almost repulsive body,
however, he could obtain no encouragement ; though it appears, from some
existing specimens of what M. Niepce had then accomplished, that he had
not only succeeded in impressing the image of the camera on a resinous
body, spread over a metallic plate, but had etched the image on the plate,
from which engravings could be printed. This was a high advance in the
art, which has not been attained in a practicable state of perfection by more
recent experimenters ; yet, notwithstanding the interest naturally attached
to such an invention, and its great practical utility, the Royal Society of
England appears to have paid little regard to it.

M. Daguerre began his experiments in 1824, first employing nitrate of
silver. He became acquainted with M. Niepce in 1826 ; and the latter, in
1829, a year after his unsuccessful visit to England, communicated his pro-
cess to M. Daguerre, who entered into an agreement with him ; and they
carried on their researches for some time conjointly. In the commence-
ment of 1839, M. Daguerre's discovery of the applicability of iodine
for receiving light-drawn pictures in the camera was made known ; and in
July of the same year, pensions for life, of 6,000 and 4,000 francs respec-
tively, were granted by the French Chambers to M. Daguerre and M. Isi-
dore Niepce, the son of the original discoverer. In bestowing this grant it
was declared that France purchased the secret of the process, " for the glory
of endowing the world of science and of art with one of the most surprising
discoveries that honour their native land." It was distinctly understood
that it was to be " a gift to the whole world," as M. Arago declared ; yet,
in opposition to this understanding, a patent was secured in England for the
monopoly. Such unfair monopolies tend to bring into discredit the just
claims of inventors to the exclusive enjoyment of their property ; and we
agree with Mr. Hunt, that the patent cannot stand investigation, and that it
is to be desired steps should be taken to annul it.

We have thus briefly traced the history of one of the most extraordinary
inventions of the present day, until it was brought to a high degree of per-
fection by M. Daguerre. Many improvements have been made, by which
the sensitiveness of the plates is increased, and the image fixed on the sur-
face ; but in extreme fidelity and minuteness of detail there has been little
advance on some of the Daguerreotypes executed soon after the invention
was announced.

There is another branch of the discovery, however, that has been prose-
cuted in England with great success, and is in such rapid progress that it
promises shortly to supersede the Daguerreotype ; — we allude to the mode
pf fixing the images on sensitive papers. For the re-introduction of this mode
of operating we are indebted to Mr. Fox Talbot, who, prior to the announce-
ment of M. Daguerre's invention, made a communication to the Royal So-
ciety of his " art of photogenic drawing, or the process by which natural
objects may be made to delineate themselves without the aid of the artist's
pencil." The process was altogether distinct from that of M. Daguerre,
therefore the question of priority of invention does not apply. We have
already stated, that, long before either M. Daguerre or Mr. Fox Talbot di-
rected their attention to the subject, the object had been suggested, and the
means of carrying it into execution had been pointed out. The merit due
to each is confined to the degree of perfection at which they arrived ; and it
must be admitted that in this respect M. Daguerre stands pre-eminent.
Even at this time, after the many additions made to the photographic pro-
cess, under its many denominations of calotype, chromatype, auroty pe, pla-
tinotype, cyanotype, chrysotype, and numerous other appellations, depend-
ing on the substance employed for receiving the impressions, the Daguerre-
otype far exceeds, in precision of detail, any of the pictures received upon
paper. The paper process, however, is more full of promise. The improve-
ments in it are greater, the modes of operating more simple and various ;
and there seems greater probability of attaining, by its means, the grand
desideratum — colour. On this point Mr. Hunt is sanguine of ultimate suc-
cess. He observes, that " there are sufficient reasons for believing that, in
the progress of research, we shall, before long, arrive at processes by which
the delightful pictures of the camera-obscura shall be rendered permanent
in all the beauty of those glowing tints which give to the fields of creation
their exquisite charm and enchanting character. The results of experiments
alluded to in confirmation of this opinion are certainly sufficient to encou-
rage the prosecution of the attempt, and to induce the hope that it will be
successful ; for, in many cases, the colours of the spectrum have been dis-
tinctly obtained, and even the colours of transmitted light have tinged the
sensitive paper with their own hues. The most remarkable specimen of
photographically-impressed prismatic colours was obtained by Sir John
Herschell, the description of whose experiment we subjoin : —

" A paper was washed first with nitrate of silver, and then with fiuate of soda.
Under the spectrum the action commenced at the centre of the yellow ray, and
rapidly proceeded upwards, arriving at its maximum in the blue ray. To the end
of the indigo tho action was pretty uniform. It then appeared to be very suddenly
checked, and a brown tint was produced under the violet rays, all action ceasing a
few lines beyond the luminous spectrum. Some faint indications of change were
evident to the lowest edge of the yellow, but none whatever below that point. The
colours of this spectrum are not a little remarkable. I have now before me a spec-

Pictures of the Exhibition of the Royal Academy — 1844.

[June,

trum impressed about two months since, and the colours are still beautifully clear
and distinct. The paper is slightly browned by diffused light, upon which appears
the following order of colours : —

" A yellow line distinctly marks the space occupied by the yellow ray, and a
green band the space of the green. Through the blue and indigo region the colour
is an intense blue, and over the violet a mddy brown."

This experiment alone is sufficient to prove the possibility of fixing the
colours as well as the forms in the camera picture. It proves that the
effects of the rays of light on colours are not limited to the blue and violet,
or, as they have been termed, the chemical rays of light. The great fact to
be proved was, that the coloured rays may be made to impress different
colours on properly prepared paper. Even though the colours impressed
should not have corresponded with their own, still, the existence of a dis-
tinctive power would have been sufficient foundation whereon to work, in
the expectation of discovering some preparation that would reflect the im-
pressions received in their proper hues. In the foregoing experiment,
however, all the colours corresponded, with the exception of the violet,
which was brown, and the apparent omission of the red rays. The red,
however, is not impracticable; for M. Daguerre and Mr. Fox Talbot have
both obtained a red coloration by their different processes. The time,
therefore, may not be far distant when the objects of nature may be im-
pressed on paper by the rays of light, not only in their forms, but tinged
with their distinctive colours.

In pursuing Mr. Hunt's investigations into the photographic processes,
we have not left ourselves space to comment on his other researches into
the mysterious agencies of light. We may, perhaps, revert to this matter
on a future occasion. The subject is important and fruitful enough to
deserve the most serious consideration. Mr. Hunt entertains the ancient
opinion, that light acts an important part in the composition of material
bodies, animate and inanimate ; and that a ray darting on any substance
but for a moment, produces an effect more or less powerful, according to
the sensitiveness of the body, but that it does produce an effect on all. The
peculiar property of light, which had been usually ascribed to the " chemi-
cal rays" of the spectrum, Mr. Hunt considers to be due to a distinct power
contained in the solar rays, to which he gives the name "energia," as
indicative generally of the existence of force. The solar rays, therefore,
according to Mr. Hunt's " Researches," comprise three principles — Light,
Heat, and Energia. The consideration of the arguments by which he
endeavours to establish the existence of Energia is too important to be
entered into at the close of an article on the photographic processes.

Art,

IX.— PICTURES OF THE EXHIBITION OF THE ROYAL

ACADEMY— 1844.

On the morning of the opening we bent our steps to the rooms of the Royal
Academy ; but, like many others who were early on the spot, we were
doomed to wait a couple of hours ere the portals were open to the public.
The sesame was no sooner announced than the Gallery was crowded ; and
it was a stirring sight to witness the eager press of animated faces anxiously
observant of their own productions, or watching the impression their works
made on the minds of others. The exhibition of this year is, on the whole,
satisfactory. Though not possessing many pictures of the very highest
order, yet there are indications of progress in the younger aspirants, espe-
cially gratifying to those who look back a few years, and compare the
crude, florid productions of former days with the firmer handling and
earnestness of purpose of the present epoch. One who had been absent
from the Exhibition for only six or seven years, would perceive at once the
improvement of our artists — less ambitious and startling — less offensive in
glare, and less intent on being fine, so obvious formerly. Here are Turner
and Stanfield in their strength ; Etty, Maclise, and Eastlake, with their
rich imaginations lifting the real into the ideal, casting enchantment over
the most insignificant objects by their bright and tender fancies, and stamp-
ing upon every object they touch the impress of their own poetic spirits.
Eddis, Landseer, and Mulready, too — how finely they stand forth in their
different glories, elevating by their genius the subjects they approach ! — But
we must stop this rapture, and put a drop of gall in this our pen of steel,
for we have now to pass from the presence of these " sceptred sovereigns,"
to contemplate the deeds and misdeeds of a more heterogeneous assem-
blage.

There is a disgusting picture of Disease and Death, by P. F. Poole- — the
same who startled the town last year with the Horrors of the Plague.
Finding himself successful in such scenes, he has given full scope to his
demon, and has here presented the public with a scene of carnage which,
however admirable as a gymnastic of the pallet, must be condemned as
being necessarily in the worst possible taste, so long as the design of a
picture is to give pleasure.

No. 14. G. Patten has violated the modesty of expression, and torn a
passion to rags, in the Madness of Hercules — " Distracted, he slays his
wife and children." — A frightful subject, made more frightful by the con-
tortions of writhed agony. Aiming at the sublime, he has dwindled into
the disgusting. The picture reminds us strongly of the doings of Le Gros,
but Mr. Patten has produced a specimen of inanity, gigantic in conception,
but the idea required the genius of Michael Angelo to work it out suc-
cessfully.

1844.]

Locomotives with Variable Power.

135

Tuvn we from these violations of taste, to tlie Painter's Holiday, by
Danby, [No. 505,] a lovely, dream-like reminiscence of a summer's day,
mid the deep recesses of nature, leaving its solemn impress on the mind, as
the quiet lake reflects the firmament within its waters.

No. 151, from Milton's Comus, by Etty ; one of the designs for the
frescoes contributed to the Queen's summer-house, in Buckingham Palace.
The picture is as dreamy as the imagination might conceive of the Gardens
of Hesperus. It is a vision of sweet thoughts and poetic imagery, and
graceful as the sentiment of the poem here embodied in form and colour.

In the centre, " About the Golden Tree dance the Daughters Three."
On either side of the principal group, Mr. Etty, with refined taste, has in-
troduced episodes. To the right, Celestial Cupid, bending over the sleep-
ing form, holds his dear Psyche sweetly entranced. On the other bank sits
the Assyrian Queen, nursing the sick Adonis of his wound, — poetry and
painting combined.

No. 96, " Salrina releasing the Lady from the Enchanted Chair," by
Mr. Maclise, is, in thought and arrangement, worthy a compartment in
the same palace with Mr. Etty's fresco, which this design is also intended
to enrich. The picture is rich in grotesque and quaint device, but the co-
louring is harsh, and endangers its reputation. The brothers are on the
left, and the attendant spirit, in the habit of Thyrsis, on the right of the
composition.

A scene from Undine (No. 277,) by the same artist, bears a like impress
of the painter's poetic fancy, though it wants the veil of Dreamland to con-
vey the shadowy grace which invests the poem and hangs about the en-
chanted forest, where hovers the demon Kuhelborn.

Now come we to an historical picture, by Mr. Eddis, breathing with
earnest thought the solemn purpose of the painter — a subject requiring
great skill to represent faithfully — (No. 156), " The Raising of the Daughter
ofJairus." The chief interest centres in the young damsel ; and her figure,
•with its awakening consciousness, is most delicately conceived ; while the
tone which pervades the composition is admirable. Fault has been found
with the feebleness of the mother's countenance: to our mind, Mr. Eddis
was guided by the purest taste in the delineation, as we shall endeavour to
prove. Previously to the growth of joy which would eventually suffuse
the mother's face with emotion, must be the surprise and uncertainty of the
great result ; and the expression of what was passing within, if indexed on
the countenance, would be that of vague apprehension, amazement, and
■uncertainty, yielding by degrees, as the belief in her child's restoration was
fully revealed by Christ's beneficent miracle. For it is the property of
such extreme sorrow as the mother had felt, not to believe when any great
joy cometh : as we are told of Penelope, when she saw Ulysses after his
twenty years' absence, that she stood motionless, and had no power to
speak — " so perplexed was she that for joy she could not believe, and yet for
joy she would not but believe.'1' How much more must have been the
astonishment and perplexity of the mother at the awakening of her child
from the sleep of death !

It is at the moment, ere joy had time to breathe, that the painter has
attempted to convey the touching and affecting interest of the scene ; and
who shall say that Mr. Eddis has not realised the idea ? We could say more
of the chaste and beautiful design, did space allow of enlargement.

Mr. Creswick has several highly finished landscapes — crisp and fresh and
green — true to nature, as one could wish to realise.

Mr. G. Herring has a pretty Twilight [455], and a " Mill on the Lake of
Como," so high up that one can scarcely see the real merits of the picture.
There is a delicacy and finish in Mr. Herring's compositions that delight us.

In the middle room, Mr. Stanfield has a noble expanse of ocean ;
glorious is the dash of the billowy surge, bearing the craft on its breakers.
" The Day after the Wreck" is one of the artist's most successful efforts ;
and there is a remarkable feature in these scenes of Stanfield, that his ships
and boats are things of life — they live and move on the billows as part of
themselves, and are inseparable from the idea of buoyancy. While in
Turner, with all his genius, however turbulent the water on which the boat
lives, they have no life in them — heavy as oak, or as a leaden trough ; one
wonders by what sustaining force they keep from sinking. This idea has
probably occurred to others, but amid all the carping criticism put forth
against that great painter, we have not seen this fault pointed out. That
Mr. Turner is a man of great genius there can be no question, and no artist
of our day has approached him in originality and daring, either in flights of
imagination or conceptions of colour. In the present exhibition there are
ample illustrations of his power and genius, which we shall not stop at pre-
sent to indicate, but take a look at a scene from the Vicar of Wakefield,
by Mr. Mulready ; the " Westonian Controversy," which is a brilliant com-
position, full of energy and originality, and shows how veteran artists
advance in strength as they increase in years. There are also two land-
scapes, of great beauty and finish, by Mr. Mulready.

There are several other pictures which we intended to have noticed, but
we have already exceeded our space, and must now leave what we have to
say about them until next month.

Art. X.— LOCOMOTIVES WITH VARIABLE POWER.

One of the objects most desirable to be accomplished in the construction of
locomotive steam-engines for railways is. the means of varying the power

to the work to be done. At present this is the great practical difficulty
against forming railways with steep gradients. The power must be suffi-
cient to carry the load up the steepest of the inclines ; consequently, when
descending or traversing more level portions of the line, there is a super-
abundance of power, and a consequent waste of steam. To provide against
this difficulty, and to render the power readily variable to suit the. varying
circumstances of the railroad, has been attempted hitherto without much
progress having been made. Some years ago an engine was constructed
for the Great Western Railway, in which there was an intermediate gearing
between the piston-rod and the crank, to prevent the inconvenience and the
loss attending the rapid alternating motion of the piston. The plan adopted,
however, was not found to answer in practice, because the interposed
wheels for transmitting and multiplying the motion soon got out of order.
The most feasible aDd the readiest mode of varying the power appears to
us to be, by an arrangement for cutting off the steam readily at any required
part of the stroke. A more purely mechanical means for effecting the same
object has been contrived by Mr. Gompertz, which possesses sufficient inge-
nuity to be worth notice, though we fear it would not be found suitable to bear
the strains, the shocks, and vibrations peculiar to rapid railway travelling.
He assumes that there is never any absolute loss of power on a railway with
steep gradients, because the extra power required for ascending is counter-
balanced by the facility of the descent. This, however, is only to view the
matter in fhe abstract, for practically there is considerable loss. The
accelerated velocity during a descent must be checked ; and to check the
speed by putting down the breaks is an absolute loss of motion, or power.
With this preface, we shall allow Mr. Gompertz to describe his own inven-
tion, to which the accompanying diagram refers : —

E is the wheel of the carriage, the flange toothed, as shown, but not
made so deep as for the teeth to touch the ground ; and F is a small
toothed wheel on the same shaft, and fixed to the wheel E, so that one can-
not move without the other, having the same angular motion ; or, in other
words, E and F may be considered as one wheel, with a large periphery
near E and a small one F ; and above this wheel are two toothed wheels,
B and D, similarly sized to the former, but reversed in position, so that the
large top wheel works in the small lower one, and the small upper wheel in
the lower large one, as shown. Those two upper wheels are not fixed toge-
ther, but are independent, and have circular holes in their centres, through,
which upper wheels a round axle passes, which is loose in the wheels as
well as in the pillars, and upon which either of these wheels can freely
turn ; but either of these can be made fast to the axle which passes through
them when required, by means of two small screws, D U, which go through
the nave, and by pressing against the axle (which should be larger than
shown) causes the wheel and the shaft to be fixed together. The same
applies to the upper wheel ; and it is the crank to which the power is
applied. Now, suppose we are going on a level road, a fast motion will
then be wanted ; consequently, what we have to do is, to tighten the screw
of the large wheel and loosen that of the small one, by which means the
large upper wheel alone will act on the small low wheel, and thus cause a
quick motion. But in going up hill the reverse is to be done : the screw of
the large wheel must be loose, and that of the small one tight, and then will
the small wheel above drive the large one below, and thus cause a slow
motion. There might be more motions than two, if required, by making
more wheels. The mode of rendering the wheels tight seems very efficient
for turning-lathes, for which the invention is also applicable ; but probably
it may not be the best way for railway carriages ; and if such should he
found to be the case, a hollow cone might be screwed between the box and
the axle, projecting beyond the axle, instead of the former screws ; or pro-
bably a coupling- box might answer the purpose.

136

Illustrations of Windsor Castle.

[June,

Art. XI.— CHANGES IN ARCHITECTURAL TASTE AND
OPINIONS.

That great diversity of opinion in matters of architecture should now pre-
vail,— that much which has hitherto been implicitly received as sound doc-
trine and unquestionable authority, should be, if not entirely set aside, no
longer universally admitted, — that views have arisen which, so far from
being generallv entertained, have till now scarcely presented themselves ;
in short, that more or less should be disturbed and unsettled, is but a natu-
ral result of the spread of architectural study. So long as this last was
regarded entirely as the affair of professional men, and so long as they con-
fined themselves exclusively to the routine system of the " Five orders,"
and to the practice of the Palladian school, there was neither appeal from
them, nor dissension among them. Criticism, as far as it existed at all,
was sufficiently indulgent — its task easy. Far from being at all fastidious or
exigeant, it was ready to applaud the mere observance of " bookish rules,"
and of those mechanical proportions in regard to the orders, which were
conceived sufficient to confer beauty under all circumstances, and atone for
the absence of all other merit. As then pursued, the very study of architec-
ture tended to exclude liberal philosophical views of it in theory, and artistic
treatment in practice. While undue stress was laid upon trivial and subordi-
nate matters — on details and individual parts, and on separate features — little
care was given to consistency of design and general effect. A few common-
place ideas constituted the extent of an architect's stock and matiriel.
Previous styles of the art were not onlv exploded, but condemned very
summarily, by mere dictatorial censure, without any tedious process of in-
quiry or argument. While the one which happened to be in vogue was
held to be the very best possible, the Gothic and old English styles were
decried as barbarous, and pronounced devoid of principles or rules by those
who were totally ignorant of their constitution, and who almost made a
merit of such ignorance, as if to have acknowledged aught of praiseworthy
in them would have been a species of infidelity towards the style which they
themselves practised or else patronized. And even ye; there are some who
lag very far behind the general advance of opinion ; for it was but a year
or two ago that we heard an essay read at an architectural society, in which
Gothic architecture was treated with the utmost contumely, as being alto-
gether capricious and lawless ; and it was asserted tbat " one man's Gothic
was quite as good as another's '." — A strange conclusion, since it might
with far greater truth be affirmed that Grecian is practised among us
so entirely by rote, that there is very little distinction in the mode of
treating it.

Such, or nearly such as above described, was the condition of architec-
ture in this country for nearly two centuries. There existed no architec-
tural public; for the number of non-professional persons who made archi-
tecture at all their study, was exceedingly limited, and they chiefly followed
in the wake of architects themselves. No doubt there was wonderful uni-
formity of opinion in those days, but there was also great drowsiness and
torpor disturbed in the latter half of the last century, only by an acquain-
tance being made with Grecian architecture, properly so called, and by the
study of Gothic being entered upon, although rather in the spirit of anti-
quarian research than with any decided views of reviving it : at any rate,
the first attempts at adopting it were so feeble and abortive, that they would,
perhaps, have confirmed prejudice against it, had not both fashion and the
love of novelty given it vogue. What were at first little better than hobby-
horse antiquarian 'peddlings,' and loose historical conjectures, pioneered
the way for a more exact and discriminating study of the style both archseo-
logically and practically. Antiquaries led on artists, and artists in their
turn led on architects, supplying and familiarizing them with examples of
various buildings and periods. Commencing with general pictorial views
of Gothic edifices, draftsmen began to aim at architectural fidelity combined
with artistic effect ; and having thus far trained themselves, and obtained
sufficient acquaintance with the leading characteristics of Gothic in its suc-
cessive phases, proceeded to delineate it more in detail, and so as to illus-
trate their subjects more completely. In addition to perspective views,
which, however truthfully executed, are only foreskortenings of architec-
tural objects, we then obtained exact geometrical and measured drawings —
what really deserved the name of architectural " illustrations."

The publications, first of Britton, afterwards of Pugin, formed a new
school of architectural draftsmanship and engraving ; but of late years pic-
tictorial representation, without any accompaniment of plans and other
explanatory drawings, or even descriptive letter-press,* has prevailed;
which is, no doubt, owing partly, if not chiefly, to the very great perfection
to which lithography has now been brought, to its superior facility of exe-
cution attending, and to the free and spirited artist-like treatment it admits
of. Consequently, while they require no other preparatory labour than that
of the artist's hand and eye, such graphic publications as those which we
have had from Haghe, Joseph Nash, and several others, are of a more
generally attractive and popular character than those which are more espe-

* Mr. Gaily Knight's work, on the " Ecclesiastical Architecture of Italy," must
be excepted from this remark, since its value and interest are greatly enhanced by
the ample historical and architectural information afforded in the text. Such is
also the case with Villa-Amil's " Espana Artistica," — a work of which it is impos-
sible to speak in terms of too high admiratiou.

daily intended for professional study. Eminently deserving, even in this latter
respect, as far as they go — not least of all so from their leading architects
to consider the value of effect as well as of design, — publications of this
class have done much towards diffusing a taste for such subjects. People
begin to find out that, merely as an (esthetic study, that of architecture
possesses an interest peculiarly its own, if only because it is so intimately
associated with history, is more or less connected with the other fine arts,
and trains up and exercises taste. Without some intelligence of the art as
an art — in which character it stands distinct, though not always distin-
guished from the practical and scientific part of building or construction —
the enjoyment to be derived from contemplating its productions is very
limited and imperfect: and this is a sufficient answer to the " Cui bono?" or,
" What is the use of it ?" which may as reasonably be asked in regard to a
hundred other matters that people apply themselves to, merely for the sake
of having a pursuit and recreation. In snch cases " trouble" becomes plea-
sure, and difficulty enhances enjoyment. Once commenced, the study of
architecture is discovered to be one fraught with interest at every step — of
course, in proportion to the degree of intelligence with which it is taken up
and pursued.

This is now beginning to be understood among us : if not yet entirely re-
moved, the barriers hitherto existing between those in the profession and
those out of it have been in a great measure broken down. As far as the
art itself is concerned, this cannot but prove highly beneficial — not, indeed,
in every individual case, but upon the whole ; because the better the public
can appreciate it, and are able to discriminate between beauties and defects,
between excellence and mediocrity, between original artistic treatment and
such as is merely second-hand and common-place, — in short, the more
capable they become of fairly judging of architecture — not only of admir-
ing, but of knowing why they admire, the more likely to encourage it both
heartily and judiciously. No doubt there would be a great deal of shallow
and false criticism afloat, yet not at all more so than there now is as regards
painting, music, poetry, and other arts, in respect to which a sort of " uni-
versal suffrage" system of criticism is tolerated. In every pursuit there
will ever be mere dabblers and pretenders ; but their influence and self-
assumed consequence diminish in proportion as the intelligence of the public
increases. This consideration may serve to allay the apprehensions enter-
tained by some who look with ill will, if not with jealousy, upon what has
been done or said of late years by persons whom they hold to be disqualified
for the office of instructing others, because not furnished with a formal pro-
fessional license — with which remark we shall here stop for the present.

Art. XII.— ILLUSTRATIONS OF WINDSOR CASTLE.

Architectural Illustrations of Windsor Castle. By Michael Gandy and
Benjamin Baud. With a concise Account of the Edifice. By John
Britton, F.S.A., &c. London : R. A. Sprigg. 1842.

This work, although it has been two years in the world, is virtually a new
one; as, owing to disputes, as we are told, among the parties concerned in
the speculation, the requisite steps have never been taken to put the work
into circulation, and it is consequently very little known. The adventure,
however, must have been one of no insignificant dimensions, for we have no
less than forty large folio plates in the volume, the cost of which alone must
have risen to a serious sum ; and it is certainly an act of singular infatuation
on the part of those interested in the sale of the work, to mar its success by
their mutual contentions. With these suicidal procedures, however, we have
nothing to do ; and our readers, we venture to say, will give themselves as
little concern on the subject ; so that we may at once pass on to the consi-
deration of the work itself.

Sir Jeffrey Wyatville, the late architect of Windsor Castle, projected, be-
fore his decease, some such work as that before us, and directed Messrs.
Gandy and Baud, who were his assistants, to prepare the necessary drawings;
and it is these drawings which are now given to the public. Mr. Britton
was to have manufactured the literary portion of this architectural ware ; so
that the work would probably have been very little different had Sir Jeffrey
Wyatville lived to see it published ; and, indeed, it is in some measure to be
regarded as his posthumous production. This circumstance cannot, of course,
affect the real merits of the work, though it may give an authority to its
statements, and inspire a confidence in the exactitude of its delineations, such
as could hardly be realized by any other agency. We do not think, however,
that Sir Jeffrey Wyatville's reputation will be anything lessened by the absence
of his name from the title-page, as the work, though of an imposing size and
appearance, is one of much mediocrity. The plates consist partly of views
of Windsor Castle, in its several aspects, and partly of the architectural de-
tails of the edifice. These details are, probably, correctly enough represented,
but the merit of such delineations is very small indeed, seeing that they are ,
such as the veriest tyro could execute ; and we certainly do not think that the
public applause will be the more effectually won by such labels as " Benjamin j
Baud, delt., 14 years with the late Sir J. Wyatville," or " Michael Gandy,
delt., 33 years with the late Sir J. Wyatville," and one or the otherof which
is appended to every plate in the volume. Mr. Baud, however, not content
with this species of advertisement, has given us, at the beginning of the work, '
a magnificent portrait of himself — thinking, we suppose, that the physiognomy

1844.]

Illustrations of Windsor Castle.

139

of a man who had drawn some mediocre views of Windsor Castle must be
an object of universal curiosity. In this we take leave to tell him he is con-
siderably mistaken ; and the only effect of the display is, to convince every
one that Mr. Baud must be a very shallow man, as well as a very vain one,
for none other would have thought of gratifying his self-love by an ex-
pedient which so effectually defeats his attempts upon the public admiration,
by the contrast it establishes between the dimensions of his merit and his
ambition.

The plates consist, as we have already stated, partly of views of the castle,
and partly of architectural details. The views are, in our j udgment, but in-
differently executed as works of art : the figures in particular are very poorly
done, though perhaps it may be, that in that class of works, mediocrity is
more transparent. Of Mr. Britton's part of the performance, it is scarcely
necessary to say more than that it is of a piece with his other architectural
perpetrations, exhibiting considerable industry and antiquarian research,
with no great reach of thought or felicity of expression. His qualities as
an author, however, will, we believe, be made more intelligible to our readers
by an extract or two, by way of specimen, than by any nice discriminations
of ours, and we have the less reluctance in giving such a specimen on ac-
count of the interest which attaches to the subject.

" All writers admit and assert that the first building on the present site was raised
by William the Conqueror ; but whether as a mere military stronghold or fortress,
or as a palace for residence, is not defined. It is mentioned in the Domesday
Survey as occupying half a hide of land, part of the Manor of Clewer. Before the
Normans had subjugated England, it is stated that Old Windsor, east of the present
town, was occupied by the Saxon monarchs; and it is also recorded that many
great Catholic festivals were held there, up to the time of Henry L, who, with his
court, formally removed to the new Castle of Windsor in the tenth year of his
reign (a.d. 1110), and to mark this event, as of national consequence, he invited
the English nobility to meet him there, and solemnise the feast of Whitsuntide
with unusual magnificence. From this circumstance it may be reasonably inferred
that the Castle bad previously been merely a military post, and probably neither of
much extent nor of great importance. Had the plan been fully laid out, and the
buildings completed by the first Norman monarch, there would probably have been
some analogy to the magnificent Norman castles of London, Rochester, Hedingbam,
Dover, &c, all of which have keep-towers of square form, and are adorned with
columns, archivolt mouldings, and other analogous dressings. These keeps are also
built on nearly level ground, within an inner or second ballium, and without a
separate and local moat. At Windsor the central, or keep-tower is raised on a
lofty artificial mound of earth, with a distinct graaf, or ditch, whilst its exterior
wall is rounded, and without an angle. In these respects it partly resembles
Clifford's Tower at York, Marlborough in AViltshire, Tunbridge in Kent, and
several others, all indicating a new and varied style from the first specimens of the
Norman castle. The English monarch being permanently seated in this palatial
fortress, and perceiving its local advantages, enlarged and strengthened the build-
ings, and adapted the whole to the purposes of a royal residence. Henceforward
almost every succeeding monarch, certainly each ensuing century, was distin-
guished by memorable events at this place.

" In 1122, the royal marriage between Henry I. and Adelaide, his second queen,
was solemnised at Windsor. Five years afterwards, David, King of Scotland, and
the English barons, assembled here to swear fealty to the king's daughter, the
Empress Maud. After the wars had ended between that lady and Stephen, this
castle was regarded as next in importance to that of London, and was committed to
the custody of Richard de Lucy, who was farmer, or steward, of the bailiwick of
Windsor. In 1170, Henry II. kept the festival of Easter at Windsor on his return
from Bretagne, when William, King of Scotland, and his brother David, were
present.

"Parliaments and religious festivals were frequently held hereby the same
monarch and his royal partner and son. During the absence of the fanatic Quix-
ote, Richard I. in the Holy Land, murdering Turks and other heretics, and sacri-
ficing the lives of myriads of European Catholics, the custody of Windsor Castle,
and of the nation, was intrusted to Hugh Pudsey, Bishop of Durham, who was
outwitted by bis more cunning colleague, William Longchamp, Bishop of Ely, then
Lord Chancellor, and was made a prisoner by him. In those eventful and blood-
stained times we find the castle alternately possessed by a bishop, a lord chancellor,
the barons, and the queen dowager. It was also the dungeon and grave of the
Baroness de Braose and her son, who had been taken prisoners by King John in
the Isle of Man, committed to this fortress, and famished. In 1215, the same
monarch sought protection and life from the confederated barons within the em-
battled walls of his own palace-prison. To this place he summoned the said
barons, who not only refused to obey the royal mandate, but compelled him to
attend their congress in Runny-Mead, or Runnimede, near Old Windsor, and
sign both his own condemnation and English freedom. ' This was the identical
spot where the great charter of English freedom {Magna CJiarta) received the sig-
nature of King John, on the 15th of June, 1215. Here, also, on the same day
he signed the Carta de Foresta ; and on the fourth day afterwards, the writ, or
precept, by which twelve knights were to be elected in each county to inquire into
abuses, and aid in carrying the provisions or the great charter into effect.' In the
following year the Castle was garrisoned, and closely besieged by a large army, but
it is said to have been ably defended by a party of only sixty soldiers."

Little further of interest appears to have transpired at the castle until the
time of Edward III., of which Mr. Britton discourses as follows : —

" The age of the third Edward is the most remarkable epoch in the annals of the
Castle ; for many and important additions and alterations were made in the domes-
tic and fortress buildings, whilst the foundation and erection of a college, with its
chapel and other works, were prosecuted. Among these was a round building,
probably temporary, said to have been 200 feet in diameter, and intended to ac-
commodate the numerous royal and distinguished guests assembled at the jousts
and tournaments connected with the festivals of the Order of the Garter. Accord-
ing to Ashmole, the first of these occurs in 1344; other authors date the first
installation in 1349; and the 'Round Table' was standing and upheld in 1357,
as appears by an Issue Roll of that date."

Many of our readers will be astonished to learn, that in these " good old
times" the king sent out officers to catch artizans of every denomination,
who were then set to work like so many galley slaves. Impressment was
not in those days restricted to the unfortunate fraternity of sailors. We
should like to see such tricks tried now among engineers, or carpenters, or
indeed any class of artizans ; neither Windsor palace, nor any other palace,
would live long afterwards.

"We find that in 1360 no less than 360 workmen were impressed for the build-
ings at Windsor, at stipulated, and, it is presumed, low wages, as some of them left
their employ to engage with other masters, but were arrested and either compelled
to return to their royal task, or sent to Newgate. Many of these men dying from
the plague, in 1 362 new writs were issued to impress 302 masons and diggers
of stone ; and in the following year glaziers were compelled into the same service.
It is presumed that the works were continued with great vigour up to the year
1373, when ' the king's palace, the great hall of St. George, the lodgings on the
east and north sides of the upper ward, the round tower, the chapel of St. George,
the canon's house in the lower ward, and the whole circumference of the walls, with
the towers and gates,' were all completed. Wykeham, full of honours and prefer-
ments, resigued his office in 1362, (36 Edw. III.), when William de Mulso suc-
ceeded to it ; and we may be certain that many and expensive works were in pro-
gress about this time, as the sum of 3,800?. was expended within the first six
months of 1343; of this sum, 9321. was paid for lead. In the following year,
3,93 M. were laid out. John, a canon of St. Katharine's, 'the king's picture-
painter,' was paid 13Z. 6s. 8rf. for a picture, with images, for the chapel ; and John
de Lyndesay received 50Z. for ' a table with figures' for the same chapel.

" In the reign of Henry VI. 100 marks per annum were allowed for the repairs
of the Castle. During Edward the Fourth's life the beautiful and original chapel
of St. George was erected, partly on the site of that built by Edward III. Richard
Beauchamp, bishop of Salisbury, was made clerk of the works, or surveyor of the
chapel, with authority to remove such buildings in the lower ward as might inter-
fere with his general plan. In the fifteenth year of the king's reign, Beauchamp
was appointed Chancellor of the Garter, an office which has descended to the bishops
of the diocese. That the work was rapidly advanced is evident from the fact, that
bells were to be hung within five years after the commencement, and contracts
were made to carve the elaborate stalls of the choir. The lead for covering the
roof does not appear to have been provided till two years afterwards, i.e. in 1430.
Some of the bishop's accounts are preserved in the Chapter-house at Westminster,
specifying materials, prices, names of persons, &c. The stone came from Caen,
Taynton in Oxfordshire, Ryegate, Milton, and Cranborne Chase. The timber wag
obtained from Ugton, Ashridge, Farnham, Wyke, and Sunning Hill, The clerk of
the works, the chief mason, the chief carpenter, were each allowed a gown ; and
the smith had the extraordinary wages of eighteen pence per day. Among these
documents are contracts with some artists and workmen, which are interesting as
connected with the anecdotes of the arts of the country. They chiefly relate to the
carvings and other ornaments of the choir. In the list of technical names are
bowtelles, entercloses, caters, tabernacles, gablettes, fenyailles, popies, trailez, crestes,
trayls, &c, and the names of Dutchmen occur among the workmen. For the
chapter-house, which was newly built, ninety yards of tapestry, with the arms of
St. George and the Garter, also two ofborde alisondre, are specified."

Additions were made to the castle in the times of Elizabeth, Charles II.,
and George III. ; but the greatest renovations were accomplished in the time
of George IV. and his successors — Sir Jeffrey Wyatville being the architect.
These restorations and additions cost vast sums of money, which were not
submitted to by the public without impatience, especially the last grant of
70,000/. for stables, about which there was a formidable outcry. The
architect is generally admitted to have acquitted himself very creditably in
harmonising the buildings of different epochs, and the work of turning a
chaos of turrets and houses into a noble edifice, was one of no small diffi-
culty. The present work shows very clearly, and we have no doubt very
accurately, what Windsor Castle is now, and is so far valuable. But it is
not a work of any high merit, either in its art or literature, and the
execution is neither answerable to the pretensions the work puts forth, nor
to the dignity of the edifice represented.

VOL. II.

Our Club

Art. XIII.— OUR CLUB.— No. XI.

" Discourse ensues, not trivial, yet not dull,
Nor such as with a frown forbids the play
Of fancy, or prescribes the sound of mirth.
' O ev'nings worthy of the gods !' exclaim'd
The Sabine bard. O ev'nings, I reply,
More to be prized and coveted than yours,
As more illumin'd, and with nobler truths,
That I, and mine, and those we love, enjoy."

The Task.

Scene — The Experimenting Room.

Present — Sir Jonah, Scalpel, Montgomery, Lardner, Jeffrey,
Gray, &c.

Montgomery {throwing open the window). Ah! this is delicious.
Even here, as in the open country, the pure air of heaven comes with a re-
freshing, delicious coolness, bearing health on its wings.

Lardner. How mighty the mechanism of nature ! What a huge labo-
ratory— and how incessant and correct in its working — to reabsorb, to
revivify, the malaria necessarily— and how much, alas! unnecessarily—
arising from vast concourses of people ! One moment's delay, the slightest
irregularity in Nature's transmuting process, and where should we be!
Verily, a great town is a standing miracle.

Jeffrey. It is, indeed, in many ways ; but more especially when we
consider the thousands of lungs that have to be supplied with pure air ; and
how, into the veriest dog-holes which the misery and folly of men, aided by
the wickedness, supine or active, of legislators, have thrust them, the life-
sustaining principle, in despite of all lets and hindrances, still forces its way.

Sir Jonah. This subject has from the first had the profound attention of
the Club. We have given, as you are aware, in the pages of The Artizan,
a full exposition of the evils, moral as well as physical, arising from this
crowding together of human beings in the lanes and alleys of our large towns.
We have shown, moreover, that most of these evils are remediable ; and have
pointed out specifically how they are to be remedied.

Scalpel. Take care, Montgomery, that you don't catch cold. I've often
known a stiff neck or a sore throat the consequence of such a heedless ex-
posure to currents of cold air. Come, come, take my advice, never poetize

at an open window, with your person in a fever-heat. Quit poetry ;
prudence — and so you will possibly avoid the rheumatism.

Gray. Weel, I protest, Mr. Scalpel, with all deference, against that creed
of yours. I canna see the great harm there is in just cooling one's body —
refrigerating yourself a wee bit, when in a scalding heat. Don't the Russian
ladies jump — I'm sure I 've read so — from a hot bath plump into a heap of
snow, without detriment to their tender bodies ? And haven't I often and
often stopped awhile, when at wark in the smiddy in times by-gone, to gie
mysel a cooler — going frae the fierce bleeze right into the cold nippin' air on
a December day, and naething the waur for it ? And the stokers on board
the steam vessels, dinna they come on deck, for a sniff of the caller breeze,
the sweat a' the while running from their bodies like — [Sir Jonah. No
vulgar similes.] — and what do any of them suffer in consequence, I should
like to ken ?

Scalpel. If they don't suffer, they deserve to, for their folly.

Gray. Na, na ; under favour I'll no be put doon in that manner by a
backhanded skelp. Somebody said o' Dr. Johnson, that when his blunder-
buss missed fire, he knocked his opponent doon wi' the butt-end thereof; and
you, I ken, wad do the same — that is, if ye could. But I appeal to Sir
Jonah — to the gentlemen generally — if I haven't facts on my side ; and
facts, you know, are stubborn things.

Scalpel {laughingly). If a truth is to be measured by its stubbornness,
you are, indeed, " a great fact."

Gray. There ! there ! Gentlemen —

Sir Jonah. I call to order.

Montgomery. Perhaps our President will vouchsafe to give us his opi-
nion on this contested point.

Sir Jonah. Our friend Alexis is, I know, a respecter of old sayings.
Here is one : — " Avoid extremes !" and again — " Extremes are dangerous."
Now, if it be dangerous to go into extremes, how much more dangerous must
it be to rush straightway from one extreme to another ?

Gray. Deftly put, I acknowledge. But I am a practical man. I stick
to facts.

Sir Jonah. Well, then, facts innumerable are every day occurring to
favour Scalpel's view of the matter.

Gray. But are there nae facts on my side also ?

Sir Jonah. I'll not gainsay that men often risk their health in the man-
ner you state, without any immediate injury thereto apparently. But even-
tually, depend upon it, they suffer from their imprudence.

1844.]

Our Club.

141

Lardner. Yes, Nature ever avenges, in some way or other, the violation
of her laws; sometimes terribly so, as I have more than once myself beheld.

Gray. If ye are a' against me, I submit o' coorse.

Montgomery. So, that is settled. {Closing the window.) And thus I
shut out the sounds of the outer world. 'Tis strange here, in the very heat
of London, amid all the rush and roar of life, to be thus secluded — isolated
therefrom ; with now and then a faint sound as of some far-off echo betoken-
ing its existence.

Jeffrey. Is it not an apt illustration of the peaceful progress of science ?
the high-priest of nature wends her way, with eye turned heavenward in
devout contemplation, elevating men's minds above the jarring elements of
this nether world into an atmosphere of serene delight ?

Scalpel. Yes, Cowper is right : — ■

" 'Tis pleasant through the loop-holes of retreat
To peep at such a world ; to see the stir
Of the great Babel, and not feel the crowd ;
To hear the roar she sends through all her gates
At a safe distance, where the dying sound
Falls a soft murmur on the uninjured ear.''

Sir Jonah. Your allusion to our present solitariness — being " in the
world, and yet not of it" — brings forcibly to mind a supposition of Watts.

Scalpel. An excellent man — one of " the salt of the earth" — my heart
always quickens at the sound of his name.

Gray. And your heart, I ken fu' brawly, Mr. Scalpel, is i' the right
place, though ye are whiles a little crusty. I never hear a man speak well
o' Watts but I think the better o' him. To my fancy, I wad rather — yes,
gie me my choice, I wad sooner — that my rhymes, like Watts's " How doth
the little busy bee" — should be lisped by the pure lips o' infancy, than hae
my sangs breathed — the incense o' love to beauty — in the halls o' the great
ones o' the earth — ay, than even sung by her Majesty hersel — God bless her!
Lardner. Yes, truly, Watts's greatness was more shown in his bending
to lisp with children the prattle of the nursery — clothing his sage morality in
the simple diction of childhood, than in his grave treatises on Logic and Di-
vinity. But we interrupt you, Sir Jonah.

Sir Jonah {Lowing graciously). That truly good and great man, in some
part of his writings — for the moment I forget where — likens the soul, im-
mured in its clayey tenement, to the occupant of a dungeon in the midst of a
populous city. Of the rush and roar of life which is around him, he knows
nothing, except at times, when the tumult is at its height, some stray sounds
may force their way even to his dungeon depths.

Jeffrey. And such intimations, dim and obscure, do we not often feel,
each in the depths of his own bosom, of a world about and above us, of
which our senses cannot take cognizance ; to draw back the curtain from
which the arm of our intellect is just too short, making ineffectual twitches
thereat ; fingering it — all but clutching it.

Sir Jonah. Break down his dungeon-walls, continues Watts, and
the freed captive walks abroad, the denizen of another world. And so,
when Death severs the soul from the body in which it was incarcerated, it
steps forth at once from darkness, or, at least, an obscure gloamincr, into
broad, open daylight — a spirit in a world of spirits, in some such fashion
as this does Watts propound the mystery of the soul's junction with the
body — that puzzle of philosophy.

Gray. If I may express mysel' freely, as your kindness has aye allowed
me to heretofore, I wad mak' bold to say, that you gentlemen of the
Artizan Club are deservin', in some sort, of the praise we have been just
givin' to Watts. I will just draw a parallel : ye maun excuse ine if I fash
your modesty a wee bit. The doctor was a great man — he could teach the
wisest : granted. And so can ye, and so ye do, as the Artizan, your own
handy work, plainly testifies. Then the doctor, moreover, could lower
himself to the level of a child's capacity. Weel, and can ye not, and do ye
not, the same? There is your other lawfully-begotten child, the Appren-
tice, wherein ye condescend, as it were, to play at marbles with the cal-
lants, like the wise men of old, teaching lessons of wisdom at the game of
taw. I tell ye, gentlemen, the parallel is complete.
Sir Jonah. Hush !

Montgomery. Why, Alexis, yen are a most consummate flatterer.
Gray. Na, na ; I am nae flatterer ava'. I hav'n't enough " soft sawder
and knowledge of human natur" for that character. I 'm a plain spoken
man. What I say, I mean. 1 tell ye, and 1 care na wha hears it — ay, Mr.
President, your reporting-box may blab it to the world : 1 see it is waggin'
awa' as if on a life or death business — I don't care — let the world know it
— I say, that in startin' the Apprentice ye have done the risin' generation
great service. It's just the thing that was wanted, I had thoughts of
startin' a periodical of the kind mysel'; but the work is now in better
hands, that 's a comfort.

Lardneu. Mr. Gray has spoken no more than the truth. The Appren-
tice was, in its way, what the Artizan had been before it — a desideratum,
for which the Club deserve all praise.

Gray. Hech, man, but what is either of these to the new work they are
aboot to set afoot ! I canna budge a foot in the streets or in the workshops
without having it dinned into my ears, " Have you heard of the New Trea-
tise on the Stearn-Engine, to he brought out by the Artizan Club?" Eh,
sirs ! this, I guess, will be the work — it will be the work of works. Every
mechanic seems to know, as if by instinct, that it will be a real oot-and-oot

practical work, goin' into the very depths of the subjects, and showin' all its
crinkum-crankums — not a nook or cranny of the matter, I warrant ye, but
what will be weel ferreted oot. " A New Treatise on the Steam- Engine!"
says one: " O, all right," says' another ; "it's by the Artizan Club."
Why, sirs, I tell ye that title is become a passport, a kind of "open,
sesame," by the use of which a book may find entrance to every workshop
in the kingdom.

Sir Jonah. I feel an honest pride in our exertions : I know that your
panegyric, Gray, though somewhat too highly coloured, is, in the main,
true.

Jeffrey. You have obtained success, in short, because you deserved it.
Though, I grant, success is not in all cases commensurate to the deserts of
an undertaking ; nor do I mean to say that it is proportionably so in yours.

Gray. Jt 's no' quite, an' that 's the plain truth ; nor will it be whilst one
mechanic is withoot The Artizan, and one youth withoot the Appren-
tice.

Lardner. These meetings have been generally enlivened with song.

Jeffrey. Yes : will you not, Montgomery, improvise on the occasion ?
{Montgomery shakes his head dissentingly.) Scalpel, what say you ?

Gray. If I might offer an opinion, there 's some chance in that quarter.
The steam appears to be up : at any rate, the water is at boilin' point.

Scalpel. You have given me the cue, Gray. I am off.

STEAM VERSES.

By his fireside, once, a man sat watching

The kettle-lid move up and down ;
No lover, his fair one's glance when catching,

No monarch, his long-sought crown

When just in his grasp, felt such a thrill

As felt this artizan, I ween.
'T was strange to see him sit so still,

Watching that kettle with glance so keen.

What sees he ? Is it a dreaming mood

That comes o'er the spirit unaware,
As we, in phantasy's visions imbued,

Sit building castles in the air ?

His children stop their boisterous play,

And crowd around his chair,
Each looking up, as much as to say —

" I wonder what Father sees there !"

His wife, her needle busily plying,

Stops short : " What could it be
That he was thus intently eyeing ?"

She looked, but nothing could she see

Save the fire burning up with a cheerful blaze,

And the kettle its steam pouring quicker and quicker,

Singing merrily, cheerily, all the while,
Like a jolly old toper over his liquor.

And the cat was blinking and dozing —

She, too, looked up with one half-opened eye

From the hearth-rug where she lay reposing,
To see if she aught new could descry.

The kettle-lid still watched he :

'T was strange to see how still he sat,

Looking with fixed gaze thereat,
As pondering some deep mystery.

See ! now he stirs — the dream is o'er ;

A long-suspended breath he draws ;
And rising with a prophet mien,

Like one deep versed in nature's laws.

Thus spake he : " Ha ! I have it now ;

At length I grasp the guiding clue ;
Thought now its purpose has achieved,

And what remains is but to do.

" I see the wondrous power in motion :

On earth it triumphs over space —
It works its way through every ocean —

And, last, through air it wings its race."

No further word from him was heard —

Straight to his workshop he withdrew :
There night and day he 'bode alway ;

And, if what neighbours say be true,

142

Survey of the Periodicals.

[June,

Thence hellish sounds would break at times-
Shrieks, groansof agony,

As though a thousand pent up fiends
Were struggling to get free.

And once a fearful crash took place —
It made the very ground to rock —

Like heaven's artillery let loose,
Or like an earthquake-shock.

But still, miraculously saved, that man,

In nowise daunted, then
Re-raised the place, and straight began

His secret work again.

So toiled he on, the whole year round,

With hope serene, until
Success at length his efforts crowned —

Such power hath human will !

And now his project stood complete ;

A mighty power it was ;
It gave to man the mastery

Of nature through her laws.

And now, in every country,

Men mould it to their will —
Power pregnant with all good,

Though terrible for ill.

Men place it at the mine's deep mouth,

The waters thence to drink ;
And soon from its insatiate maw

The element doth shrink.

From east to west, from north to south,

It flies at man's command :
Away, away, with winged speed,

It traverses the land.

And o'er the sea it hies, unheeding

The elemental strife,
O'er wind and tide alike triumphing,

Instinct as 'twere with life.

Annihilating distance so

That all men live together :
No place is distant now —

No seas dissever.

It spins, it weaves, it grinds, it ploughs —

It works for man all ways ;
Then is not this a glorious power,

Demanding all our praise ?

Alas ! that so it should, but still

Oft works it grievous wrong ;
Alike beneath its grinding tyranny

Are trampled weak and strong.

Into our crowded labour-mart,

A Juggernaut, it rushed,
And myriad human victims

Beneath its wheels were crushed.

Not always thus — a blessing cursed — •

For this it was not given ;
Man's slave, not tyrant, it should be,

And shall, if there 's a God in heaven.

Then, like a faithful servant,

Obedient to man's call,
'T will work an unmixed blessing

For one and all !

Art. XIV.— TUBULAR BOILERS.

[The remainder of the verses and the conversation which ensued we are
unable to give, seeing that the reporting-box took no notice thereof—
suddenly ceasing to work. Whether it was indeed the ruggedness of
Scalpel's doggrel that deranged its delicate machinery, as Sir Jonah wag-
gishly remarked, the Club will not take upon itself to say. Suffice it,
rtiat the magic reporter did stop.]

The boilers of the " Tagus," steamer, of which we this month give a draw-
ing, are very similar to those of the "Infernal," of which a drawing was
given in our thirteenth Number. The smoke, however, of each furnace in
this boiler is kept distinct, until it enters the funnel, by the addition of a
fore and aft water space between the tubes at the front part of each boiler,
to the end that the tubes appertaining to one furnace may be cleaned with-
out destroying the draught of the furnace adjoining. A water space is also
carried round between the foremost smoke-box and the shell, as far as the
ascent to the chimney will permit, in order to obviate any inconvenient heat
in that locality. The tubes of the boiler are of brass, 3 inches in diameter,
and of the length represented. There are 45 tubes in each boiler, a central
one being left out, in order that a stay may be introduced to bind the tube-
plates together. One at the outer superior angle of the plate is also left out
to accommodate the sweep of the boiler, and one at the inner inferior angle to
permit access through the central manhole to the space above the furnaces.
The steam-chests are placed to the one side, to facilitate their connexion by
means of steam-pipes. The ashpits are provided with doors to moderate or
arrest the draught, and the furnaces are fitted with projecting cast-iron
mouth-pieces, which are of no advantage that we can discover, and radiate
more heat than usual, to the serious inconvenience of the stokers. The
boilers carry little water, and the water-level is subject to sudden vicissi-
tudes on account of the contraction of its surface by the sweep of the boiler,
and the consequent great difference in the height of the water the addition
or subtraction of a small quantity of water causes.

The cylinders of the "Tagus" are 62 inches in diameter, and they are
supplied with steam by four boilers such as that represented. We do not
anticipate that they will be productive of any great profusion of steam.
The tube surface strikes us as being insufficient, and we fear the boilers
will be liable to prime.

Art. XV.— ANALYSIS OF BOOKS.
Polygraphia Curiosa, or Book of Initial Letters. D. Bogue. 1844.

We noticed this work approvingly, during its issue in monthly numbers, as being
of much utility to draughtsmen and others who require to make use of ornamental
letters. The work is now complete, and forms a very handsome and useful
volume.

SURVEY OP THE PERIODICALS.

Philosophical Magazine, No. CLXI. — A large portion of this number is occupied
by a paper read before the Chemical Society, in January last, by Mr. Graham, " On
the Heat disengaged in Combinations ; it being the continuation of a former paper on
the same subject. These experiments were directed with a view to ascertain the
quantity of heat evolved on saturating different acids with potash ; and they are
important, as they exhibit a correspondence between the amount of heat evolved
during neutralization, and the cold produced by afterwards dissolving the salts
formed in water. — A paper, by Mr. Grove, on the gas voltaic battery, is concluded
in this number. The principal object attempted is, to show the rationale of the
action of the gas-battery, and its applicability to the purposes of eudiometry. Mr.
Grove is of opinion, that, as nitrogen is totally without effect in the gas-battery,
that apparatus might serve as a correct means of analysing atmospheric air, by ab-
sorbing the oxygen, and leaving all the nitrogen. The arrangement of the gas-
battery, for trying this experiment, is very simple. Two tubes, one containing
atmospheric air, the other hydrogen gas, are immersed in water slightly acidulated
with sulphuric gas. A strip of platinised platinum is inserted in each tube, and
connected together with a piece of platinum wire. In the space of two days all the
oxygen is absorbed from the tube containing atmospheric air. By this process
Mr. Grove determined the proportion of oxygen in atmospheric air to be 21 per
cent., which closely approximates to the results of other modes of experimenting.
— One of the most interesting papers is contributed by Mr. Hunt, on a new photo-
graphic process invented by him, to which he has given the name of chromo-cyano-
type ; but, as this subject has been noticed in a separate article, and as another and
more simple photographic process has since been discovered by Mr. Hunt, we need
do no more than mention the subject en passant. — Sir David Brewster, who is one
of the conductors of the Philosophical, returns to the charge against Professor
Wheatstone, on the subject of vision, of which the scientific knight claims the
monopoly. The Professor contends that two eyes are better than one, and that an
object seen with one eye is not so correctly represented to the mind as when seen
with two. The heads into which Sir David divides this second lengthy article,
are, " On the Binocular Vision of Figures of different magnitudes;" " On the
Cause of the Perception of Objects in Relief by the Coalescenco of dissimilar
Pictures ;" " On the Doctrine of Corresponding Points ; " On the Vision of
Cameos and Intaglios ;" and " On the Change in the apparent Position of the
Drawings of Solid Bodies." These subjects are too extensive to be discussed
in a summary notice, but one remark will apply to the manner in which they
have been treated by Sir David Brewster. It seems to be with him, as it is
with most persons who have directed their attention much to one subject, that the
view taken of it becomes contracted within certain bounds, beyond which nothing
can be new. The beautiful construction of the eye, and its wonderful adaptation
for concentrating the rays of light on the retina, seem to have misled the worthy
knight into considering the retina as the seat of sensation, instead of being merely

1844.]

Marvels of the Day.

143

a portion of the apparatus provided for impressing the image of external objects on
the mind. Provided Sir David can trace the " lines of visible direction" to the
retina, he thinks all is made clear; seeming to forget that the eye does not see, but
is merely the organ of vision, serving the 6ame purpose as a telescope does in the
perception of distant objects. He admits, however, that, in several instances,
images impressed on the retina are not seen, and that the mind has the power of
disregarding the image on the retina of one eye, and of seeing only the image on
the other that it wills to notice. As to the question in dispute between the Pro-
fessor and the knight, it appears that in this, as most other disputed cases, they are
both right, and both wrong ; for in many instances, objects, when near, cannot be
seen so correctly with two eyes as with one; whilst distant objects, towards which
the axes of both eyes may be turned with ease, binocular vision gives a more cor-
rect idea of their form and magnitude, and renders them doubly luminous.

Fraser' s Magazine, No. CLXXIV. — Many pages of this number are devoted to
the subject of animal magnetism, in which the object of the writer is, to make a
compromise between the magnetisers and the sceptics, by the advocacy of the mo-
dified doctrine of " neurhypnotism," which ascribes the phenomena to nervous
influence, and discards the notion of a magnetic fluid emanating from one person to
another. In this respect he advocates the opinions of Mr. Braid, who has pub-
lished a work on " Neurhypnology," for the purpose of showing that the state of
nervous sleep, sometimes induced by the manipulations of the animal magnetisers,
may he occasioned equally successfully by directing the eyes stedfastly to an inani-
mate object. " Some object considerably above the level of the eye, so as to cause
the head to he thrown back a little, is the best for the purpose. This, with the
fixed gaze, produces a slight strain upon the eyes ; hence, besides the exhaustion
of the visual organ, and slight vertigo, which are the immediate and necessary re-
sults of the process, a habit of intense abstraction, or concentration of attention, is
induced, during which there is a suppressed state of the respiration, preventing the
proper and efficient purification of the blood, and interrupting the free and regular
circulation through the brain (as in common and easy respiration) ; the imper-
fectly decarbonised blood acts on the brain as a narcotic, and presently the influ-
ence is extended through the whole nervous system. And in this way precisely
the same results are produced as manifest themselves under the magnetic process."
The foregoing is a brief statement of the process of " neurhypnotism," and facts are
adduced in proof of its efficacy. It is evident that if the phenomena ascribed to
the emanation of a magnetic fluid from one living body to another, can be produced
by a similar fixed gaze on an inanimate object, it is as unnecessary as it is unphilo-
sophical to assume the operation of another cause perfectly unknown and unintel-
ligible. So far as regards the nervous sleep, Mr. Braid makes out a very satisfac-
tory case against the magnetisers, and in support of his own theory ; but, as regards
the more mysterious phenomena of clairvoyance, he seems to be at a loss. He has
no case of clairvoyance to adduce from his own process, and he is unwilling to deny
the existence of such a state, in the hope that some of his patients may, some of
these fine days, gaze fixedly at a stone until they see into it. In this difficulty he
partly denies and partly believes, and contends that some of the neurhypnotic pa-
tients exhibit a " double consciousness," approaching to clairvoyance ; and to this
extent the writer in Fraser goes along with him. All the instances of clairvoyance
that we have witnessed have appeared to us palpable frauds ; at the same time, that
to others seeing the same, they have appeared conclusive proofs of its truth ; there-
fore, when the same facts, seen by different persons, appear so opposite, it is quite
unsafe to form an opinion on the representation of facts by others. The writer in
Fraser affirms that Dr. Elliotson, with all his experience and mesmeric power, has
not met with a single case of clairvoyance, whilst other operators, exhibiting daily
in London, can make their patients see without eyes, taste without their mouths,
and describe distant objects with a marvellous facility scarcely to be surpassed by
Herr Dobler or the " Wizard of the North."

Tlie Westminster Review, No. LXXXI. — There are several papers on practical
subjects in this number, — Mechanics' Institutions, the Trinity House, Agricultural
Chemistry, the Sugar Duties, Case of the Ait Unions, and the Currency Question,
to two or three only of which we can advert, and that but briefly. The subject of
Mechanics' Institutions is considered in three divisions; first, their origin and
history; next, their condition at the present time: and thirdly, practical suggestions
for their improvement and assistance. It is to the third branch of the enquiry that
we shall confine our attention. The principle on which the proposed improvements
rest, is that of making mechanics' institutions sources of amusement as well as of
instruction. The fault of the promoters of such institutions is stated to be their
ignorance or neglect of the paramount matter of amusement ; and this view is
supported, firstly, because it would be the means of withdrawing working men from
the amusements afforded at the public-house ; and secondly, as the preliminary to
directing their attention to more useful matters. The kinds of amusement it is
proposed to supply, are works of fiction in the library, handsome decoration of the
reading-room, with the means of procuring cheap and temperate refreshment; the
admission of newspapers, lectures not too scientific, with the addition of music, dis-
cussions, the admission of females to the lectures gratuitously, occasional soirees
and excursions. The institutions thus regulated, would, it is contended, become
sources of much amusement to the working classes and to young men especially,
so that the public-houses and beershops would be comparatively, deserted. In the
principle of these recommendations we cordially concur, though we object to some of
the details. Science and useful information are found insufficient in all institutions,
even for persons whose superior education, it may be inferred, would give a greater
relish for such subjects ; and to those who, after a day's work require relaxation,
and whose taste for science has to he formed, some other inducement than merely
instructive reading or scientific lectures, is necessary to withdraw them from sensual
enjoyments. It is also suggested that the legislature should give the mechanics'
institutions a portion of the sum granted for public education. The article on
Agricultural Chemistry is a review of Dr. Liebig's valuable work on the subject ;

and without venturing any critical remarks, it undertakes to present to the reader
some of the main features of that work, and to notice two other publications by
Liebig, on animal chemistry, and chemistry in its relation to commerce. As this
paper professes to he only an abstract of the books reviewed, we cannot dwell upon
it further than to say it presents a connected account, and a well-condensed summary
of the most important parts of those publications. The article on the Sugar
Duties takes a more protective view of the interests of our West India colonists
than it might be supposed would have been by so generally an uncompromising
advocate for free trade as the Westminster. The writer contends, that in consequence
of the bungling manner in which the emancipation of the slaves was conducted, and
the hinderances in their attempts to supply themselves with free labourers, which the
planters experienced ; the latter have a claim to protection, until they are emanci-
pated from all those artificial restrictions, which would now make foreign competi-
tion fatal to them. The following is the conclusion at which the writer arrives : —
" Free and extensive emigration, with a little patient forbearance till immigration
has done its work, offers the only mode in which Englishmen can obtain the
blessing of cheap sugar without an entire abandonment of consistent principle, and
a great encouragement to slavery in its worst forms." Though we are not disposed,
to deny the West India planters time to recover themselves, it is not without con-
siderable surprise we see in such a publication as the Westminster Review, argu-
ments urged on their behalf, very nearly the same as those advanced by the
advocates for protection to the agricultural produce of this country'.

The Chemist, LIV. — The complete dependence of most of our chemical period-
icals on foreign aid for filling their pages is painfully manifested in the Chemist,
nearly every article in the present number, with the exception of two or three re-
ports of meetings of societies, being translations from French publications, chiefly
from the Comptes Rendus. Among the articles from the latter, the most interest-
ing is a paper from M. Gay Lussac, on the phenomena of respiration, for the pur-
pose of showing that the recently received opinion respecting the immediate source
of the carbonic acid evolved from the lungs requires further consideration. Ac-
cording to the theory previously adopted, the formation of carbonic acid takes
place in the lungs by the combination of the inhaled oxygen with the carbon of the
blood. The more recent theory, which has received countenance since the publi-
cation of the work on respiration by M. Magnus, supposes that the combination of
the oxygen with the carbon to form carbonic acid does not take place immediately
in the lungs, but that the oxygen is merely absorbed by the blood, that the chemi-
cal combination takes place during the circulation ; and that the blood, when it
returns to the lungs, is charged with carbonic acid, which it evolves, and absorbs an.
equivalent of oxygen, to be again combined with the carbon. In the paper by M.
Gay Lussac, he contends that the former theory is more in accordance with facts ;
and he asserts that experiments prove arterial blood to contain quite as much car-
bonic acid as venous blood, which, of course, would not be the case, if M. Magnus's
theory be well founded. Some additional experiments, to be undertaken by M.
Gay Lussac and M. Majendie conjoined, will, it is hoped, determine more satis-
factorily than has hitherto been done, the exact proportions of carbonic acid, dis-
tinct from carbon, which are contained in the blood before and after it has passed
through the lungs.

Dublin University Magazine, No. CXXXVIII. — This periodical is more and
more wandering from our orbit, which is ruled by the sun of science, and must
not be diverted by the attractions of poetry, romance, or politics, however beautiful
and interesting the forms in which they present themselves. There is one article,
indeed, on the history, government, and social condition of Prussia, that comes suf-
ficiently within our sphere to be attracted to our columns ; but the useful inform-
ation it contains would require a far more extended space for development than can
he assigned to it in this portion of our work.

Art. XVI.— MARVELS OF THE DAY.

The Duke of Wellingtons Statue. — This statue has been set up during the present
month, and is equally worthy of the hero and tLj artist. It is the finest equestrian
statue we remember to have seen.

The " Princess Mary." — This vessel, recently constructed to ply between this
country and France, carries the palm in the river, for fleetness. Messrs. Maudslay
are the constructors; and we understand the engines are on the annular principle.

A Holder for the Artizan. — We have been presented, we believe by Mr.
Dixon, of the Strand, with a species of portfolio, provided with strings, for retaining
any loose numbers of periodicals that may be desired to be preserved, and which,
we have found to be very effectual and convenient.

Decorations of the Royal Exchange. — Our native painters are considerably indig-
nant at the circumstance of Herr Sang being engaged to paint the decorative work
of the Royal Exchange, while all the time the said Herr Sang is a foreigner. We
have little sympathy, we must confess, with that narrow policy which seeks its wea-
pons in the national prejudices of countries at peace ; and if the said foreigner be
a more ahle hand than any other that is to he had, we really do not see why his
employment is to be censured. It is denied, indeed, that he is more competent, or
nearly so competent, as many persons who are to be had at home; and, for aught we
know, the denial may be well founded ; but we really think that those artists de-
serve little sympathy or encouragement who object to the employment of a painter,
not because he is unfit, but because he happens to have been born in a different lati-
tude and longitude from that which give3 them their distinction. Such contracted
sentiments can never co-exist with real talent, or the conviction of it.

144

Marvels of the Day.

From our own Correspondent. — Calcutta.

Literary and Scientific Institution. — Since my last, there have heen sundry
meetings held here, as to the establishment of an Institution founded on the ruins
of the old " Mechanics' Institution," hut which should hear a more aristocratic
designation, viz., — the " Lyceum." The Mechanics' Institution was established in
1839, on similar principles to those existing at home. The yearly subscription was
10s., but latterly the income from this source has been barely sufficient to cover
expenses. This may be judged from the smallness of the balance of the funds at
the close of last year, which amounted to 31. 6s. Its advantages were designed to be
shared by the natives — half-caste youths (Eurasians) and by mechanics ; but
unfortunately the projectors did not see that their good intentions were quite
chimerical. The natives have paid hut little attention to it ; it is true that they
do take advantage of the various seminaries and institutions for the education of
youth with which' Calcutta abounds ; but then they receive there all the learning
they aspire to ; they are enabled to read, and write English ; and as this is all they
require, either to become writers in offices, or brokers to merchants, their thirst
for knowledge there stops. They are a most apathetic race as regards everything
excepting the earning of money ; they love learning, not for its own sake, but as a
mere stepping-stone to the gaining of lucre ; and when once they reach this point,
all further intellectual acquisitions are looked upon as useless, and are totally disre-
garded. This apathy and listlessness is undoubtedly the effect of their degrading
superstitions, and their veneration for time-hallowed abuses ; and to this is to be
attributed that want of improvement which is so apparent throughout India. Much
of what I have said is applicable to the East Indian youth. They are totally differ-
ent from the rising generation at home. The climate is the cause of much listless-
ness ; but apart from this, their ideas are so contracted and imbecile, that they
cannot recognise the superiority which the man of education has over the ignoramus ;
they cannot see how superior in character and in station is the well-informed
mechanic, to the illiterate copyist ; they have no idea that the engaging in intel-
lectual pursuits is a vast source of pleasure ; and besides all this, they have an
inward notion that their mental powers are incapable of mastering science. Again,
as to the advantages to be derived by the mechanics, there are but few of that
class of men here ; and those who are residents are principally shopkeepers, who
fancy themselves to be much above either a carpenter or a mason, and carry their
heads considerably higher than their brethren of the craft at home venture to do.
I imagine the Mechanics' Institution failed chiefly from the narrowness of ideas
common to those classes from which was to be expected the greatest support. The
subscription was perhaps too small — and the building, a frightful monster, was ill
fitted for the objects in view. The new Institution is to be somewhat similar to the
London and Russell Institutions with you. The yearly subscription will be 2/. 8s.;
for which the Subscribers are to hear sundry lectures, read sundry books, and all
the home periodicals. A very different class will, in all probability, now be the
subscribers, and I daresay it will prove advantageous to them, — I mean the clerks,
or assistants, as they are more politely termed in merchant's counting-houses, who
may find it a pleasanter way of passing an evening, either in hearing a lecture, or
reading a magazine, than listening to inane and vapid conversation, drinking brandy-
punch, and smoking cheroots. The Calcutta public are not, however, a literary
public ; their supineness in literary pursuits is indeed provoking ; and I do not,
therefore, look for the Lyceum turning out anything grand. It may be kept alive
by the aid of a good showy apparatus, and some flowery lecturers, who can make
detonating experiments. There are a long list of influential names down in the
committee list; and at the grand public meeting lately held, (after several
unfortunate attempts,) no less than sixty persons managed to congregate. When
talking about magazines, I may as well give you some insight into the very moderate
charges that the booksellers here make for the periodicals. For instance, Blackwood,
Ainsworth, Bentley, Fraser, and the Dublin University, each cost here 4s., the
Metropolitan 6s., and the Quarterly and Westminster Reviews each 10s ! !

Canal between the Hoogly and Ganges. — It has long been proposed to form
a canal between the Hoogly and Ganges above Calcutta, in order to avoid
the intricate navigation of many small rivers; and this proposal appears at
last about to be carried into effect. The chief difficulty was to pitch upon good
positions on these rivers, so that the openings might not soon become closed up,
and the channel altered by any accumulation of silt. Mirzapore is the place on the
Hoogly where it has been fixed : the communication is to commence, as the
channel here is kept permanent by the action of the tides ; and Rajmahal on the
Ganges has been chosen, where the bed of the river is hard and rocky. The distance
between these places is 129 miles ; and I believe the only difficulties to be over-
come in the route, which is a perfect level, are some small streams, which run like
mountain torrents. In the absence of railways — and I conceive the time for Indian
railways has not yet arrived — this work will prove of much benefit ; it not only
shortens the distance necessary for boatB to travel, but with a safe and easy naviga-
tion, it avoids the worst parts of the many small rivers which have hitherto rendered
up-country sailing or steaming so intricate. So dangerous indeed is it reckoned to
be, that the premium of insurance on the river boats is in many cases nearly double,
and seldom less than, that charged on a vessel from India to' England. " Besides,
at many seasons of the year, several of the rivers are totally innavigable. Whereas
this canal will be suitable at all seasons for vessels drawing five feet water. The
estimated cost of construction is 384,743/. ; and it is supposed that a toll of 4s. per
100 maunds (a maund is about 821bs.) on boats passing through the canal, would
yield annually 58,000/., or 15 per cent, upon the capital. There can be no doubt
whatever as to its paying, if properly carried out; it will of course be a Government
undertaking. In my next, I may probably be able to tell you something more about
this Rajmahal canal.

The Dock Company. — There is a company here called the Calcutta Docking
Company that has been established for about seven years, and appears to be going
on flourishingly — so far at least as money affairs are concerned ; but like almost all

Joint Stock Companies in Bengal, it has fallen into the hands of a mercantile house,
who are secretaries, managers, and everything. This is the firm of a certain Parsee,
who contrives to lay hold of all the Arabs, or Bombay vessels that come here,
and require repairing, so that in this way he appears to manage very well. The
annual meeting of this company has lately been held, from which I learn that the
number of vessels docked and repaired by them during last year has been 46. The
amount of bills for work done to these craft is 23,092/., which is stated to be some-
what less than it has been in previous years ; but this apparent decrease is attributed
to the circumstance that people are becoming more knowing, and often supply their
own materials necessary for the repairs, and only pay the Company the usual com-
mission. The actual amount of profits is, however, as great as before, being for the
last year 6,725/., little less than one-third of the total amount of claims from which
this profit is realized. The capital of the Company consistB of 775 shares at 70/.
each, and their Reserve Fund amounts to 5,425/. The property at Kidderpore,
where I mentioned in my last that the East India Company were (constructing a
dock, lately belonged to the Docking Company, who sold it to the Honourable
Company for 40,000/. This amount added to the cost (estimated) for the construc-
tion of the dock, will make a total outlay of 83,000/., no inconsiderable amount
for the ' patriotic ' John Company to disburse. I have lately paid a visit to these
docks, and as far as they have been built, they appear to be a very creditable pro-
duction.

New Steam Company. — The committee of the new Steam Company have had an
interview with the Governor-General, who spoke very favourably of their project ;
so that there can now be little doubt as to their obtaining a charter. I believe that
upwards of half the shares allotted to this part of the country have already been
disposed of, and there is every prospect of the whole being soon bought up. If it
can be kept clear from jobbing, and out of the hands of any one mercantile house,
(not like our Docking or Steam Tug Companies,) there can be no question as to the
ultimate success of the scheme.

Wliolesale Sacrifice of Hill Coolies. — I mentioned to you, in my screed of March,
the shipwrecks that had lately occurred among the Cooly vessels at Mauritius, which
was chiefly to be attributed to the stinginess of ship-owners ; but I have now to
inform you of a case of gross negligence on the part of the Mauritius Cooly Protector
— (an officer appointed by Government for the protection of these emigrants) — and
which negligence has been the cause of 44 Cooly labourers dying on their way home.
The case is this ; the " Watkins" sailed from Port Louis for Calcutta, with 149
emigrants on board ; when, from the size of the vessel and her accommodations,
she could only accommodate 86. The consequence was, that before the ship had
been a fortnight at sea, five men threw themselves overboard in a fit of delirium
three of whom were fortunately picked up ; but before they reached Calcutta, 44 had,
died — a mortality of nearly 33 per cent ! After this we may talk of the horrors of
the " middle passage " the African Coolies undergo ? Much blame does certainly
attach to the master of the " Watkins " for acting so injudicious a part — if, indeed,
more sordid motives than mere want of judgment may not have tempted him ; but
it is as certainly gross neglect on the part of the Mauritius authorities, who in this
instance, have totally overlooked all legislative provisions. The majority of vessels
arrive from Mauritius in ballast ; and therefore some captains may be the more
anxious to make up for their scarcity or want of freight, by receiving as many
passengers, in the shape of return emigrants, as they can.

Asplialte. — I observe an advertisement from a commercial house here, stating
that they have received some Seyssel Asphalte. I have not heard whether it has
found purchasers or not, or whether it has been used here : but I should imagine
that it might be found very useful for the flooring of houses and bungalows, roofing
of godowns, &c. There is also an advertisement as to the sale of the Assam Steamer
— an up-country boat which I have before adverted to. Latterly I understand
her engines have not been in good order.

Steamboats and their Misliaps. — The Steam Tug Company have lately launched
another vessel, the " Francis Gordon," and celebrated the occasion by a fete. Fancy
the elite of London dancing to commemorate the launch of a tug ! ! The
Hindostan steamer anchored at the mouth of the river yesterday, and will be up
off town in the course of to-day. She is, however, two days behind the Bombay
Express, which most strangely made its appearance on the afternoon of the 16th.
The " Bcntinck," on leaving us last month, grounded for a few minutes, and had it
not been for the promptitude of the Pilot in ordering the engines to be backed,
something serious might have occurred. Another accident is said to have occurred
to her on her way from Aden to Galle. In order to obviate the nuisance from the
smell of the bilge water, they opened the seacock, which was of course placed below
the water- line, but found it impossible to shut it, the screw continually turning round
without touching the valve; and the consequence was, the lower part of the vessel
was soon completely flooded. After a great deal of difficulty they succeeded in
pinning a plank over the top of the valve, and screwing it down to an iron plate, and
thus stopped the ingress of the water. There perhaps was no real danger attendant
upon this, as the engine pumps might soon have emptied the hold ; but still it is an
awkward thing to happen, and does not tend materially to increase the comfort of
the passengere. One would suppose that this seacock might almost have been dis-
pensed with, as sufficient water could easily be supplied from the engine-hose.
We have had two shipwrecks lately at the mouth of the Hoogly, one the " Amoy,"
the other the " Columbine," which bad on board 43 boxes of treasure from China ;
luckily the treasure and crew were saved before the vessel disappeared in the
sands. " The Amoy," however, was not richly laden; and our lethargic authorities
nevor sent any assistance, or seemed to care whether the crew were saved or no ;
and up to this moment the public know nothing whatever about it, except what they
gleaned from the "Semaphoric Intelligencer," that the " Amoy was wrecked."

I suspect that we shall soon hear of rough weather in the Bay, as we have had
one or two slight storms, and very high winds here. MAC.

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THE ARTIZAN.

No. XIX.— AUGUST 1st, 1844.

<y

Art. I.— RESISTANCE OF FLUIDS.

In instituting a comparison between the performances of the screw propeller
and the common paddle-wheel, we propose in the first place, to consider the
resistance that fluids oppose to the progress of plane surfaces moving in
them. This inquiry is in some . easure imposed on us by the nature of the
subject that we have undertaken to investigate ; for, although the doctrine
of Fluid Resistance is discussed by almost every writer on the principles of
mechanics, yet we nowhere find it treated as it ought to be, when brought
into immediate connexion with steam-boat propulsion ; nor do we find it so
modified as to be directly applicable to researches of that description, when
carried out with a practical purpose. We therefore hope, that the following
propositions in reference to the resistance of fluids will be found useful ; and
the more especially so, as they are intended to introduce the reader to that
department of mechanical inquiry which has for some time back occupied a
considerable share of public attention, and which becomes more and more
interesting as the problem draws nearer and nearer to a practical deter-
mination. We allude to the comparative amount of useful effect produced by
the screw-propeller, and by the common paddle-wheel, in proportion to the
power applied in each case, all other circumstances and conditions being, as
nearly as possible, the same.

X,If any body moves through a quiescent fluid with a given velocity, or if a
fluid moving with a given velocity impinge against a body at rest, the re-
sistance or force, in either case, will be directly as the square of the velocity
and the density of the fluid. X This proposition constitutes the foundation of
all our reasoning on fluid resistance,*^: is strictly true in theory^aecording
to the hypothesis on which it resto and it is also very nearly in accordance
with the results of experiment, and may, therefore, be considered as an
established law of fluid motion. It is thus demonstrated : — The force or re-
sistance opposed to any body moving in a fluid, is proportional to the quan-
tity of fluid displaced, or the number of fluid particles struck, and the velo-
city with which they are struck ; that is, the force or resistance is directly
proportional to the velocity and the quantity of matter moved. But the
quantity of matter moved, or the number of particles struck in any time, is
directly as the -velocity and the density of the fluid. Let, therefore, the den-
sity of the fluid and the velocity of motion be put in the place of the quantity
of matter, and the truth of the proposition wuTbecome manifest. Thus, if d
denote the density of the fluid ; r the resistance which it opposes to the
motion of the solid body; and v the velocity of motion ; then, universally,
risas<7«2. This, however, is on the supposition that the surface of the
resisted body is represented by unity : hence we infer generally, that if a
plane surface moves directly forward in a fluid, the resistance opposed to its
motion is proportional to the area of the plane, the density of the fluid, and
the square of the velocity. Therefore, if a denote the area of the plane, then
r is as ad?;2. This is important, and will meet its application when we
arrive at the main point of the inquiry.

If any plane surface move directly forward in a fluid, the centre of re-
sistance (or that point at which a contrary force being applied will destroy
the motion) is the same as the centre of gravity. This is very evident ; for,
since the body moves forward in a direction at right angles to its plane, the
resistance must be equal on all equal portions of the surface ; and for this rea-
son, the resistance exerts itself in the same manner and with the same force as
gravity does : hence it follows, that the centre of resistance of the plane is
the same as its centre of gravity ; or, in other words, the centre of resistance
and the centre of gravity are situated in the same point. If any other body
besides a plane surface moves directly forward in a fluid, the direction of its
motion will pass through the centre of gravity and the centre of resistance ;
for if this be not the case, the resistance of the fluid and the weight of the
body will not equiponderate, and, consequently, the body must librate until
the positions of both the centres occur in the line of motion. This is a pro-
perty that has not always been permitted to exercise its due influence in
guiding us in our reasoning on the resistance of fluids ; and, in consequence,
erroneous conclusions have sometimes been arrived at, which would have
been avoided if this very simple and necessary principle had been properly
attended to and allowed for. As an instance of its tendency to mislead us,
we may adduce the case of a globe which, when moving in a fluid, oscillates
or turns on its axis. Now, that side of the globe which, in oscillating, im-

VOL. II.

pinges against the fluid, suffers a greater resistance than the other parts, and
for this reason, it recedes from that side where the resistance or pressure
is greatest, and tends towards those parts where it is least ; so that, instead
of tracing a straight line, as we might be led to suppose by excluding
the effect of the principle just stated, the path of the globe in the fluid might
happen to be curvilinear. It will in fact be so, until, by revolving about a
point within it, it settles with its centre of gravity and centre of resistance in%
the line of motion.

The absolute resistance which a quiescent fluid opposes to a plane surface, )
moving through it with a given velocity, and in a direction perpendicular to
its plane, is equal to the weight of a column of the fluid, whose base is the
plane, and altitude the same as that which is due to the velocity of motion ;
that is, the height through which a heavy body must fall, to acquire that
velocity by the action of gravity. The resistance which a quiescent fluid
opposes to a plane surface, moving through it with a given velocity, is the
same as the force with which the fluid, moving with an equal velocity, im-
pinges on the plane at rest. But the force of a fluid in motion is equal to
the weight or pressure which generates that motion ; and this is equal to the
weight of a column of the fluid, whose base is equal to the area of the plane,
and altitude that which is due to the velocity of motion, or the height through
which a heavy body must fall to acquire that velocity.

Put a — the area of the plane of impact in square feet ;

h = the height which is due to the velocity of motion, or that through
which a heavy body must fall to acquire the velocity by the
action of gravity ;
r = the resistance offered by the fluid to the motion of the plane, or

the force with which the fluid strikes the plane at rest ;
s = the specific gravity of the fluid ;
v = the velocity.of motion in feet per second ;
and g = 32i feet, the constant co-efficient for gravity.

Therefore, according to the first proposition, r is proportional to adv2,
where d denotes the density of the fluid ; let this symbol be eliminated by
substituting s in its place, agreeably to our present notation, and our theorem
will then be r : asv2. But by the proposition we have r = ahs; now h, by
the laws of falling bodies, is equal to the square of the velocity divided by

twice the power of gravity; that is, h = — ; let this value of h be employed

"g

instead of it in the expression for the resistance, and we obtain the following

general form, viz., r =

2<7

Consequently, in the case of river water,

whose specific gravity is 1000 avoirdupois ounces to a cubic foot, and this
again is equivalent to 62-a-lbs., the general expression for the resistance gives;

62£ a i"-
r = — -

ig

Hence, by restoring the numerical value of the symbol g ; that is, 2g = 64£,5
and reducing the terms, the specific expression for the resistance becomes

Resistance = area x velocity square x 0-9715.

Here we have a theorem of very great simplicity for finding the direct resist-
ance to a plane of a given area, when moving through water with a given
velocity ; the resistance is expressed in pounds avoirdupois, and the velocity
in feet per second ; but in practice it is convenient to express the resistance
in horses' power ; and for this purpose, the unit of time becomes a minute ;
we must therefore multiply our coefficient by 60 times the velocity in feet
per second, and divide by 33,000, and our equation for the resistance in
horses' power becomes

Resistance in horses' power = area x velocity cube x 0,00176637.

The co-efficient in this equation is rather complex, but, notwithstanding that,
the process is much more readily performed, than it would be by any of the
other expressions, to bring out the result in horses' power ; and, besides, the
labour may be much abbreviated by making use of logarithms, or employing
the contracted method of multiplication. The logarithm for the co-efficient
is 7-2470814 ; which may be used or not, at the pleasure of the operator.

_

146

Resistance of Fluids.

[July,

We shall illustrate the method of reducing the equation, by resolving a
numerical example ; but, in the first place, it may be proper to translate it
into a rule, in words, as follows : —

Rule. — Multiply the cube or third power of the velocity in feet per
second, by the area of the plane in square feet, and multiply the product
again by the constant fraction 0 00 176637, and the result will be the measure
of the resistance in horses' power.

Example. — The "Medea" steam ship, when afloat, with all her stores
on board, has an immersed sectional area of 263 square feet; and when in
motion at her average speed, with engines of 220 horses' power, she is found
to move at the rate of 11-33 English miles an hour : now, supposing that the
vessel offers the same resistance as her sectional plane, what number of horses'
power will be required to impel her at the specified speed, and what is the
relative resistance offered by the vessel and her sectional plane, admitting
that one third of the power is lost by the slip of the wheel in the water ?

A velocity of 11'33 English miles an hour, is at the rate of 16-61733 feet
per secoid; for 11-33 x 5280 ^- 3fi00" = 16 61733; therefore, by the rule
it is 16.61733 x 16-61733 x 16-61733 x 263 x 0-00176637 = 2131-675
horses' power. Hence it appears, that a plane of 263 feet area requires the
power of 2132 horses to carry it through the water at the rate of 1-1*33 miles
per hour; but, in the case of the " Medea," she is actually carried forward
at that rate by 146 horses ; for it has been ascertained that one-third of the
power of her engines is lost by the retrograding of the wheel. It therefore
appears, that the shape of a vessel has a much greater influence on the speed
than is generally admitted ; for, in the case that we are now considering, the
actual resistance, compared to that of the sectional plane, is only as 1 to 14-6 ;
a much greater difference than what might have been expected.

To carry out the computation, as represented above, by the rules of com-
mon arithmetic, is indeed a very tedious and perplexing process ; but to do it
logarithmically is comparatively easy. Here follows the operation by loga-
rithms : —

Given velocity per hour, 11*33 .
Number of feet in a mile, 5280
Number of seconds in an hour, 3600

Number of feet per second, 16*61733

16*61 733--
Immersed sectional area, 263 feet .
Constant co-efficient, 0-00176637 .

log. 1*0542299

log. 3-7226339

ar. co. log. 6-4436975

log

1*2205613
3

log. 3.6616839
log. 2*4199557
log. 7*2470814

ii

Resistance in horses' power, 2131*675 . . log. 3*3287210
In this way may the resistance of any other vessel be compared with that of
its sectional plane — the power of the engines and the speed of the vessel being
known. It is a subject of great interest in steam navigation, and has of late
years much occupied the attention of engineers and others who are interested
in the improvement of steam-boats ; and we have no doubt that if a series
of calculations, performed in this manner, were combined with the results
of experiment, and the comparison judiciously made, we might be led to
the discovery of the form which is best adapted to a steady and rapid
movement.

"We have here been considering the resistance which a fluid opposes to the
motion of a plane when moving in a direction perpendicular to its surface ;
but we have now to inquire what modification the resistance will undergo
when the surface of the plane is oblique to the direction of its motion : this
is the condition which is identified with the motion of paddle-wheels ; and for
this reason we shall endeavour to treat the subject in as plain and intelligible
a manner as possible.

If a fluid impinges against a plane surface in any oblique direction with
a given velocity, it shall impel it in a direction at right angles to its surface
with a force which is proportional to the square of the velocity of motion,
the density of the fluid, the area of the plane, and the square of the sine
of the angle of the incidence, or the angle of obliquity in which the fluid
meets the surface of the plane.

The connexion between this proposition and the floats on a common
paddle-wheel, will readily be perceived, when it is considered that, during
their motion through the water, the action of the floats is oblique in every
position but that in which they are vertical or perpendicular to the horizon ;
it is therefore necessary, in estimating the force, to reduce the oblique sur-
face of the float, in any position, to its corresponding value in the vertical.

Let AB, fig. 1, repre-
sent a section of the plane, Fig. 1.
and let CG be the direc- f r> c
tion in which it is struck
by the fluid, CAB being
the angle of incidence or
obliquity. Through the
point B draw EF parallel
to CG, including all the
fluid particles that strike
the plane, and from B let
fall the perpendicular BD ;
then it is obvious that no

th

more fluid particles can strike the plane AB, than what are intercepted b
the straight line BD, which represents a section of the stream at right angl
to its direction. Now, the force of the fluid on AB is obviously as the forci
of one particle drawn into the number of particles that strike it ; but, by the
principles of mechanics, if one body strikes another obliquely with a given
velocity, the force of impact is directly as the velocity drawn into the sine o!
the angle of incidence, and the stroke is given in a direction perpendicula;
to the surface of the body struck : hence it follows, that the force of one
particle is proportional to the velocity of motion drawn into the sine of the
angle CAB.

The number of fluid particles that strike the plane in a given time, must
obviously be as the density of the fluid and the velocity of motion drawn into
the straight line BD, which represents the section of the stream. Now BI
is equal to AB multiplied by the sine of the angle of incidence *, for, by th
principles of plane trigonometry, it is

rad. : sin. CAB : : AB : BD = AB sin. CAB.
Consequently, the number of particles striking the plane in a given time i
dv x AB sin. CAB, where d represents the density of the fluid, and v the
velocity of impact ; but, by the principle above cited, the force of a particle
is as the velocity drawn into the sine of the angle of incidence ; therefore
the whole force upon the plane to urge it in the direction CBH, at right angles
to its surface, is proportional to

dv x AB sin. CAB x v sin. CAB = dv1 x AB sin. 2CAB ;
but the force required to move the plane in the direction BH, the plane being
at rest, and the fluid in motion, is the same as the resistance which the fluid
would oppose to the plane if moving with the same velocity, and with the
same obliquity of direction to its surface. Consequently, putting r to denote
the resistance, <j> the angle of incidence, * the specific gravity of the fluid,
and a the area of the plane ; then, by substituting a for AB, s for d, and <p
for CAB, the proportional resistance is expressed in general terms, by

r:asv2 sin. 2$.

Now, in the case of water, a cubic foot of which weighs 62^1bs., the absolute
pressure on the plane is equal to the weight of a column whose base is the
area of the plane reduced for obliquity, and altitude that which is due to the
velocity : consequently, the specific form of the equation becomes
Resistance = area x velocity square x sine square angle of incidence x 0*9715.
Hence it appears, that the resistance in this case, as compared with that
which we have previously illustrated, is reduced, in the ratio of the radius
square, to the square of the sine of the angle of incidence, or the angle of di-
rection of the plane. In order, therefore, to determine the absolute resist-
ance in horses' power, we have only to multiply by 60 times the velocity, and
divide by 33,000 ; we shall then get

Resistance in horses' power = area x velocity cube x sine square of
angle of incidence x 000176637.
This expression is something more complicated than that which we have given
for the direct resistance, in consequence of its involving another term : it is,
however, easily reduced ; and the process of reduction, when expressed in
words, is as follows : —

Rule. — Multiply the cube or third power of the velocity in feet per
second, by the area of the plane in square feet, by the square of the sine of
the angle of incidence, and again by the constant co-efficient 0001 76637,
and the result will be the resistance in horses' power.

For the purpose of exemplifying this rule, we shall again have recourse to
the case of the " Medea" steam ship ; but, instead of considering her as
running right ahead, at the rate of 11*33 miles an hour, we shall conceive
her to be so influenced by the rudder, or otherwise, as to cause her to move
in a direction that makes, with her sectional plane, an angle of 75° ; what,
then, will be the direct resistance offered to her plane, all other things re-
maining as in the preceding example ?

Having in the foregoing example ascertained the velocity in feet per second,
we need not repeat that part of the process ; but, taking the calculated velo-
city, and working by logarithms, we have as follows, viz. —
Angle of the plane with the direction of motion, 75° . log. sin. 9*9849438

Velocity in feet per second, cubed, 16*617333

Immersed sectional area, 263

Constant co-efficient, 0-00176637

75

log. 9-9698876
log. 3-6616839
log. 2-4199557
log. 7*2470814

Resistance, in horses' power, 1988*8 log. 3-2986086

The reason of the decreased resistance on the transverse section is very
obvious ; for if the direction of motion were perpendicular to the plane, there
would be no decrease — everything being the same as in the preceding case :
and, on the other hand, if the direction of motion were parallel to the trans-
verse plane, it would experience no resistance ; but between these limits the
resistance will be more or less, according to the magnitude of the angle of
direction.

We beg of our readers not to misunderstand us in what we have here spe-
cified. It is not to the resistance which the vessel encounters that allusion is
here made, but only to that at right angles to the transverse plane, as influ-

1844.]

Paddle- JVIieels.

147

«nced by its position with respect to the direction of motion. This resist-
ance, however, wiil be still further reduced when estimated in the direction of
the motion ; for if CB denote the whole resistance perpendicular to the plane,
CD will be the resistance in the direction of the motion ; and BC is to CD
as radius to the sine of the angle CBD ; but CBD is equal to CAB, because
CB and BD are respectively perpendicular to AB and AC ; therefore it is

rad. : sin. <f> : : 0-0017G637 av3 sin.3 <p : CD.
Hence we get —

Resistance in horses' power = area x velocity cube x sine cube angle of inci-
dence x 0001 76637.

Now, still employing the same data in reference to the " Medea," this
theorem will be reduced by the foregoing rule, with the exception of using
the cube of the sine of the angle of obliquity instead of its square ; the pro-
'cess for the resistance will therefore be as follows, viz. —

Angle of the plane with the direction of motion, 75°

sin.3 75
Sum of the other logarithms in the above operation

log. sin. 9 9349438
3

Resistance in horses' power, 1921*1

being less than in the previous case by C7'7 horses.

log. 9-9543314
log. 33287210

log. 3-2835524

Paddle-Wheels.

The paddle-wheel, in its common arrangement, consists of a series of arms
or levers radiating from a centre, and bearmg rectangular floats or paddle-
boards, fixed on the remote extremities in such a manner that their planes,
on being produced, would cut the axis in the direction of its length. The
motion is communicated to the vessel in consequence of the wheel revolving
on its axis, and forcing the paddle-boards through the water in a direction
contrary to that in which the vessel moves. The action is therefore analogous
to that of oars — the reaction of the water performing the office of a fulcrum,
or point of resistance. The motive agent is the engine — its power being
applied to the extremity of a crank on the paddle-shaft in which the arms are
fixed, and forming therewith a series of bended levers of the second kind,
which are brought successively into action as the wheel revolves. The re-
sistance to be overcome exerts itself at the centre of the wheel, and is the
same as that which the water offers to the motion of the vessel : this resist-
ance has to be overcome by the reaction of the water on the floats or paddle-
boards ; and hence it follows, that a certain proportion of power must be
expended, to force the paddles through the water, over and above what is
required to propel the vessel ; and the sum of these powers is equal to the
mean pressure on the floats drawn into their angular velocity.

"When a steam-boat is put in motion, the resistance which it meets with
from the water gradually increases until it is equal to the moving force ; in
which case the motion becomes uniform : hence we infer, that when a vessel
has acquired a uniform degree of velocity, the resistance of the water on the
float-boards in a horizontal direction must be equal to the resistance to the
vessel in the direction of its course. This is a condition which is known to
obtain in all uniform motions ; and it is this that will direct us in our present
inquiry on the subject of fluid resistance as regards the action of paddle-
wheels.

Since the floats, or paddles, are thin rectangular boards, having the least
dimension in the direction of the arms or radii by which they are supported,
it is obvious that, if the wheel be made to revolve about its axis, every point
in the float estimated in the direction of the arms or radii will move with a
different velocity ; and, consequently, each point or horizontal portion of the
paddle-board will sustain a different resistance in moving through the water ;
and this resistance, in every case, is proportional to the square of the distance
from the centre of motion : it therefore follows, that there must be some
point on the surface of the paddle-board, into which, if the whole pressure
were concentrated, the effect would be the same as that which is produced
when the pressure is distributed over the surface in the ordinary way.

The point here alluded to is called the centre of pressure ; and if its posi-
tion with respect to the centre of motion could be readily ascertained for any
particular case, the determination of the power expended on the wheels of a
steam-boat would be a subject of no great difficulty, by applying the prin-
ciples that we have already exemplified. We are not, however, in possession
of any direct method of assigning the position of this point in all cases ; and
it is only under circumstances of a very peculiar character that its situation
has hitherto been found.

If the wheel be made to revolve about its axis while the vessel is in a state
of rest, it is obvious that every point in the arms or radii will describe a
circle, the circumference of which depends on the distance of the describing
point from the centre of rotation : this is generally the case at starting ; for
a certain momentum must be -generated to overcome the resistance of the
water, and put the boat in motion : as soon, however, as the vessel has
acquired a sensible degree of velocity, all the points in the arms or radii
describe curves that deviate more and more from circles, according to their
distance from the centre. The curve described by any single point continues
to lengthen as the velocity of the vessel increases, and it merges in a common

cycloid when the progressive motion of the vessel is equal to the circular or
angular motion of the given point. When this equality of motion obtains,
if the velocity of the vessel from thence continues uniform', the specified
point will retain its position ; and a circle described about the centre through
that point, is what we think proper to designate as the circle of rotation. It
has been called the rolling circle by writers on the theory of paddle-wheels,
but we prefer the former appellation for reasons that it is not necessary to
explain. The position of this circle will of course depend on circumstances ;
but when its radius is about two-thirds of that of the wheel, it has been
found by numerous experiments, and by calculations derived from them, to
be about the medium in practice ; for then the velocity of the vessel, in the
direction of its length, is two-thirds of the velocity of the extreme point
of the paddle-board about the axis.

Since any point in the circumference of the circle of rotation, in the course
of revolution, describes a common cycloid, any point that is situated without
its circumference will describe a curtate or contracted cycloid ; and points
.situated within it will describe cycloids of the prolate, or inflected kind ; the
former, in the case of continuity, forming a loop or node, and the latter a
point of contrary flexure. It is the curtate or contracted cycloid that more
particularly claims our attention in this place, and we shall use it for no
other purpose than to show the difference of effect produced upon the water
by the wheel when the vessel is at rest and when it is in motion.

Let PWV, fig. 2, be a representation of a paddle-wheel consisting of sixteen

paddles, and which is supposed to be fitted to a steam-vessel moving in the
direction of the feathered arrows at the bottom of the figure, the line of motion
being denoted by QR : — Our object is to trace the mutations of a single paddle
during a complete revolution of the wheel, and to lay before the reader a
sketch of the figure, which is traced in the air and in the water by each of the
paddles during its motion. Drawings of this sort are given in several pub-
lications, but the mode of their construction is not detailed ; and the prac-
tical man is, therefore, at a loss to comprehend how a wheel in motion can
actually describe a figure of so complicated a character.

It will be seen that our scheme represents the motion and the different
phases of one paddle only ; but if the paths of all the paddles were delineated
according to their place in the wheel, as referred to any particular point, the
figure would be rendered so complicated as to be perfectly unintelligible ; we
have therefore traced the course of one paddle for one revolution only; and
,if, in so far as this, it be propsrly understood, there can be no difficulty in
comprehending the nature of the figures described by all the other paddles in
succession, considering them as referred to the points at which the motion
commences and terminates in each particular case. The following details of
the construction will render the matter perfectly clear : —

Suppose the average speed of the vessel to which the wheel we are consi-
dering belongs, to be 10-62 English miles per hour, beiDg the same as the
speed of Her Majesty's steam ship " Dee," and let the engines, when work-
ing at full power, make 22 double strokes per minute ; then the distance
passed over by the vessel for one revolution of the wheel will be 42-48 feet ;
for we have 10-62 x 5280 = 5r.073'6 feet in 10"62 English miles; but 22
revolutions per minute is 1320 revolutions per hour: hence, by division, we
get 56073-6 -i- 1320 = 42'48, as stated above. There are sixteen paddles in
the wheel : it will, therefore, be convenient to represent the paddle in sixteen
different positions ; not that this bears any analogy to the positions of all the
paddles in the system, but merely as constituting a ready means of construc-
tion. Make QR the distance passed over by the vessel during one revolution
of the wheel equal to 42-48 feet, taken from a scale of any convenient mag-
nitude at pleasure ; then will Q and R respectively be the positions of the
centre of the wheel at the beginning and end of the revolution. Divide the
distance QR into sixteen equal parts of 2-655 feet each, at the points a, b, c, d,
&c, and let the circumference of the wheel be also divided into sixteen equal
parts of 22J degrees each : then, iu order that the paddle whose path we are
tracing may be in its lowest position when half the revolution is completed,
the motion must commence when it is in the highest possible situation at P.
Now it is manifest, that when the centre of the wheel is at a, the wheel has
completed a sixteenth part of its revolution, and passed over a sixteenth part
of the distance QR; and, consequently, the paddle which was originally in
the vertical position PQ, will now be transferred into the oblique position
A a, making, with the line of motion QR, the angle A a R equal to
90 - 22i = 67£ degrees. Again, when the centre of the wheel has arrived
at b, the second division of the distance QR, the wheel has performed two-
sixteenths of its revolution, and the paddle is now transferred into the posi-

148

Paddle- Wheels.

[July,

tion B b, malting, with QR, the line of motion, the angle B b R equal to
90 — 45 = 45 degrees. When the centre of the wheel is at c, the paddle
is in the position C c, making, with QR, the angle C c R equal to 22-J de-
grees ; and when the centre is at a, the paddle is in the position a h coinci-
dent with the line of distance QR. One fourth of the revolution is now
completed, and one fourth of the distance passed over; the outer edge of the
paddle having, during the motion, described the cycloidal arc PABC h, while
the inner edge has described a similar arc, which is distinctly marked in the
diagram, but not lettered, for the purpose of avoiding confusion. The vessel
still continuing her course, when the centre of the wheel arrives at e, the
paddle falls into the position D e, below the line of distance, and making
therewith the angle D e R equal to 22| degrees, being now as much below the
plane of the horizon as C c is above it. When the centre is at/, the paddle
is in the position E/ still descending ; it then makes, with QR, the angle
E/R equal to 45 degrees, or half a right angle. The centre of the wheel
being at g, the paddle coincides with F g, and the angle F^ R is 67 i degrees ;
and, finally, when the wheel has performed half a revolution, the centre is in
h, and the paddle in the vertical position G h, being then at the lowest pos-
sible point. Here it is obvious, that while the centre of the wheel has ad-
vanced forward from a to h, the outer extremity of the paddle has traced the
cycloidal arc /iDEFG; the inner extremity having traced the corresponding
and similar arc, which is left unlettered, for the reason already assigned.
Continuing the motion through the remaining divisions of the distance, the
positions of the paddle become reversed, the paddle ascending from the lowest
point at G, in precisely the coirtrary order, until it arrives at the vertical po-
sition OR, corresponding to that which it occupied when the motion com-
menced at PQ. In this case the positions passed through are H i, IJc, Kl,
hm,.Ln, Mo, and N;»; the outer and inner extremities of the paddles
having, during the motion, described the cycloidal arc H1K h LMNO, and
the similar unlettered one, which is distinctly indicated in the figure.

Exactly the same positions would be assumed by the paddle for every revo-
lution of the wheel ; and for this reason it is unnecessary to carry the de-
scription farther ; but if the motion should begin with the paddle in any other
position, different forms of figures would be generated ; but this is of no con-
sequence, since the nodus or loop formed by the paddle below the line of
distance would only) in some cases, occur at another point, but in all of them
the same effect would be produced by the paddle during the revolution.
, An attentive examination of thi* figure will develope some very curious
results. In the first place, it will be remarked, that, although the circular
velocity of the wheel on its axis is uniform, yet the extremity of the paddle
describes very unequal portions of its cycloidal path in equal times : this is
very discernable by the construction ; for if we compare the part of the curve
described during the first quadrant of the revolution with that described
during the second, it will appear that the former is more than double that of
the latter ; and, in like manner, the part described duriDg the third quadrant
is less than one-half of that described during the fourth. This is a very im-
portant circumstance in the theory of the common paddle-wheel, since it
unfolds a principle of action that is not generally acceded to or well under-
stood. It is commonly supposed that the vertical position of the paddle after
complete immersion is the most efficacious in propelling the boat. It how-
ever appears from the figure, that it is the least so, because in that position
its velocity, and consequently its horizontal and effective motion through
the water is a minimum, while, at thesame time, its vertical or ineffective
motion is a maximum. Mr. P. W. Barlow has noticed this circumstance in
his paper on paddle-wheels, in the Appendix to Tredgold on the Steam-
Engine ; but it becomes evident to the most casual observer, by inspecting
the figure ; for, let the horizontal line ST denote the surface of the water,
then is E the point at which the paddle enters, and I the point at which it
makes its exit, and EFGHI is the cycloidal arc that has been described by its
outer extremity during the immersion ; but the space EF is greater than the
space FG, and they are both described in the same time : hence the velocity
of the point E is greater in describing the distance EF, than that of the point
F in describing the distance FG. Now, since the resistance opposed to the
motion of the paddle varies as the square of the velocity, the resistance in
passing from E to F will greatly exceed the resistance in passing from F to G ;
and the same thing will hold when the paddle is rising on the opposite side
of the vertical position h G.

We have now to direct attention to the great difference between the resist-
ance offered by the water to the progress of the paddle when the vessel is at
rest, and when it is in motion. This is strikingly obvious by inspecting the
figure : for, suppose the vessel to be retained in a state of quiescence while
the engine causes the wheel to revolve upon its axis passing through Q ; then
it is manifest, that from the time the paddle enters the water at 3, and
emerges again at ji, it has displaced a quantity of fluid equal to that which is
represented by the shaded segment (3 Vfl ; but when the vessel is in motion,
it displaces in the same time a quantity which is only equivalent to the
looped cycloidal segment IHGFE, which is greatly less. We hence perceive
the reason why the engine fails in effectively bringing out its whole power
when the vessel is in motion.

What has here been said in respect of a single paddle must be understood
to apply equally to all the rest; we shall therefore dismiss this part of the
subject, and proceed to consider the remainder of the construction, as it refers
to what we have denominated the circle of rotation. This circle, which is
represented by the dotted line ruv, has been stated to be such, that the velo-
city of a point in its circumference is equal to the progressive velocity of the

vessel — the curve described by this point during the revolution of the wheel,
being the same as the common cycloid rst. From this it appears that the
circumference of the circle of rotation is equal to the space passed over by
the vessel during a single revolution of the wheel : it therefore follows, that
when the speed of the vessel is known, together with the strokes of the
engine, the position of the circle of rotation can easily be found, as follows :—

Let d denote the diameter of the circle of rotation in feet ; to, the velocity
of the vessel in English miles per hour ; and n the number of double strokes
of the engine, or revolutions of the wheel per minute ; then we have 5280 rt
for the motion of the vessel in feet, and dOn for the corresponding numbei
of revolutions of the wheel ; dividing the former of these quantities by the

latter, we get 88 — for the circumference of the circle of rotation ; and hence
n

for the diameter, it is d = , or, in a specific form, it becomes

nir

diameter = 83 x miles of speed -r- 3-I416 x number of strokes, which gives
the following rule : —

Rule. — Divide 88 times the speed of the vessel in English miles per hour
by 3"1416 times the number of strokes per minute, and the quotient will give
the diameter of the circle of rotation in feet.

Example. — The speed of Her Majesty's steam ship " Dee," when the
engines are working at full power, is 10'62 English miles, very nearly ; anc
the number of revolutions of the wheel, or strokes of the engine per minute
is 22 : what, then, is the diameter of the circle of rotation ?

Here, by the rule, we have

10-62 x 88 = 934-66, and 22 x 3-1416 = 69-1152 ;

then dividing the one by the other, we get the diameter equal to 13p52 feet
but taking it at ■§ of the diameter of the wheel, which is 19 feet 4 inches, it is
12-89 feet; giving a difference of 0-63 foot. The first determination, how-
ever, is the correct one, provided the speed of the vessel is correctly given.

We have next to consider the position of the centre of pressure ; but, as
we have already stated, there is no direct rule for calculating its position,
since it varies with every angle of the paddle, and with every change in the
depth of immersion. It is, however, customary in such cases to assume a
law which may in some measure be sanctioned by the results of experiment
and accordingly, in the present instance, it is assumed that, in slight immer-
sions, the resistance on any point of the paddle-board varies as the third
power of its distance from the circle of rotation. We do not vouch for the
entire accuracy of this assumption ; but in ordinary practice it will be found
a very close approximation, and the simplicity of its application carries its
own eulogium. The investigation is as follows : —

Put R = QV, the radius of the wheel, estimated from the centre to the
outer edge of the paddle-board ;
r = Q,r, the radius of the circle of rotation ;
c = V:, the depth of the paddle-board ;
x = any variable distance, estimated from the upper edge of the
paddle-board ;
and y = the distance between the upper edge and the centre of pressure.

Then we have (R — r) =~V r, the difference between the radius of the wheel
and that of the circle of rotation ; consequently, the differential of the resist
ance becomes { (R — r) + x\3dx, its integral is j (R — >•) + y\3S : henc
we have, when x = S,

i (R — r + o) 4 = (R — r + y) 3c ;
and if this equation be reduced in respect of y, we get

R + r.

(U — r + S)4

y = 4/ ^ '

This equation in a specific form would be more complicated than that
which it now assumes; we shall therefore retain it as it stands, and express
the method of its reduction in words as perspicuously as possible.

Rule. — From the radius of the wheel subtract the radius of the circle of
rotation, calculated in the manner already explained; to the remainder add
the depth of the paddle-board,' and divide the fourth power of the sum by
four times the depth; then, from the cube root of the quotient subtract the
difference between the radii of the wheel and circle of rotation, and the re-
mainder will be the distance of the centre of pressure from the upper edge
of the paddle.

Example. — Suppose the speed of a steam vessel, whose engines make 22
double strokes per minute, to be accurately determined at 10 62 English
miles per hour ; what is the distance between the centre of the wheel and the
centre of pressure on the paddle-board, the extreme diameter of the wheel
being 19 feet 4 inches, and the depth of the paddle-board 2 feet ?

The complete solution of the question, as deduced from the data, requires
us, in the first place, to calculate the diameter of the circle of rotation ; but,
since that was the object of the foregoing example, and because the data are
precisely the same in both cases, it is needless to repeat the process of calcu-
lation for this element. It was found by the previous process to be 1352

1844.]

Paddle-Wheels.

149

feet ; and admitting that to be its true value, the position of the centre of pres-
sure will be found as follows : —

Extreme diameter of the wheel = 19-.33 feet

Diam. of the circle of rotation = 13-52 feet, subtract

Difference of the diameters
Difference of the radii .
Depth of the paddle-board

= 5-8133, divide by 2
= 2-9067
= 2.0000

Sum = 4-9007

4-90674 = 579 64
Four times the depth of paddle = 2x4 =
579-04 -f- 8 = 72-455

log. 0-6907895
4

V

72-455 = 4-1689

log. 2-7631580

log. 0-9030900, subtract

log. 1-8600680, divide by 3

log. 0 6200227

Let this be diminished bv half the difference between the diameter of the
wheel and that of the circle of rotation, and we get 4-1689— 2-9067 = 1-2622
feet, the distance of the centre of pressure from the upper edge of the paddle-
board : hence we have 9-6667 — 2 + 1-2622 = 89299 feet, the distance
required; or, multiply by 2, it is 8 9299 x 2 = 1/-8593 feet, the diameter
to the centre of pressure.

When the wheel is deeply immersed, the formula from whence the above
process has been drawn will require some modification, the assumed exponent
being rather too high to meet the case of deep immersion ; and, accordingly,
experience has shown, that if 2'5 be substituted for 3, the resulting expres»
sion will very nearly represent the position of the centre of pressure when the
dip is considerable ; therefore, by replacing the exponent 3 in the foregoing
value of y by 2-5, we obtain as follows, viz. —

2/ = {2(R-

■r + S)

a a

35

0-4

-R +

We shall not attempt to illustrate the reduction of this formula, since the
process is so much akin to that performed above, it is presumed that no diffi-
culty can be met with in applying it ; and for this reason we conceive it
would be a waste of time to give an example in this place ; we therefore pass
it over, and proceed to the consideration of the resistance that becomes ef-
fective in propelling the vessel.

Since we have assigned the position of the centre of pressure, its angular
velocity in feet per second, corresponding to any number of strokes of the
engine, can very easily be found ; and it is the difference between this velocity
and that of the progressive motion of the vessel that becomes effective. It
must be in excess ; for, if the velocities are equal, the resistance on the paddle
is nothing ; and if the velocity of the »4teei were the greater, the resistance
would be negative ; that is, the paddle would operate to retard the motion of
the vessel, instead of propelling it in the direction of its length.

Let V denote the velocity of the centre of pressure, and v the onward or
progressive velocity of the vessel, both estimated in feet per second ; then the
effective velocity is (V — v), and the resistance on the paddle in a direction
perpendicular to its surface ; that is, the resistance on the paddle, whose sur-
face is vertical, is represented by 0-9715 a (V — 1>)2 ; that is,

resistance = area x effective velocity square x 0*9715 ;

62| + 64 a. The rule derived

where, it will be borne in mind, that 0'9715
from this equation is as follows : —

Rule. — Multiply the area of the vertical paddle in square feet by the
square of the effective velocity in feet per second, and this product again by
the constant fraction 0-9715, for the resistance sought.

Example. — Let the data remain as in the preceding cases ; but, in addi=
tion, let the paddle-board be 10 feet long and 2 feet deep ; what will be the
resistance on the vertical paddle — that is, the paddle which is at the lowest
position, and having its surface at right angles to the course of the vessel ?

By the foregoing calculation, the diameter of the wheel to the centre of
pressure was found to be 17'8598 feet, the engine making 22 strokes per
minute ; the velocity per second is, therefore, 3-1416 x 17'8598 x 22 H- 60 '
= 20-573 feet per second. The velocity of the vessel is 10-62 miles per
hour ; hence we get 10-62 x 22 -f- 15 = 15-576 feet per second. The effec-
tive velocity is therefore 20-573 — ■ 15'576 = 4-997 feet per second. Conse-
quently, by the rule, we have 10 x 2 x 4"9972 x 0-9715 =485-17 lbs.,
which, being doubled for the paddle in the other wheel, gives 485" 17 x 2 =
970-34 lbs. pressure on the vertical paddles, or the resistance to their motion
through the water.

Having now carried our investigation so far as to determine the resistance
on the vertical paddles, the next step of the inquiry leads us to the determi-
nation of the power expended by the engine in overcoming that resistance :
for this purpose, we must find the horses' power equivalent to the resistance
when impelled with the velocity of the centre of pressure, which being com-
pared with the actual power of the engine, will give the proportional part
expended on the vertical paddles. We have, therefore, to multiply the pre-
ceding expression for the resistance by 60 times the velocity of the centre of

pressure, and divide by 33,000 for the effect of that resistance in horses'
power : thus we have

Effect in horses' power = 0-00176637 a V (V — vf.
This is the result to which all the previous operations have tended ; and when
it is reduced to a specific form, it becomes

Effect in horses' power = area x effective velocity square x velocity of the
centre of pressure x 0*00176637;
and the rule for its reduction, expressed in words, is briefly as follows : —

Rule. — Multiply the resistance of the vertical paddles by the velocity of
the centre of pressure in feet per second, and again by the constant fraction
000176637, and the product will be the horses' power required.

By the foregoing example we found the velocity of the centre of pressure
to be 20-573 feet per second, and the resistance on the vertical paddles
970'341bs. : hence we have

970-34 x 20-573 x 0-00176637 = 35-2 horses.
Suppose, now, that the engine is of 200 horses' power, then the proportional
part of the power expended on the vertical paddles is 35-2 -f- 200 = -176 ;
that is, 200 : 1 :: 35'2 :: 176.

Thus we have exhibited the manner of conducting our inquiries in reference
to the common paddle-wheel ; and we humbly solicit the reader's attention to
the mode of calculation ; for it is our opinion, that if those individuals who
are in the habit of tabulating experiments would at the same time show the
method of calculation, the numerous lengthened reports that are from time to
time laid before the public would be read with a greater degree of interest.
This, we say, is our opinion ; for, excepting in coincident cases, we have
never yet been able to comprehend what advantage a practical man can derive
from reading a series of tabulated results, unless he is able at the same time
to test their agreement with theory by actual calculation of the numbers.
We have, therefore, endeavoured to analyze the steps of the process, and
have shown the method of calculating each part separately ; but we shall now
propose an independent example, in order to show the entire calculation.

Example. — By an experiment made on Her Majesty's steam ship " Rha-
damanthus," of 220 horses' power, it was found, that while her engines were
making 20 strokes per minute, her speed amounted to 10-39 English miles
per hour. The extreme diameter of the wheel is 20 feet 4 inches, according
to Mr. Barlow ; the number of paddles 16, the length being 9 feet, and depth
2-| feet ; it is required to determine the proportional power of the engine
expended on the vertical paddles, the number of strokes for full power
being 22 ?

The first step of the process is to find the diameter of the circle of rotation ;
and for this purpose we have given a very simple formula and rule, which
can easily be referred to. The operation is represented as follows, viz. —

diameter = 88 x 10-39 -•- 3-1416 x 20 = 14-55 feet.
The second step of the computation determines the position of the centre of
pressure ; and for this, also, we have given a formula and rule ; and the
process performed accordingly is as follows : —
Extreme radius of the wheel = 10-167 feet
Radius of the circle of rotation = 7'275

Difference of the two radii
Depth of the paddle-board

Sum

2-892
2-500

5-392

loa

0-7317499
4

5-3924 = 84528 .
Four times the depth of paddle = 2-5 x 4 = 10

845-28 -f- 10 =84-528
s/84-528 = 4-389 .

log. 2-9269996

log. 1-0000000, subtract

log. 1-9269996, divide by 3
log. 0-6423332

Therefore, the distance of the centre of pressure from the upper edge of the
paddle-board, is 4-389 — 2-892 = 1-497 feet : hence we get
(10-167 — 2-5 + 1-497) x 2 = 18-328 feet,
the diameter to the centre of pressure.

The third step of the process determines the angular velocity of the centre
of pressure, and that of the onward motion of the vessel in feet per second ;
and from thence the resistance on the vertical paddles : thus we have
Velocity of the centre 1 _

■39 x 22

- 18-328

of pressure . . J

Onward velocity ofl _,„.,

3-1416 x 20

the vessel

15

60 = 19-193ft. per sec.
. = 15-139

Effective velocity = 4-054 ,,
The resistance on the vertical paddles is, therefore, equal to

9 x 2\ x 2 x 4-0542 x 0-9715 = 718-49 lbs. on both paddle-toards ;
but this resistance is overcome with a velocity of 19' 193 feet per second:
hence the effect in horses' power, is

718-49 x 19-193 x 0-00176637 = 24-358 horses.
Consequently, the proportional part of the power of the engine expended on
the vertical paddles is 220 : 1 : : 24-358 : -1107; but if the engine were
working at full power, it would be 20 : 22 : : -1107 : -122, very nearly.

150

Screw Propeller.

[July,

Such, then, is the actual process of calculation that must be performed in
every case when examining the action of paddle-wheels of the common con-
struction, or those that have the paddles radiating in a direction from the
centre of the wheel. Our plan does not permit us to enter into the consider-
ation of other forms of construction, but the general principles of calculation
are very nearly the same in all.

The reader will probably be surprised at the apparently small proportion
of the power of the engine that becomes effective in propelling the vessel :
the seeming anomaly, however, will disappear, when it is considered that our
calculations have hitherto been limited to the determination of the resistance
of the vertical paddles only, without accounting for the entire effect produced
by the paddle from the time that it enters until it leaves the water.

It would carry us to too great a length to enter into an investigation of
this case ; but it may be admitted as a medium determinable by theory, that
the effect of the vertical paddle is, to the effect through the whole of the im-
mersed arc, as 4 to 7 very nearly ; and, moreover, when the immersed arc is
divided into three equal parts, with one paddle just entering the water and
another just leaving it, which is usually the case in practice, we may assume,
■without sensible error, that about three paddles and a half are constantly in
action ; the whole proportional effect of the engine in propelling the vessel is,
therefore, 0-122 x 7 x 3 § x 0-25 = 0-74725: with other vessels, and under
other circumstances, the proportional part of the power expended would be
found in the same way.

A knowledge of the position of the centre of pressure being of the greatest
importance in comparing the performances of steam vessels, we have thought
proper to lay the following Tables before our readers, as they embody much
useful information on that point.

Table I. — Showing the velocity of the centre of pressure of paddle-wheels
in English miles per hour, for any number of revolutions of the wheel from
14 to 28 per minute, and for all diameters from 13 to 21 feet.

o c oJ

K C 3

sis

Diameter to the centre of pressure in feet.

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

6-497

6-962

7-426

7-890

8-354

8-818

9-282

9-746

10-210

10-674

11-138

11-603

12067

12-531

12-995

6-997

7-497

7997

8-497

8-996

9-496

9-996

10-496

10-996

11-495

11-995

12-495

12-995

13-495

13-994

7-497

8-033

8568

9-104

9-639

10-175

10-710

11-246

11-781

12-317

12-852

13-388

13-923

14-459

14-994

7-997

8-568

9-139

9-710

10-282

10-853

11-424

11-995

12-566

13-138

13-709

14-280

14-851

15-422

15-994

8-497
9-104
9-710
10-317
10-924
11-513
12-138
12-745
13 352
13-959
14-566
15-173
15779
16386
16-993

8-996
9-639
10-282
10-924
11 567
12-209
12-852
13-495
14137
14-780
15-422
16-065
16-708
17-350
17-993

9-496
10-175
10-853
11-531
12-209
12-588
13 566
14-244
14-923
15-601
16-279
16-958
17-636
18-314
18-992

9-996
10-710
11-424
12-138
12-852
13-566
14-280
14-994
15-708
16-422
17-136
17-850
18-564
19-278
19-992

10-496
11-246
11-995
12-745
13-495
14-244
14-994
15-744
16-493
17243
17993
18-743
19-492
20-242
20-992

This table is useful in calculations respecting the centre of pressure, the
speed in English miles per hour, corresponding to the diameters for the
several vessels in the following table, has been calculated by it ; the fractional
parts being found by a proportion with the differences.

Table II. — Showing the elements of several vessels.

Name of the
Vessel.

Horses'
Power.

Diameter

of Wheel

in feet.

Number of
strokes of
Engine.

Messenger .

200

19-33

20£

Salamander

220

20-33

15

Phoenix . . .

220

20-33

21

Monarch . .

200

21-00

20*-

140

17 50

18

Firebrand . .

140

17-00

24

Fire-fly

140

17-50

20

Magnet

140

16-00

291

means

Speed
observed.

975

8-15

11-70

10-72

6-30

10-15

8-30

9-15

9-03

17-65
•18-30
18-57
19-31
15-86
15-38
1581
11-77

Speed of
diito.

12-9-4

9-83
13-92
14-13
10-19
13-18
11-29
12-39
12-23

Loss hy
slip, &c.

3-17
1-68
2-22
3-41
3-89
3-03
2-99
3-24
3-20

It therefore appears that the average loss by slip is about one-third of the
whole effective speed ; but the ratio of loss varies very sensibly for the several
vessels considered individually ; but, in general, we believe that one-third
will be very near the truth.

Screw Propeller.
The screw-propeller has now been in use for 'several years, and, conse-
quently, its properties and principles of action are daily becoming better
understood. Expeiiments have been made to test its capabilities, as com-
pared with paddle-wheels of different constructions ; and the results that have

been obtained from them demonstrate the fact, that the screw affords a mode
of propulsion which is attended with very considerable advantages, and such
as, under certain modifications of form and proportions, would assuredly
obtain for it a very considerable share of public patronage, and lead to its
general adoption.

It is not our intention to discuss the experiments that have been made for
the purpose of ascertaining its powers, nor to detail the method of conducting
them : our present object is, to compare the results that have been supplied
to us, with others of a kindred nature derived from observations on steam.
vessels propelled by the common radiating paddle-wheel. By such compa-
rison we may be enabled to show that the new mode of propulsion offers ad-
vantages of a very high order. We are not sufficiently acquainted with the
laws that regulate the action of the screw-propeller, to decide on the most
efficient and convenient form to be given to it ; but w-e shall consider it as it
was first practically applied ; being fully convinced, that whatever relations
obtain between the power and the effect in any one case, will also obtain, with.
slight variations, in all other cases of a like nature.

The form in which the screw propeller was first applied to the "Archi-
medes" steam vessel, consisted of a broad, helical surface, or feather, pro-
jecting from a cylindrical axis, which being connected with the steam engine,
was made to revolve with very great rapidity ; by which motion, the screw,
working in the water in nearly the same manner as a common carpenter's
screw works in a piece of wood, carried the vessel forward in the direction of
its length.

The propelling surface, or feather, at first consisted of a single piece, mak-
ing an entire convolution about the axis or spindle — the length of the convo-
lution being limited by the pitch of the screw : but this arrangement was
found to be inconvenient in practice, by reason of its giving a vibratory
motion to the boat, and throwing the strain too much on one side of the axis,
thereby causing an irregular action on the different parts of the system.

To remedy this inconvenience, the thread or
feather is now divided into two equal parts or half
convolutions, as represented in fig. 3 ; and these
are placed in a similar but reverse order along the
axis, by which means the action is rendered regu-
lar ; and the screw, as thus constructed, occupips
only one-half the space, while, at the same time, it
is found to be much more efficient, even with the
same quantity of propelling surface. This pre-
mised, we now proceed to consider the action of
the screw as it is developed in carrying forward the
boat ; and for this purpose we shall adopt the form
in which the projecting surface makes a complete convolution about the axis.

If, when the vessel is at rest, the engine causes the screw to revolve on its
axis without advancing forward in the water, every point of its surface will
describe a circle, the magnitude of which is proportional to the distance of
the describing point from the centre of motion ; and when the point is situ-
ated in the periphery of the projecting feather, the circle described by the
point thus situated is equal to the circumference of the screw, or to the cir-
cumference of a hollow cylinder, by which it may be conceived to be circum-
scribed.

Here it is manifest that the surface of the screw will strike the water with
a force that is due to the velocity of motion, and the water will be impelled
in a direction at right angles to the surface with a velocity corresponding to
that of the revolving feather, but varying in proportion to the distance of any
particular point from the axis.

This is the force that becomes effective in propelling the vessel ; and it will
be seen that it is greater at a greater distance from the centre — decreasing
gradually with the distance, and exerting but little propelling effect as we
approach the axis, where the velocity of the revolving surface is but small.
Again, on the other hand, if the vessel moves forward in the direction of its
length, while the screw is prevented from revolving on its axis, every point
on the surface of the projecting feather will trace a straight line equal in
length to the distance passed over by the vessel ; and, consequently, the
entire surface will describe a solid cylinder, whose diameter is equal to that
of the screw, and length equal to the distance moved ; or, in other words,
the surface of the screw will, in moving forward, displace a cylinder of water
of the specified dimensions : and, since this quantity of water must be dis-
placed with the velocity of motion, it operates to retard the progress of the
vessel ; and, consequently, the power that is required to produce the dis-
placement must, as regards the engine, be considered as lost power.

When the screw advances forward in the water, at the same time that it
revolves upon its axis, it sustains, in a certain sense, both the resistances
alluded to above — the one of them opposing the progressive motion of the
vessel, and absorbing the power of the engine, while the other endeavours to
prevent the rotation of the projecting feather, and thereby becomes effective
in propelling the boat. If the action of the propeller were perfect, the vessel
would move through a space exactly equal to the pitch of the screw, in the
same time that it revolves upon its axis : in this case, the projecting surface
would not strike the water, and put it into motion, but would simply pass
through it, in a similar manner to that in which a common screw is found to
pass through a piece of wood. In this state of things, the speed of the vessel
could very readily be found ; for, by knowing the pitch of the screw, and the
number of revolutions per minute, we have only to multiply the number of
revolutions by the pitch, and divide the product by 88, for the speed of the

1844.]

Screio Propeller.

151

vessel in English miles per hour. The speed here indicated, however, is not
realized in practice ; for while the vessel advances, the screw revolves upon
its axis, and the water recedes, or is forced back, in consequence of the im-
pulse ; and the quantity of recession that takes place is equal to the diminu-
tion of speed sustained by the vessel. This diminution of speed, or recession
of the water, is known to engineers and others conversant with steam-boat
technicalities, by the name of slip, and is analogous to that which takes place
•with paddle-wheels under similar circumstances ; the only difference consist-
ing in the form of the displaced volume of fluid. The nature of the slip will
be understood from what follows.

If we conceive the screw to be detached from the engine, and rolled upon
a plane, in a direction at right angles to the axis, and always parallel to itself,
it is evident that the periphery, or outer boundary of the helical feather, will
trace out a straight line, equal in length to the diagonal of a rectangular pa-
rallelogram, one of whose sides is equal to the length of the screw, and the
other to its circumference ; the parallelogram being equal to the expanded
surface of the cylinder, by which the screw may be conceived to be circum-
scribed.

Let ABCD, fig. 4, be the screw
in its original form, as applied to
the " Archimedes" steam-boat, and
making a complete convolution about
the axis de, the periphery or outer
boundary of the propelling surface
being indicated by the curve line
HabcC, and the diameters of its
ends by AB and DC, the length or
pitch of the screw being denoted by
de.

Conceive the screw to roll upon a
plane in a direction parallel to itself,
commencing with the points B and
C in contact with the plane ; then it
is clear that, during the rotation,
every point of the periphery B a b c C
will come successively in contact with
the plane ; and when the rotation is
complete, the points B and C, which
departed from the plane at the same
instant, will again be in contact with
it at F aDd E, and the curve line
B«6cC will have applied itself to
the straight line BE. Complete the
parallelogram BCEF, and draw the
diagonal line BE ; then it is evident
that the straight lines BE and CE
are each equal to the circumference
of the screw, or the circumferences
corresponding to the diameters AB
and DC, while BC is equal to the
length or pitch, and BE equal to the
periphery B a b c C ; the rectangular
parallelogram BCEF being equal to
the curve surface of a cylinder cir-
cumscribing the screw, or such as
has the diameter AB, and length
BC. Consequently, if the vessel

advances through a space equal to BC, in the same time that the screw
revolves upon its axis in the water, the volume of fluid put in motion, or the
effect produced, may be aptly represented by the parallelogram BCEF moved
through the space BC ; the point B, and every other point, in the periphery
of the screw, in consequence of the circular and progressive motions tracing
out a path which is equal in length to BE, the diagonal of the parallelogram.
But if the vessel, instead of moving through a space which is equal to BC, in
the same time that the screw performs a revolution, should only move through
a space equal to Bg : then the parallelogram B g h F will represent the volume
of water displaced, while the parallelogram g CE h denotes the loss of effect
arising from the slip. The diagonal B h is not now equal in length to the
periphery of the screw, but it is equal to the line that would be traced by any
point B, while the vessel moves from B to g, and the screw revolves about
its axis.

It would be difficult to calculate the slip that might be expected to take
place, corresponding to any given speed of the vessel : indeed, we are not
aware of any method of doing it a priori, and the investigation would require
a higher order of analysis than is recognized by the plan of our publication :
but in all cases, when the number of revolutions of the screw, and the abso-
lute effective speed of the vessel, are known, the slip can readily be ascer-
tained, for it is always equal to the difference between the actual speed
attained by the vessel, and the speed that ought to be attained, according to
the number of revolutions of the screw, on the supposition that its action is
perfect. Thus, let m denote the number of English miles per hour passed
over by the vessel ; n, the number of revolutions of the screw per minute ;
p, the pitch of the screw in feet ; and s, the slip per minute, also in feet ; then
we have s = np — 88 m; and the same expressed in specific terms, becomes
slip == pitch x num. rev. minus num. miles x 88.

Or it may be expressed in words, as follows : —

Rule. — Multiply the pitch by the number of revolutions per minute, and
from the product subtract 88 times the speed of the vessel in English miles
per hour, and the remainder will be the loss by slip in feet per minute.

Example. — Suppose it be found by observation that the speed of a vessel
propelled by a screw of 8-8 feet pitch, is 10 English miles per hour ; how much
is lost in consequence of the slip, the screw making 120 revolutions per
minute ?

The rule gives the following process, viz., 10 x 88 = 880, and 120 x 8-8
= 1056; the difference is 1056 — 880 = 176 feet per minute, or 2 miles
per hour.

We have here determined the loss of useful effect by means of the quantity
of slip ; but the same thing may be more legitimately ascertained by means
of the resistance overcome by the screw in its progress through the water.
It is not our intention, however, in this place to carry out the investigation ;
we shall merely show how the area of the propelling surface is to be esti-
mated ; for when this and the angle of the screw are known, the effect is
found by applying the common principles of resistance, as in the case of
paddle-wheels. Since BCE is a right angle, and the sides BC and CE given,
the hypothenuse BE can easily be found ; for, by the property of the right-
angled triangle, the square of the hypothenuse BE is equal to the sum of the
squares of the sides BC and CE : it is, however, more conveniently deter-
mined when the angle of the screw is known ; for, in that case, the periphery
is expressed without surd quantities, and for this reason the process of calcu-
lation is greatly simplified.

Let A = the area of the propelling surface estimated from the csntre of the
axis ;
r = B d = ^AB, the radius of the screw estimated to the centre

of the axis ;
<p= BEC, the angle which the thread of the screw makes with a right

line perpendicular to its length ;
7T= 3,1416, the circumference of a circle whose diameter is unity.

In the right-angled triangle BCE we have given the side CE equal to the
circumference of the screw, and the angles BEC and CBE ; consequently, the
hypothenuse BE can readily be found, for we have cos. BEC : CE : : rad. : BE ;
that is, cos. <p : 2 r tt : : rad. : BE = 2 r ■k sec. cf> ; and in a similar manner
may the length of the diagonal be found for any other value of r assumed at
pleasure. Thus, let x be any variable radius or distance estimated from the
centre of the axis ; then, the periphery of the projecting feather correspond-
ing to a radius x, and angle </>, is 27r x sec. cj> ; therefore, if S x denote an in-
definitely small increment of x, the area of the filament of the surface whose
length is 2 ttx sec. ((>, and breadth Sx, becomes 2ttxSx x sec. <p ; and
taking the integral when x equal r, we have A = r2 tt sec. <p.

Here, then, we have an expression for the area of the helical surface, on
the supposition that it reaches to the centre of the axis ; but when the axis
is of any considerable diameter, the equation will assume another form ; for,
let e be the radius of the axis, and the area of a helical surface, with a radius
e, will be e2 ir sec. <p ; consequently, by subtraction, we have

A = (r2 — e2) re sec. <p.
This equation is very easily reduced, by applying the well-known process for
finding the difference of the squares of any two quantities. The rule is as
follows : —

Rule. — MuWply the sum of the given radii by their difference, and the
product will be the difference of their squares ; then multiply the difference
of the squares of the radii by the constant number 3"1416, and the product
again by the secant of the angle of the screw, and the result will be the area
of the helical surface sought.

Example. — A screw of 6 feet diameter is fixed on an axis of 6 inches ;
what is the area of the propelling surface, supposing the angle of inclination
to be 27 degrees ? — -The process is as follows : —

Radius of the screw . . 3 feet ;
Radius of the axis . . 0'25 ,,
and the secant of 27 degrees, is 1-1223 ; hence it is

(3 + 0-25) (3 — 0-25) x 3-1416 x 1-1223 = 34-345 square feet.

It is not necessary to take any notice of the length of the screw ; for, since
the pitch is limited by the inclination, the length is also dependent on the
same element. It would be a waste of both time and labour to carry out the
inquiry further ; we shall therefore conclude, by drawing a comparison
between the effect of the screw propeller and that of the common paddle-
wheel, for the several cases previously tabulated.

We really know not whit apology to offer to our readers for the length to
which our remarks have extended ; and we must now close them, although
we have not yet compared the efficacy of the paddle and screw methods of
propulsion, as was our intention when we set out. Our observations upon
this subject we must now reserve for next month ; but we may here state
generally, that there is found to be a larger efficacy realized by the screw
than by the common radial paddle. The "Archimedes," with an immerged
midship section of 142 feet, and a superficies of screw of 26 square feet — the
screw being of 5f feet in diameter, and of 8 feet pitch — realized a speed of ,
the vessel of 100 ; whilst its speed, if the screw had been working into a
solid, would have been 129 ; and the difference between these numbers repre-

152

London Interiors, Part 1 — 33.

[July,

sents the loss by slip. In the recent experiments of the " Rattler," however,
results still more favourable to the screw have been obtained ; and in the
most favourable examples, the length occupied by the screw in the dead-wood
was only 18 inches!

Experiment with H.M.S. " Rattler," on the 27 th of June, 1844.

Speed of screw 11-246 knots per hour.

Speed of vessel 10-074 ,,

or, 10'43 per cent.

Loss by slip

1-172

Experiment with H.M.S. " Rattler," on- the 13th of July, 1844, with the
same screw.

Speed of screw 11-223 knots per hour.

Speed of vessel . . . . 10-014 ,,

Slip .... 1-209
or, 10-62 per cent.

This is a much less loss by slip than has been reached by any paddle-wheel
whatever ; and indicates very clearly, that the screw must carry the day.
Any man building a steamer now should pause before he makes her anti-
quated by the application of paddle-wheels.

Art. II.— ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS.

Although intended to be of more than ordinarily good omen, there seems
to be something of almost influence in the epithet " Royal," when bestowed
on associate bodies of artists. Whether it be merely a concomitant circum-
stance or a consequence, certain it is that the Institute has derived no vigour
or activity from the addition of that epithet to its title. What energy it has
seems to be of the vis inertia! genus, and its doings to be confined to its trans-
actions. Others, before now, have asked, " What has the Institute done ?"
and the question may be repeated, notwithstanding that no satisfactory an-
swer, or even answer of any kind, is to be looked for.

Were there really nothing for it to do beyond holding its stated meetings,
and going through the ordinary routine business of receiving papers, Sec,
which are then read by the secretary, there might be some excuse for its going
on so drowsily. Instead, however, of such being the case, there is very much
which it might accomplish — at least strive to accomplish, were it so disposed,
and were it animated by sincere heartiness in the cause of architecture ;
whereas it originates nothing, — proposes no schemes of improvement or re-
form, not even such as would tend to check notorious abuses, which at pre-
sent press so heavily upon professional men.

If the Institute cannot perceive how much there is to be done in this way,
it must be blind or supine indeed ; or, if seeing it, it lacks the power, autho-
rity, and means requisite for carrying into effect what would else be no less
attainable than highly desirable, it must be allowed to be quite impotent and
nugatory for any positive and immediate good, however respectable it may be
as a quiet society, which does not pretend to interfere at all with what is going
on out of doors. If the study of architecture has in any degree advanced, —
if a taste for it has, as we are willing to believe, increased since the time
when the Institute was first established, little thanks for it to the Institute
itself, since it has in no way — certainly in no perceptible way — contributed
thereto. Except publishing, within about the course of ten years, two volumes
of its own "Transactions," the Institute has done nothing to give' the world
indication of its existence. It certainly has not lent its aid in encouraging
individuals to undertake and bring outworks which, while they require con-
siderable pecuniary outlay, promise but a very slow return. Instead of
patronising architectural publications, even to the brief extent of purchasing
them for its own library, the Institution . seems to'expect, as a matter of
course, that a copy of every work of the kind, no matter how costly, should be
presented to it, — a species of patronage that looks very like taxation.

On one occasion, indeed, it made an attempt, or rather the show of an at-
tempt, towards reforming some of the gross abuses attending the present system
of competition. Here was a point of most serious importance, both as imme-
diately concerns the profession and the art itself; one loudly calling for re-
form, because, as at present allowed to be conducted, competitions are little
better than mere lotteries, if not downright frauds, holding out the prospect
of a chance, after it has been quietly arranged who is to be the fortunate com-
petitor. Nevertheless, and notwithstanding that means might have been de-
vised imposing some check upon what are now perfectly arbitrary and irre-
sponsible committees, and securing something like an observance of good
faith towards competitors, the matter was suffered to drop, as being one of con-
siderable difficulty ! Difficult it is no doubt, to carry into effect, for so are
all important reforms ; but then, in such case, the difficulty ought to have
been only an additional motive for energetic and uncompromising exertion, in
order to protect the worthier part of the profession from injuries against which,
as individuals, they cannot protect themselves. Why should men associate, or
form themselves into bodies at all, unless for the purposing of accomplishing,
by strenuous effort, what cannot be looked for from individual exertion ? Yet

what single benefit has been thus carried into effect by the Institute we have
yet to learn.

It might have been thought that it would, long ere this, have endeavoured
to do something towards establishing a better annual exhibition of architec-
ture than the one at the Royal Academy ; which would, no doubt, not be at
all sorry to be relieved from subjects of that kind, affording them, as it now
does, such very inadequate and evidently unwilling accommodation. A dis-
tinct architectural exhibition, not confined exclusively, as at the Academy, to
pictorial drawings, but embracing the whole extent of architectural and orna-
mental design, in all its branches, would go a good way towards giving the
art greater importance in public opinion. Instead of being, as at present,
quite a secondary portion of the general exhibition — something thrown into
the scale by way of make-weight to the pictures and to the catalogue, an exhi-
bition of the kind here suggested might not, perhaps, at first prove very pro-
ductive of shillings, and so far might turn out a poor speculation ; but it would
give architecture a more commanding position in the eyes of the public. Solong
as they are exhibited together with pictures, architectural drawings and mo-
dels have no chance of fair notice, except from those who go almost for the
express purpose of looking at them ; for seldom do they obtain even so much as
mention at all from those who write critiques on the exhibition for the news-
papers and journals ; whereas a strictly architectural exhibition must be spoken
of as such, if spoken of at all.

The establishment of a permanent "National Gallery of Architecture,"
with models and drawings, classified according to periods and styles, and
arranged in different rooms, would also tend materially to popularize the study
of the art ; therefore some scheme of the kind might, with great propriety
have been brought forward by that body which is supposed to represent it anc
watch over its interests, namely, .the Institute. Yet, either no such idea, ob-
vious as it is, has occurred to any of the members, or they have not thought i
advisable to make any stir with it, — probably because conscious that it woulc
be ill received by the majority of their brethren, who may be of opinion that
what is calculated to promote the interests of art might not help to advance
their own. Many, perhaps, there are in the profession, who think that the
public know quite enough, if not too much, already — enough to enable them
to find fault and spy out defects. Then, if such be the case, they know onl;
half enough : let them become still further acquainted with architecture, am
they will then be able to feel and enjoy beauties/ — to appreciate talent, an
to encourage it adequately. Yet, somehow or other, architects themselvei
seem rather disposed to renounce for their art all public sympathy — that kind
of sympathy, we mean, which arises out of an intelligent knowledge of and
affection for it, as a fine art.

To return from this digression, — we admit that it would be no very
easy matter to accomplish the establishment of a Gallery of Architecture, —
that it would be an attempt beset with various difficulties, obstacles, and ob-
jections ; and would be treated by some as altogether chimerical, if not wildly
extravagant. Such has been, at first, the case with many other schemes,
which have nevertheless been ultimately carried out with success, because
prosecuted with both perseverance and energy. That comparatively little
would be done at first ; — that, after a beginning had been made, advance must
be very slow and gradual ; that many years must elapse ere aught like an
adequate collection could be formed, is evident. Of all this we need not to be
reminded ; all that we ask for is a beginning. Fac periculum ; let the experi-
ment but be made, and if made with heartiness, we will engage for its success.
Let the Institute call the attention of its Royal Patron to the matter, and no
doubt its petition would be graciously received and granted.

Art. III.— LONDON INTERIORS, Part 1—33.

We are sorry to find that what is so excellent in its idea — which, though
obvious enough, had never before been adopted— should be so negligent and
unsatisfactory in its execution. It would almost seem, that, relying for public
favour upon the novelty of the work, its conductors think they may spare
themselves the trouble of bestowing any pains on it, either as regards choice
of subjects, or the treatment and execution of them. While many of the
views are of no interest whatever as views, those which are given are very
inadequately represented — certainly without any taste, and evidently without
any feeling for— we might say, comprehension of them. Mannerism of the
very worst kind, both as regards drawing and engraving, marks nearly the
whole series ; and the engraving unites the apparently contradictory faults
of excessive hardness and feebleness — of blotchy blackness without force,
without effect, and without any spirit of touch.

It unfortunately happens that the views of some of the rooms in Bucking-
ham Palace are the very poorest of all — so very unsatisfactory, in truth, that
it has been considered necessary to make an apology for one of them, and
promise a corrected plate. Royal taste — or at least the taste that is foisted
upon royalty — must be miserable indeed, if we are to judge of it by these
specimens ; it therefore becomes some consolation to feel assured that these
representations bear incorrectness upon the very face of them. All doubt as
to that is removed by Mr. Morrison's Series of Views of the Interior of Buck-
ingham Palace, in this year's exhibition of the Water Colour Society ; which,
though of no very high artistical merit, had at least that of pains- taking accu-
racy. The tlirone-room, however, was not one of them, consequently we can

1844.]

Electro-Metallurgy.

153

judge of that only from the engraving in the " London Interiors," which, we
presume, is at all events correct as to one circumstance, namely, that the
throne itself is of Gothic design, although the rest of the room is in the Louis
Quatorze fashion ! Still hardly can it be such a miserable sample of " bird-
cage Gothic" as is here shown. In some instances, instead of an interior
view, we are treated with merely a scene of figures against an architectural
background : of such sort is the plate representing a drawing-room presenta-
tion at St. James's. In itself such scene, no doubt, offers a sufficiently inter-
esting scene, as well as splendid subject, for a tableau de genre, if set off by
all the potency of brilliant colouring ; but, although in an engraving it must
of necessity be " shorn of its beams" as regards the last-mentioned quality,
there was no necessity for its consisting of a parcel of vulgar and ill-drawn
figures, devoid of either dignity or gracefulness. Fortunately, the writer has
performed his task far better than the artist, and has thrown into the letter-
press some clever and rather novel remarks : —

" A presentation at court," he observes, " is to many the height of ambition, and
such an event forms an important event in the life of aristocratic beauty, for whom
' the drawing room' possesses an irresistible, magic sound ; and although the mo-
ralist may affect to despise, the cynic to sneer at, and all good sort of people, who
philosophically abstain from ' sour grapes,' to have no aspirations for such empty
pageants, there certainly is something not. only most fascinating and imposing, hut
even soul-stirring in the ' drawing rooms' at our British court."

It was almost cruel in him, however, to mention or allude in any way to
" aristocratic beauty," when nothing but arrant dowdiness is exhibited to us
as a sample of it. In fact, instead of being, as might have been expected, far
more carefully drawn than usual, the figures in this plate are much worse
drawn, in every respect, than those in many of the others.

Neither has Buckingham Palace been at all flattered by the pencil ; on the
contrary, it is by no means so well treated as some of the other subjects, not-
withstanding that the drawings of the " State Rooms" are expressly said to
have been made in accordance with " her Majesty's commands." Those com-
mands, we suspect, have now been recalled ; for, in the notices to corre-
spondents on the wrapper of the last number we meet with the following
paragraph : —

" The Chapel of Buckingham Palace is not of sufficient architectural or general
interest to merit a place in our pages. The Gobelin tapestries given to her Majesty
by Louis Philippe are suspended from the side-w.dls. The entrance to the royal
closet, which is placed in the eastern gallery, is reached by a series of mean zigzag
staircases, from the southern side of the palace."

At any rate, the editor does not at all mince the matter here, or attempt
to pay any compliment to royal taste, since he most plainly gives us to
understand that the new chapel has nothing whatever to recommend it as a
subject for the work; which is assuredly saying a very great deal indeed,
when we look at some of those which have been " selected" — among others,
the Kitchen of the Reform Club-house. What architectural interest attaches
to this last we are utterly unable to discover ; however, not having seen it
ourselves, we must, of course, conclude that the chapel at Buckingham Palace
is, notwithstanding its array of Gobelin tapestries, of still less interest and
importance !

Art. IV.— ELECTRO-METALLURGY.

A Manual of Electro-Metallurgy. By George Shaw. Second Edition.
Simpkin, Marshall, and Co.

The art of working in metals by means of depositing them from the solu-
tions of metallic salts, has become an important branch of industry, and is
yet full of promise for the future. When the process was first announced
it was eagerly pursued, and many were the applications to which ingenious
men were disposed to direct this new power of forming metallic substances.
From the copying of medals and copperplate engravings, the earliest modes
in which electro deposits were made, they proceeded successfully to the
plating and gilding of metals; and not satisfied with confining its applica-
tion to the fine arts, and to those processes pertaining thereto, they con-
ceived the practicability of fabricating all metal artie'es by galvanism, and
superseding the handicraft productions altogether. Some of our fanciful
neighbours across the Channel also proposed to the Academie Francaise a
plan that threatened to deprive undertakers and sculptors of their means
of livelihood, by coating the bodies of the dead with copper, and thus con-
verting their metal coffins into statues, which would serve the double pur-
pose of monuments and tombs.

Some years have now passed by, and our notions of the capabilities of the
invention have become sobered. Many of the patents that were obtained
for the monopoly of manufacturing by means of electro-deposits, have
enriched none but the officers of the crown ; for, until some further advance
be made, the process is found too defective, too uncertain, and too expen-
sive, to supplant the manufacture of ordinary copper articles. It is for the
purposes of the fine arts and ornamental works, that electro- metallurgy
seems at present to be confined ; and its range within that sphere is suffi-
ciently extensive to render it an important addition to the industrial pro-
ducts of the country, and to make the process an object well deserving

VOL. II.

attention. For this purpose Mr. Shaw's Manual will be found of great
value. It contains a comprehensive account of the principal facts con-
nected with the art of electro-metallurgy, which are clearly yet scientific-
ally stated ; and it will serve as a guide to the student of the art, at the
same time that it furnishes such a record of the rise and progress of the
invention, as renders it interesting to the speculative man of science.

Mr. Shaw clearly shows that in this art, as in most other important dis-
coveries and inventions, we are not indebted to any one individual exclu-
sively, but that the invention was the result of a succession of discoveries
and observations, made during a progress of years by various scientific men
in the course of experiments, having other objects in view. The precipita-
tion of the metals by means of voltaic electricity, is the foundation of all
electro-metallurgic processes ; and so far back as 1800, Mr. Cruikshank, in
a paper in Nicholson's Journal, mentioned that he had succeeded in reducing
lead from a solution of the acetate by the agency of the voltaic pile. This,
therefore, may be considered as the first discovery on which that of the elec-
trotype was based, though on its first aspect it bore little trace of its suc-
ceeding application. In 1805 a further advance was made. A letter from
M. Brugnatelli, published in the Philosophical Magazine, announced that he
had succeeded " in depositing a film of gold on ten silver medals, by bring-
ing them into communication by means of a steel wire with the negative
pole of a voltaic pile, and keeping them one after the other immersed
in ammoniuret of gold, newly made and well saturated." This was, in fact,
the process of electro-gilding nearly as at present practised, yet for five-
and twenty years the further application of the principle was neglected, and
it was not until the end of 1830 that the subject was brought again into
notice by a paper read before the Royal Society, by Mr. Edmund Davy, who
stated that he had gilded, silvered, coppered, and tinned various metals by
the voltaic battery. Again, the invention slumbered for six years, when
further light was thrown on the applicability of this voltaic deposition of
metals by a paper in the Philosophical Magazine by M. de la Rue, wherein
hf mentions that the copperplate of the battery be was using, was covered
with a coating of copper, which, on being detached, " had the polish and
even a counterpart of every scratch of the plate on which it is deposited."
The first announcement in this country of the actual application of the prin-
ciple to the purposes of art was made in May, 1839, when the discovery of
Professor Jacobi, of the do wer of reproducing copies of engravings was made
known. Two Englishmen then rushed into the field to contest with the
Russian Professor the priority of the invention. One of theae was Mr. C.
J. Jordan, who published a letter, detailing experiments previously made,
from which it appeared he had so far succeedtd in depositing a coating of
copper, on substances as to suggest its applicability to the copying of
medals in the manner afterwards practised. Mr. Spencer, of Liverpool,
also put in his claims as an original discoverer, and between him and Pro-
fessor Jacobi the palm was for some time disputed. Mr. Shaw observes,
on the point of contested claims to discovery : " it should be borne in mind,
that the individual who will eventually be regarded as the originator of the
art cannot claim to be ranked as a discoverer ; — the art in question consists
in the application of facts already matters of notoriety to some useful or
ornamental purpose. The announcements of Mr. Jordan and Mr. Spencer
contain no discovery," — " to them belongs the merit usually reserved for
practical men ; that of applying facts which had hitherto been unapplied ; of
creating a new, beautiful, and valuable art from materials until then neg-
lected, although within the reach of all."

In Mr. Shaw's manual the operator and the man of science will find a store
of valuable information packed into close compass. It is sufficiently ample
for practical purposes without being diffuse, and while it suggests the best
practical means of attaining the desired end, it does not neglect to explain
the principles on which the process depends. He contemplates the extension
of the art of electro-metallurgy, the more its process becomes known, and
practically available. Vast improvements have been made in the mode of
silvering and gilding by its agency since the art was first practised, and
means have been found effectually to prevent the scaling off of the silver or
gold coating, which brought the earlier attempts into discredit. It is now
scarcely more than four years since the deposition of metals by voltaic
electricity was practically applied ; already has electro-metallurgy made vast
strides, and has introduced great improvements in the arts and manufactures ;
it is still in full career, and no one can fix bounds to its progress.

Art. V.— NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.

Method of preparing the Design, or Construction Drawing of a Ship.

Before any step can be taken in preparing the construction drawing of a
ship, it is indispensable that the load displacement be accurately ascertained,
as it is from this element that the requisite length is properly determined.

To ascertain the load displacement of a ship when fully equipped, it is
necessary to know the weight of the ship's hull, or the light displacement ;
of which a judgment may be best formed by making the calculations of the
light displacements of several ships of about the same size, or of the same
class, which are built similarly, and of the same species of materials as it is
intended shall be employed in building the ship about to be constructed ; the
weight of the masts, yards, rigging, sails, fittings, anchors, cables, and all

154

Naval Architecture.

[July,

other stores; the weight of the guns and ammunition, and everything con-
nected with the armament ; the quantity of ballast ; and the weight of the
crew, with provisions and water, &c.

The load displacement being ascertained, the length of the load water-line
is determined from it in the following manner, which is termed the " expo-
nential calculation :" — The ships, the dimensions of which are taken, were
constructed by Chapman, on his " parabolic" or " exponential" system, after
he had acquired great experience in constructing ships ; and they possessed
excellent qualities.

Number of Guns .

110

94

66

Displacement .

152875

128297

88722

Length ....

207-59

196-65

175-48

Breadth . . .

56-27

53-32

48-46

In the calculations, the dimensions of the 94 and 66 gun ships are used :
D is put for the displacement of the former, and L for the length ; d for the
displacement, and I for the length of the latter.

D" :d«:: L : I,
and v. log. D — log. d = log. L — log. I ;

log. L — log. I log. 196-65 — log. 175-48

or v = — 2 — = 5 5

log. D — log. d log. 128297 — log. 88722

log. 196-65 2-2936940

log. 175-48 2-2442276

00494664

log. 128297 5-1082165

log. 88722 4-9480313

0-1601852

., . 0-0494664 n ,„QC

or the exponent v = = 0 3088.

1 0-1601852

The co-efficient

L I

— or _
D" d»

log. L — v. log. D = 2-2936940-
log. of 5-2033 ;

log. l—v. log. d = 2-2442276 -
log. of 5-2033, as before;

5-10S2165 x 0-3088 = 0-7162768, the

4-9480313 x 0-3088

0-7162756, the
0-3088

and the length for all ships of the line, is 5-2033 x D
The breadth is obtained from the proportion L" : l" : : B : b,
or v. log. L — log. I = log. B — log. b,

and v ■«. —Si i£l- ; from which expression the exponent v is found to

log. L — log. I

T 09947

be 0-9947; and the co-efficient = 3-5863; and the breadth =

35863
for all ships of three decks : and for ships of the line of two decks, the
,0-8391

breadth- m6?

The length of the load water-line for frigates = 55-33 D)034014'
or 4-184 x D] *, and the breadth such th&t fjJLl-. shall give the height of

the metacentre from 6 to 7 feet above the load water-line.

The draught of water is determined according to circumstances : in general,
when ships are intended to navigate open seas, the greatest draught is rather
less than the half breadth of the ship, and the draught forward is less than
abaft, so that the ship may not be too ardent, or may not have too great a
disposition to come to the wind.

The position of the greatest transverse vertical section is from four to eight
times the distance before the middle of the load water-line that the centre of
gravity of the displacement is ; and this point should be from a fiftieth to a
hundredth part of the length before the middle of the load water-line.

This distance (£) is precisely determined = a. n + 2 ; a being the distance
from the middle of the load water-line to the centre of gravity of the dis-
placement ; and n is the exponent of the line of sections, the limits of which
are, for ships of the line, 2-5 to 2-7 ; and for frigates and smaller ships, 21
to 2-3.

The area of the midship section is obtained from the equation

Mx/x_= D;or,M'=

/ n

and the areas of all the other sections are found by tracing a parabolic line
of the reth order (re being between the limits given), whose vertex is at a per-
pendicular distance from the load water-line at the station of the midship
section, equal to the area of this section divided by any convenient number;
and the greatest ordinate for the fore-body is the distance from the midship
section to the fore part of the rabbet of the stem ; and for the after-body, the
greatest ordinate is the distance from the same section to the after part of the
rabbet of the stern-post ; (the construction drawing being to the outside
of the plank.) The abscissa; of this parabola, at any stations, will, when multi-
plied by the divisor taken for the midship section, give the areas of the sec-
tions at the respective stations.

The form of the midship section should be such that its centre of gravity
shall be at a minimum distance below the load water-line : this will so far
determine the form of the ship, that the greatest stability will be attained,
and at the same time the ship will experience the least resistance in moving
through the water.

The sections before and abaft the midship section will have the same cha-
racteristic form as this section ; and the constructor has the advantage of
knowing the areas necessary to give the sections, in order that the centre
of gravity of the displacement may be at the desired distance from the middle
of the load water-line.

The load water-line may be formed so that its centre of gravity shall be
something abaft the centre of gravity of the displacement : the after sections
will " run off" well, when the exponent of this line, r = 2 n ; the breadth of
this line should be continued for a considerable distance forward and abaft :
a parabolic line, having its vertex at the middle of the load water-line, will
assimilate exactly to the form recommended for this line.

The lower water-lines should run off without any hollow at the fore part
which will give to the ship the form best adapted for dividing and dispersing
the water.

Method of constructing a Parabolic Line for the Line of Sections of a
Frigate.

Length of the load water-line

Breadth of ditto ....

Load displacement ....

Exponent of line of sections

Exponent of load water-line

Centre of gravity of displacement before!

middle of ditto
Midship section before ditto

Parabolic Line of Sections n = 2-2.
Fore-body.

140 feet.

39

11

37537

11

n

= 2-2

r

= 4-5

11

\

2-38

11

10

11

Scale, ^th of an inch to a foot.

The distance from the midship section to the fore part of the rabbet of the
stem is 60 feet.

The area of section, 390 feet ; which divided by the breadth of the ship,
gives 10 for the greatest ordinate of the line of sections : that is,

x = 10, y = 60, and n = 2-2 ;
and substituting these values in the equation yn = a x, we have

60

2-2

log. 60
log. 10

10 a, and 2-2 x log. 60 — log. 10 = log. a

. . 1-7781513 x 2-2 =3-91193286
1-000000

2-91193286
When y fe 20 . . . . log. 20 x 2-2 — log. a = log. x
log. 20 . . 1-3010300 x 2-2 = 286226600
l°g-« 2-91193286

. log. or.

— 1-95033314 . . . . . log. -89193 = x.
In the same manner the other values of a? are calculated for any values ofy.

Values of y.

Values of x.

20
30
40
50

8-9193
2-1764
4-0983
6-6958

1844.]

Railway Legislation.

155

The distance from the midship section to the after part of the rabbet of the
stern-post, is 80 feet : by dividing this distance into the same number of
equal parts as the fore part is divided into, the abscissa? at the corresponding
divisions are equal by a property of the parabola, and the after part of the
line of sections is constructed without the labour of calculating the values
of x. The areas of all the sections forward and abaft are obtained from
the line so constructed : for example, at section 5, a b, the abscissa is 6'6958,
and be — 3-3242, which multiplied by 39, the divisor of the midship section,
gives 129-6438 feet for the area of the section.

Art. VI.— THE NUNHEAD COMPETITION.

It has but lately come to our knowledge that there was, some months ago,
a " public" exhibition of the competition designs for the chapels at the Nun-
head Cemetery ; for the whole affair seems to have been conducted, if not
with studied secrecy, so very quietly, that notwithstanding the publicity pro-
fessed to be given to it by submitting the drawings to general inspection,
scarcely any one seems to have heard of it. That an exhibition of the kind —
certainly no every-day matter — should have so completely escaped notice, and
even mention, would be incomprehensible, were it not for the fact that it
continued only two days ! although even two months would have been but
barely sufficient time, if, as we are assured, it was really intended to elicit fur-
ther opinion as to the merits of the designs, and ascertain how far the two
premiums had been rightfully awarded.

The number of the competitors and sets of designs was not less than sixty-
five, and that of the separate drawings amounted to upwards of four hundred,
therefore, merely to have a general glance at the exhibition, at the rate of a
•minute — not a minute — examination of each design, would have been a good
hour's work. Accordingly, whatever was the exhibition itself, marvellous was
the expedition with which it was dispatched — in the approved legerdemain
style.

To say the truth, it was marvellous that there was anything of the kind at
all ; for most assuredly the exhibition of the designs was neither recommended
nor sanctioned by Sir Robert Smirke, who, in this instance, took a very im-
portant part in competition, having consented, at the request of the com-
mittee, to take entirely upon himself the office of awarding the two premiums.
Like a second Paris, he was left to adjudge the apple to whomever he might
think fit, without being aided or embarrassed by the opinion of a colleague.
Without pretending to question either his judgment or his justice, we think,
however, that his response to the committee would have been more satisfac-
tory had it been delivered somewhat less oracularly, and had he condescended
to allege something like reasons for making the choice he did. Instead of doing
so, he drily tells them, " I am of opinion, the author of the design, No. 16,
(comprising thirteen drawings,) is entitled to the first premium ; and the author
of No. 55, (comprising fifteen drawings,) to the second premium." As Sir
Robert declined pointing out, at the request of the committee, three others
next in merit to the two selected by him for the premiums, it may be sup-
posed that he could perceive none approximating to them, except lonyo in-
teroallo. Two, however, are exhibited at the Royal Academy, one by Mr.
Allom ; the other, a model, by Mr. R. Brandon, which, it might be supposed,
would have forcibly recommended itself to Sir Robert's notice — we might
say his study, on account of the unusual and novel kind of effect produced by
depth of portico and continuity of columniation. It might, indeed, be urged
against it, that it would be just as suitable for a " British Museum" as a
cemetery chapel — in the eyes of many, far more suitable for the former than
is the design which has been adopted, and which, in fulness of time, will ren-
der Great Russell-street the focus of classicality.

Art. VII.— RAILWAY LEGISLATION.

The railways of Great Britain are an imperishable monument of the
genius, enterprise, and perseverance of her people. Without any aid from
government have her artizans contrived, and her capitalists created, those
mighty arteries of intercourse which tie together the uttermost ends of the
land, subverting all pre-existing ideas of time and space, and working the
dissolution of all other methods of locomotion. Yet the railway system has
by no means even now arrived at it its full development. It is only fifteen
years old, and since its birth two thousand miles of railways have been
constructed in this country, at an outlay of seventy millions sterling, and
bills are now in Parliament to authorise the construction of six hundred
miles more : yet, with this giant stature, the system has scarcely yet
reached the period of adolescence, and its past successes must be viewed
chiefly as an augury of the grand achievements which wait upon its matur-
ity. An instrument of commuuication so powerful is obviously calculated
to be productive of incalculable benefit to the community ; but, in conse-
quence of the apathy of the government, its energies have been seized upon
b)r a confederacy of monopolists, and the public are in some dangerof being
defrauded of the advantages they ought to derive from this new invention.
Whilst the enterprising speculator, in the early part of our railway his-
tory, was laying down line after line, throwing an iron net over the coun-
try, and thus monopolizing the means of transit, the government, acting

on its favourite laissez-faire principle, looked on in silence, and suffered
events to take their course. The government neither protected the capi-
talist nor the public : the former was unmercifully fleeced by the land-
owners and others, who had power to obstruct the works until their de-
mands were complied with ; and the latter was in turn left to the mercy of
the capitalist, who soon began to exercise his newly-acquired power in a
manner the most prejudicial to the public good. It does not seem, at this
period, that any inconvenience was anticipated from entrusting, without
check or control, great national enterprises to private individuals. In fact,
such a delegation was scarcely considered in the light of a trust : railways
were regarded rather as speculations for the investment of capital, which,
the proprietors had a perfect right to manage as they thought proper, than
national works in the management of which there could be any abuse or
oppression.

The evil effects of this error soon began to be felt. Railway directors
in a short time discovered they had acquired a virtual monopoly of the
means of transit throughout the country, nor were they slow to exercise
that power : the fares were raised to the most exorbitant rate, — companies
combined for the purpose of keeping up, or raising still higher, the freight
on merchandise ; large sums were paid to buy off competition ; and the
poorer class of passengers were, on some lines, exposed to the most shame-
ful treatment, in order to prevent an}' but the very poorest from using third
class carriages, while on other lines there were no third-class carriages.
The subject was taken up by a portion of the press, and an endeavour
made to bring public opinion so to bear upon railway directors as to
induce those gentlemen to forego the carrying out of their system, so far
at least as the poorer classes were concerned. " We have received com-
munications," said the Times, in a leading article, some time back," from
several correspondents, imploring us to maintain an advocacy for the poorer
class of railway travellers, who have to avail themselves of the stinted ac-
commodation afforded by the leading lines. It would appear, from the facts
stated, that little choice exists in one more than another ; and all the great
lines are as parsimonious as they possibly can be in providing comfort or
convenience for those having the misfortune to travel in the third-class
conveyances. The manner in which the Great Western company treat this
class of passengers is described as worse than any other pursued ; the only
trains by which thev forward them being those used for the transit of cattle,
coals, and merchandise. A third-class passenger leaves Paddington in an
open carriage, no difference being made to counteract wind and weather, at
half-past 4 a.m.; at ^windon be is detained upwards of an hour; and at
last gets to Bristol, if the train keeps its time, in nine hours and a half;
whilst the first and second class carriages make the same journey in less
thau half the time. * * If a third class passenger

wishes to go on to Taunton from anyplace east of Bristol, it is alleged to be
still more inconvenient, since he is detained from four to five hours in
Bristol ; and is kept on the road, at a moderate calculation, from fourteen
to sixteen hours. * * * These are strong statements,

and unless satisfactorily explained away, must, sooner or later, firing their
undertaking within the managerial scope of the Board of Trade, the
authority of which body would do well to see that fair and adequate provi-
sion is made by all the railway companies, for the conveyance of the poorer
classes during seasonable hours. Railway directors have, at present, the
exercise of too much irresponsible power, and therefore imagine they can
deal with the public as they choose. * * * It remains

to be seen what will be the effects of this description of management, should
it, without some superintending control, be left entirely to the judgment of
the persons who have the sole exercise of this power."

The above article appeared in the Times in the month of April last year,
and was followed by several others, of a similar tendency ; and innumerable
letters, commenting severely on the conduct of the directorates of our
principal lines of railway. These remonstrances produced no effect what-
ever : no amendment followed ; no explanation was given ; and, up to the
present time, no change whatever has been effected. Nor is this to be much
wondered at ; the natural selfishness of mankind is never more odiously
displayed than among corporate or joint stock companies invested with a
monopoly, and guided by no rule except that of self-interest. The appeal
made to the Board of Trade was in vain ; that body had no power whatever to
interfere any further than for the protection of life and limb ; and even that
power had been but recently conferred on the Board by the legislature, after
a series of dreadful homicides had been committed, by placing third-class
passengers next the engine, for the purpose of frightening them into taking
second-class places.

It appears, from the returns made by the Board of Trade, that, durin"
the last five months of 1840, twenty-two persons were killed on railways,
principally owing to the cause we have stated. In the following year, when
the companies were, to some extent, placed under the control of the Board
of Trade, only one person was killed, observing the proper degree of cau-
tion. We will close this part of the subject, affecting the treatment of third-
class passengers, by a short extract from Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper, which
has, we understand, a large circulation among the working cla?ses, and
which forcibly describes the conduct that was, and still is, practised towards
the poor of this country, whose means do not enable them to travel in any
other than third-class trains: —

" That something is necessary to be done no one will deny that knows anyth'ng
of travelling by second or third class trains on our railway lines. * *

156

Railway Legislation.

[July,

On the Birmingham and Gloucester third-class passengers are deprived of seats ;
and the inconvenience and fatigue therebyoccasioned to females and persons in de-
licate health, upon a line of fifty-five miles, may be readily imagined. To make
the fact positive, the guards and others are enjoined, on pain of fine or dismissal,
not to allow, on any pretence, the smallest particle of luggage to be put into these
sheep-pens, lest they should be converted into seats. The Nottingham or Derby
line is, or was, conducted in the same manner. The Manchester and Leeds com-
pany (their line is forty miles) are even less considerate than the preceding ; for
they thrust, indiscriminately, goods of any description into the third-class trucks,
the passengers having to get out of their way as they can. Soot-bags, flour-Backs,
bags of grain, are thrown indiscriminately among the passengers. The London and
Birmingham (112 miles) afford benches for the accommodation of the passengers;
but they have no protection, during eight hours and a half, from the cold wind nor
the burning cinders, the steam, or the sparks that fall about them. But, to make
the degradation and annoyance of the poorer class of passengers more complete,
several of these companies prohibit their servants from giving the least assistance to
third-class passengers in the loading or removal of their luggage."

The monopoly which the railway companies enjoyed, and so grossly
abused, could not entirely escape the notice of the legislature. In 1839 a
select committee was appointed by the House of Commons, to inquire into'
the state of railway communication throughout the country. It was com-
posed of the leading members of the House, including Sir Robert Peel,
Lord Stanley, the late Lord Sydenham, then President of the Board of Trade,
Lord Seymour, &c. The principal points to which the committee directed
their attention and inquiries were, the power given to the companies by the
legislature, and the probable exercise of that power upon the general conve-
nience of the public and intercourse of the country. " It does not appear,"
say the committee, in their report to the House of Commons, "to have been
the intention of Parliament to give to a railway a complete monopoly of the
means of communication on their line of road ; on the contrary, provi-
sion was made, in all or most of the acts of incorporation, to enable other
persons to place and run carriages on the road, upon payment of certain
tolls to the company. The intention of Parliament, however, cannot be
carried into effect in the way contemplated by legislation ; for it is obvious
that the payment of legal tolls is only a very small part of the arrangement
which is necessary to open the railways to public competition. Any person
with the mere authority to place an engine and carriage on the railway,
would be practically unable to supply his engine with water, or to take up
and set down his passengers at any convenient station or terminus ; and,
indeed, would be placed in such a disadvantageous situation, that all com-
petition with the company would be rendered impossible."

So far, then, as related to the complete monopoly of railway companies,
the committee but asserted what the public had long previously discovered,
viz., that the slight checks on the power of the companies, or rather what the
legislature intended should be such, were entirely inoperative. But the evil
did not end here ; the committee directed the attention of the House of Com-
mons to the important fact, that the railway system had, in many cases,
operated most prejudicially to the poorer classes. In reference to an observa-
tion of one of the witnesses examined, who had recourse to one of those con-
Tenient and plausible sophisms which generally pass current, viz., that" the
interests of the railway companies and the public could never be at variance,"
the committee observed, " This can only be admitted to a certain extent,
and that on railways where other means of communication yet exist, and
maintain a competition, though feeble, against those powerful establish-
ments ; and this is a point which the committee feel to be especially deserv-
ing the attention of Parliament and the public. It is, of course, the duty
of the directors, watching over the pecuniar)' interests of the company, to
maintain the fares at that point which will produce the largest amount of
income, — an obligation which may operate most injuriously on the public,
and especially upon that class of passengers who are least able to afford the
charge." How fully have the apprehensions of the committee, in this re-
spect, been verified '. yet they separated without proposing any plan, or
offering any suggestion whereby these evils, some of which were then real-
ized, could be remedied. They evidently felt the difficulty of their situa-
tion— the impossibility, on the one hand, of forcing on the companies any
regulations not in the original contract, which might have the effect of de-
creasing their profits ; and on the other, the hopelessness of inducing the
companies to abstain from any practices, however oppressive to the poorer
classes, or injurious to the public weal, if they gained by the continuance of
such practices. On the one side was public faith, on the other public, inte-
rest; and as the committee conceived the latter could not be promoted
without the violation of the former, as a matter of course nothing was
done.

This committee, as we have stated, sat in 1839, and, from that time to
the appointment of the select committee at the commencement of the pre-
sent session of Parliament, no further inquiry took place into the work-
ing of our railway system. That neglect has been abundantly compensated
by the searching investigation now concluded, as witnessed by the pon-
derous " Blue Book," containing six hundred pages of closely printed mat-
ter, which now lies before us, furnishing, at all events, suflicient evidence of
the committee's diligence and industry. But this is not all ; government
seems determined to grapple with the railway monopoly, and a bill, founded
on the committee's reports — there were no less than five — has been intro-
duced into Parliament, and at the time we write has passed the second read-
ing in the House of Commons, by a large majority, in spite of the most

determined and combined opposition oa the part of the railway interest.
This bill contains provisions so important, and recognising, moreover, a new
principle, which had never previously been even mooted in Parliament, in
reference to railway legislation, that we deem it necessary to give our readers
some idea of the new order of things which has arisen in the history of rail-
ways, and which rendered it necessary to abandon the old laissez-faire prin-
ciple of non-interference whilst legislating on railway locomotion.

Some of our readers will, no doubt, remember that in our August num-
ber of last year we gave a lengthened notice of an anonymous pamphlet then
published, intitled " Railway Reform." We observed, " it was one of the
ablest productions that for a long time had come across our path, and we
could foresee was destined to inflict a serious wound on our railway mono-
polies ; that it was a work of extraordinary research and ability, and one
which must create much sensation in the locomotive world." Since that
time the work has passed through several editions, and, in the words of our
contemporary, the Atlas, " has attracted more notice in the commercial
world than anything which has appeared since Mr. Rowland Hill's celebrated
pamphlet, which gave the first impulse to the cause of the penny postage."
The " Railway Reform" pamphlet is divided into two parts : the first is
descriptive of the evils of the present system, which are classified under dif-
ferent heads. The following extract from the resume', will give a general
idea of this part of the work, to which we cannot do better than again refer,
in illustration of the subject we are considering : —

" The necessity of an examination into the principles on which our railway sys-
tem is founded, and the practice by which it is carried out, is attempted to he
proved from the existence of manifold evils aud abuses, which, it is contended, are
of such notoriety that little more is necessary than to refer to them. The follow-
ing are especially noted : —

" 1st. The exorbitantly high fares charged on most of the great lines of railway
in this country compared with those on the continental lines, especially in Bel-
gium, the fares in that country being two thirds less than they are with us.

"2nd. The illegal and extortionate charges which some companies are in the habit
of making, with the certainty of being able to do so with impunity.

" 3rd. Depriving the community of the few privileges which the legislature in-
tended they should possess; the directors of railroads having recourse to expensive
law proceedings, in opposition to the most unquestionable claims ; and even after
judgment is given against them, still persevering, for the purpose of involving their
oppunents in ruinous litigatory suits, and thus intimidating others from pressing
their claims.

" 4th. The injury and annoyance the public suffers when hostile companies pos-
sess different lines of railway connected with each other.

" 5th. The prejudicial effects to the public interests when companies so situated
enter into a secret combination to keep up high prices.

" Gth. The ruinous effects of our system on the poorer classes, and their depriv-
ation, to a great extent, of the manifold advantages which the establishment of rail-
ways is calculated to confer on them are treated of at considerable length :— the
fares in many cases almost prohibitory, — the disgraceful treatment the passengers
are subjected to, — the duly organised plan to force them into better class carriages,
• — the careful selection of the most inconvenient hours for starting, and their fre-
quent and long detention on their journey, together with the effects of such a
mode of procedure, as proved by statistical documents ; all these points aie gone
into at considerable length."

We have not space to enter into the detail of abuses by which Mr. Gait,
the author of the pamphlet, supports his propositions : it is quite sufficient
to state that no charge he has made — and they are all distinct and specific
■ — -has been denied. All the railway papers, as a matter of course, denounced
the pamphlet in the most violent terms. According to the Railway Times,
" it was the most wretched, contemptible, catchpenny publication that this
pamphleteering, paste- and-scissors age had brought forth."

It was, however, the boldness of the remedy proposed — the attempt to
cut the Gordian knot of legislative entanglement in which the railway sys-
tem was involved, that attracted so much attention to the " Railway Re-
form" pamphlet. Mr. Gait proposed that the whole of the railway pro-
perty in the kingdom should be purchased by government for the state, at
the market value ; the shareholders to be paid in 3 per cent, consols ; the
railways to be consolidated under one general management, under the exe-
cutive government ; and a low and uniform scale of fares adopted. In the
preface to the third edition, the reasons which render such a sweeping
change necessary are briefly stated, as follows : —

" It is endeavoured to be shown that the evils and abuses of the present system
are inherent in it, and cannot be separated from it ; that the charges are enor-
mously disproportioned to the cost of transit; that intrusting the railway monopoly
to companies who neither have, nor profess to have in view any object but their own
interest, is in the highest degree injurious to the best interests of the nation; and
that, so long as the present system is continued, government cannot effectually in-
terfere, and render available for the benefit of the people those advantages which the
comparatively free means of transit by means of railways throughout the country
are calculated to confer.

"Should the great high roads of the nation, as railways have now become, be
public or private property, is the principal question discussed in the following pages.
Some of the innumerable abuses which exist inconsequence of the latter plan hav-
ing been adopted in this country, are noticed. * * * The
proposed change is, to some extent, analogous to that of Mr. Rowland Hill's Post-
office Reform; although the number of letters is trebled or quadrupled which now
pass through the post-office, compared with the number some years since, the charge

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Railway Legislation.

157

for tlieir transmission is but slightly increased. And the same principle is equally
tnie iu regard to passengers on railways ; — if the present number were quadrupled,
the increased expenditure would be but very slight. In a financial point of view,
the proposed scheme of railway reform has a considerable advantage over post-office
reform. In regard to the latter, there is no fund to meet the deficiency occasioned
by the reduction of rates, and, at the present time, the direct loss to the revenue by
the change is about one million sterling. How far this loss would be decreased by
the complete carrying out of Mr. Rowland Hill's plan is another matter. In the
scheme of railway reform here sketched out there are two sources from which the
deficiency occasioned by the reduced charges would be supplied, — one, the profit
which the government would otherwise have were the present charges continued:
the other, the great saving that would be effected in the expenditure by consolida-
tion. The proposed reduction of charges is in the same proportion as that effected
by post-office reform, viz., jive sixths.'1''

When it is considered that the railways of this country pay little more, on
an average, than five per cent, on the invested capital, it may be deemed al-
together visionary to make thereduction Mr. Gait proposes, withoutthe cer-
tainty of incurring heavy a national loss. Before, however, that conclusion
is come to, it is necessary to examine closely the arguments and data adduced
by Mr. Gait in support of his plan. The first consideration is, the low cost of
transit bv locomotive power on railways. It appears, from the most accurate
calculations, that it does not exceed the fiftieth part of the cost of what it is
on turnpike roads by horses. This fact must almost be obvious to any one.
Most of our readers must have seen a long train of carriages, laden with
passengers or merchandise, passing along some of our railways at a rate of
speed far exceeding that of the fleetest horse, and yet at what a compara-
tively slight cost! Mr. Gait stated, on his examination before the select
committee, that he had a calculation made by one of the principal carriers in
London of what it cost him per ton to carry goods from Bristol to London
by wagon, on the turnpike road. Previous to the construction of the railway
it amounted to \l. 16*., whilst at the present time it can be conveyed the
same distance by railway for Sd. ! It will be naturally asked, how it is that
the companies do not realize enormous profits, when the fares and freight of
goods are so high compared with the cost of transit ? The answer is, — the
companies find it to be more profitable to carry comparatively few passengers
at high fares than many at low fares. The average number of passengers
by a railway train is from eighty to ninety, but the locomotive power
employed is capable of conveying treble or quadruple that number, at a rate
of speed little less than at present ; the waste of power is therefore enormous.
If the fares were reduced so low that a vast increase would take place in the
number of passengers, the increased expenditure, as we shall shortly have
occasion to show, would be but very slight. The entire question of profit
and loss, then, turns on the number of passengers which low fares would
induce to travel. Mr. Gait admits that, as a general rule, very low fares
are not the most profitable ; but shows, from the returns and reports of se-
veral companies, that there are exceptions to the rule : —

" I will adduce the testimony of the directors of the Glasgow and Greenock
Railway, who found it more profitable to carry at very low fares, viz., to reduce
their fares 66 percent., or what amounts to the same thing, cany another class at
the very low rate of one farthing per mile. Iu their report for the half-year ending
30th June, 1842, they say, * It has been found that the increase of working ex-
penses for an addilional number of passengers is scarcely appreciable; and with the
present number of trains 50 per cent, more passengers might be conveyed with a very
trifling increase of outlay. So successful has the operation of the third-class trains
been, that it enables the directors to state to the shareholders that, had the modifi-
cation of the tax been obtained before the commencement of the present year, the
result of the year's traffic would be very different from that which they now
lay before them.'

" In the week ending the 21st May the number of passengers was 12,183
The next week, on the reduction of fares . . . . 17,332

The next week 19,621;

and so on, increasing, till we find in one week in the summer, there were so many
as 33,887 carried ; and, with a very trifling outlay, say the directors, 50,000 per
week might be carried. The number of through-line passengers in the half-year
was 123,349; and as the general working expenses have not increased, the net re-
venue has been benefited to the amount of 10 per cent, by the adoption of the 6d.
fare, although nearly one-fourth of the first and second class passengers have
transferred themselves into third-class carriages.

" The Dublin and Kingston Railway is a still more striking illustration of the
benefits of the very low fare system, commenced two years since. Last year the
company carried, without any increase in their expenditure, 478,117 passengers
more than what they did in 1840 ; and the 100/. shares, which were then at 18 per
cent, discount, are now at 16 per cent, premium."

" The existence of a charge of half a farthing per mile," says one of the
railway papers, in noticing the last half-yearly meeting of the proprietors,
" for certain classes of passengers, will, no doubt, startle some of the advo-
cates of high fares on this side of the channel ; but the success which has
attended the operations of the Dublin and Kingston company shows that
it is not too low."

From these, and many other instances which might be adduced, it would
be easy to prove that on many lines a very low rate of charge is the most
profitable ; but on the great majority there can be no doubt it would be
attended with a loss. It must also be borne in mind, that, under the pre-
sent system, the only object railway directors have in view is to obtain the

largest possible dividend for their proprietors; and so long as railways are
private property, how can it be otherwise ? If five per cent, on the in-
vested capital could be realized at comparatively high fares, and a reduction
of those fares two-thirds would reduce that profit to four and three quarters
per cent., it is not to be expected that railway proprietors, more than any
other class of the community, should prefer the public good to their own
individual gain. If it should so happen, as in the two cases we have quoted,
that the balance turns on the right side, that the profit is increased, how-
ever slightly, by the reduction of fares, the low -fare principle will be car-
ried out ; but, in the contrary case, it will, as a matter of course, be aban-
doned. It is scarcely necessary to direct the attention of our readers to the
fallacy of the assertion, that the interests of the companies and the public
are identical : to a very limited extent the assertion is true ; the companies,
taken as a body, find it more profitable to charge moderate than exorbitant
fares, so far the respective parties' interest is identical ; but, on the other
hand, they find it disadvantageous to charge very low fares compared with
moderate fares, and thus the interest of the companies and the public are
opposite. What becomes, then, of the silly assertion we hear repeated ad
nauseam, that " the interests of the companies and the public are so identi-
cal that they never can be separated ?"

Mr. Gait, as we have seen, proposes that the railways should be purchased
by government for the state, and centralized under one general management ;
he admits that a great decrease in the receipts might be expected — ac-
cording to his calculation, not less than a million and a half sterling ; this
deficiency, and the extra expenditure which would be incurred by such a
vast increase of business on the railways, would be made up from a number
of sources. The difference alone between the amount now paid to the
shareholders, and what would be paid to the stock-holders is 1,150,000/.
The difference between public and private credit is, at the present time,
about 1/. 7s. per annum ; that is to say, the receipt of 3/. per annum for
the investment of 100/. on government security, is equal, in public opinion,
to 4/. 7*. in an uncertain and fluctuating security, like railway property.
Another great source of emolument to the government would be the in-
creased revenue to the post-office by the complete carrying out of Mr.
Rowland Hill's plan of post-office reform, — to say nothing of the saving that
would be made of the large sums now paid to the companies. Few persons
are perhaps aware how much the public service is injured in consequence of
the limited use of railways for the transmission of mails, in consequence of
the exorbitant charges the companies are enabled to make. On this subject
Mr. Gait says: —

" Of the 55 railways I have enumerated, about the one-half are not used at all
by the Post-office, including the South- Eastern, Northern and Eastern, and Eastern ;
about 20 are only partially used; and not more than five out of the entire number
are made available to the public, except occasionally, for the conveyance of mails ;
and these five receive about three-fourths of the ichole sum paid. But what would
it cost the Post-office to send as many mails by all the different railways as by these
five? For the conveyance of the mails between Birmingham and Gloucester, 55
miles, the Post-office pays per annum 10,156/. ; on the Carlisle and Newcastle, 60
miles; the Stockton and Darlington, 25 miles; the Great North of England, 45
miles ; the London and Brighton, 50 miles ; the Manchester and Leeds, 60 miles :
on these five great railways, in the aggregate 240 miles in length, the Post-office
pays but 2,994/., not the one-third of the amount it pays on one line, only
55 miles in length."

We have deemed it necessary to detail at some length the general prin-
ciples on which Mr. Gait's plan of " Railway Reform" is founded, as we
consider it the basis of the new system of railway legislation introduced for
the first time into this country, which has occasioned such violent opposition
to the bill now passing through Parliament. In France, as most of our
readers no doubt are aware, a violent contention has been going on, for
many years, respecting the construction and management of the railways
of that country, one party contending they should be the property of the
state, and under the sole management of government ; the other that they
should, as in this country, belong to companies. In 1842, it was decided by
a large majority in the French Chambers — the numbers being 283 to 70 — ■
that the works should be partly constructed by the state, and then be leased
out to companies for a term of years, who should complete and work them.
On the appearance of Mr. Gait's pamphlet it was immediately laid hold of
by the state party, translated into French, and widely circulated. The long
train of evils which had been the result of the system in this country of
intrusting great national works to irresponsible individuals was portrayed
with great power and truth in the French press, and produced such an
effect on public opinion and the legislature, that the two parties — the sup-
porters and the opponents of the law of 1842 — are as nearly as possible
balanced in the Chamber of Deputies. There is generally an alternate vote
every other week on the subject. About a month since, a motion was made
by M. Gaultier, and carried by a majority of one — the numbers being 137 to
136 — which, if carried out, would affirm the proposition that railways should
belong solely to the state, and be managed by a department of government.
It is scarcely necessary to add, that when parties are so nearly balanced on
such an important question little or nothing can be done one way or other.

In this country the principles of railway reform seem to have taken root
in the public mind from the first moment of their promulgation. The
abuses in our railway system had arisen to such a height — the power which
had been so unwisely trusted to companies had been so grossly abused, and

158

Railway Legislation.

[July,

the ordinary means of redress were so totally inadequate to effect their ob-
ject, that it had long become obvious, unless some means could be devised
of counteracting the abuses of the railway system, the country would be
placed in a worse position than it was previous to the construction of rail-
ways. But what remedy could be devised ? The companies asserted they
" had a right to do what they liked with their own," and denied that any
party had the power to interfere with their management, or impose new
conditions not agreed on in the original contract. " We are not compelled to
carry passengers at a less rate than 2>\d. per mile," said the Directors ; " and
if the working classes do not like the accommodation we think proper to
afford them at a lower rate, they can choose any other means of conveyance
they think proper." But the working classes had no choice; for the great
power of steam, and low cost of locomotive traction, had driven all compe-
tition off the road. Several of the Sunday papers took up warmly the
cause of the working and trading classes of the community — the necessity
of a thorough revision of our railway system was strongly urged ; and a
feeling was excited in the minds of a large portion of the public, that the
gross anomaly of permitting trading companies to regulate at will the mi ans
of transit throughout the kingdom, was in the highest degree pernicious to
the general interests of the community. Several public meetings were held
during the last autumn and winter, for the purpose of promoting railway
reform, whilst those who took an active part in them were, as a matter of
course, violently denounced by the railway papers. The companies, in the
meantime, profited nothing by the discontent and agitation their oppressive
conduct excited. Confident in their power, they set public opinion at de-
fiance; and, in order still further to confirm that povver, those companies
whose interests were, to some degree, opposed to each other, entered on a
new system of consolidating their respective interests by amalgamation.
This last step seems to have effectually roused the Government to the de-
termination of grappling with the new power — this " imperium in imperio,"
that had arisen within the state; and from the tone of feeling that had been
exhibited in those public meetings we have referred to, and the resolutions
passed unanimously, that " railways should be the property of the state,''
little or no doubt could exist in the minds of the ministry that the most
fitting opportunity presented itself for the commencement of that change
now being introduced, and which, we trust, has laid the foundation of a
system that will, before many years, transfer all the railways in the king-
dom from companies into the possession of the state.

On the 5th of February, Mr. Gladstone, the President of the Board
of Trade, moved the appointment of a select committee, " to consider whe-
ther any or what new provisions ought to be introduced into such Railway
Bills as may come before the House during present or future sessions, for
the advantage of the public, and the improvement of the railway system."
The members nominated were, Mr. Gladstone, Mr. Labouchere, Lord Sey-
mour, Mr. Wilson Patten, Viscount Sandon, Mr. Gisborne, Lord Granville
Somerset, Sir John Easthope, Mr. Hamilton, Mr. Russell, Mr. Horsman,
Mr. Green, Mr. Matlean, Mr. Thornely, and Mr. Beckett Dennison. The
selection of the Committee did not by any means give general satisfaction ;
it was considered, and we think with some justice, that the railway inte-
rest was allowed to preponderate too much in its formation: nevertheless,
we feel bound to admit, that, from the manner in which they conducted
their inquiry, every credit is due to them, as they evinced an honest deter-
mination to do justice to all parties, and collect such a body of evidence as
would enable Parliament and the public to form a pretty accurate judgment
of the working of the system.

The Committee examined a great number of witnesses: the evidence,
however, of the majority related only to matters of local interest. Twelve
were examined on the general question of railway legislation ; ten of whom
were directors, or others connected with railways ; the other two were, Mr.
Laing, the very intelligent and able officer of the Board of Trade, and
Mr. Gait. It would, of course, be impossible for us to give even an ana-
lysis of the evidence contained in the " Blue Book," extending as it does
over six hundred folio pages, independent of copious indices ; we shall
therefore confine ourselves to a general sketch of its nature aud bearing,
together with such extracts as we may consider necessary.

It appears that the Board of Trade had, for some time previous to the
formation of the Committee, been in communication with the principal
representatives of the railway interest, for the purpose of effecting, if
possible, an amicable arrangement between government and the companies.
The following is an outline of the government scheme, the particulars of
which were detailed by Mr. Laing at great length, in his examination
before the Committee: — First, Every company to afford at least one con-
veyance daily, by carriages protected from the weather, at a speed not less
than twelve miles per hour, including stoppages, and at fares not exceeding
one penny per mile. The Board of Trade to have discretionary control
over the train, as regards the time of starting, nature of accommodation,
arrangements with connecting lines, and other points of detail subject to
the above general principle. Children up to a certain age to be taken
gratis; and accommodation to be provided for all traffic that might present
itself. Second, The right of revision, at the end of twenty years from the
complete opening of the railway, if the rate of profit for the preceding five
years had liondjide averaged, on the paid up capital, beyond what, under
present circumstances, the company might fairly look to. The pivot at
which the proposed revision should be exercised, was to vary from 7 to
10 per cent., according to the dividends the companies were in the present

year paying. If the right of revision should be exercised by government,
the dividend to be guaranteed, or government to have the option of buying
up the line at twenty -five years' purchase on the pivot dividend. Third,
The companies to grant any reasonable facilities that might be pointed out
by the Post-office, War-office, &c, as improvements on the present mode
of conducting the public service. In return for these concessions, govern-
ment proposed, 1st, That competing lines should be discouraged ; 2nd,
Amalgamation, leasing, &c, should not be objected to ; 3rd, Facilities given
to the passing of bills, and the deposit reduced from 10 to 5 percent.;
4th, Recognition of the principle, that railway companies be rated only on
tolls, or tenantable value of their real property ; 5th, Remission or reduce
tion of the 5 per cent, duty on third-class passengers carried at or under
penny per mile. A great deal of the evidence taken before the Committei
was on the practicability of carrying out this scheme; that part especial!
relating to the fixing of the pivot at which the proposed revision should be
exercised, or the power of purchase granted. On this point there was
great diversity of opinion. Some of the witnesses, Mr. Glyn, chairman ol
the London and Birmingham Company, — Mr. Baxendale, and Mr. Card-
well, M.P., directors of the London and Lover Company — thought the
scheme practicable ; whilst, on the other hand, Mr. Saunders, secretary to
the Great Western Company, contended that it never could be worked out
Mr. Saunders objected strongly to the principle of limiting profits, or,
rather, attempting to do so, as, he contended, the companies would always
be able to evade any such law. He said, " You may limit the proti
nominally to 10 per cent. ; but, so long as you cannot prevent the improve
ment of the property, by expending more money — (of course it must be II
per cent, on any sum they expend) — it becomes, by these means, an incen-
tive to every extravagant expenditure, and to the outlay of money unnec< s
sary for the purpose, but merely expended to acquire the increased profit
of 10 per cent, they would then have employed." The second difficulty,
and, indeed, an insuperable one, would have been that of agreeing with the
different companies for their respective pivots : and the third, and last, we
need mention, related to the defining of what might be called " competing
lines." The Committee, therefore, found themselves compelled to abandon
the whole scheme. We cannot say we feel any regret at such a result : we
do not think, in its operation, it would have been satisfactory to the com-
panies ; and, so far as the public were concerned, it would only have stood
in the way of a more thorough and extensive reform.

But, before proceeding further, we must notice the very able report
drawn up by Mr. Laing, and presented to the Board of Trade, from which
the Committee obtained the most useful information, general and statis-
tical ; that, especially, relating to the manner in which the poorer classes
are conveyed, had, we have no doubt, considerable weight with the Com-
mittee. We may quote a few extracts from Mr. Laing's report, which will
show, in a striking point of view, the necessity that existed for some mea-
sures being taken by Parliament to protect the working classes: —

" Mr. Cooper, in his evidence [before the Poor Law Commissioners] states —
' In the winter time, in the open third-class carriages for long distances, the speed
at which the trains go, render it a very cold and not a very proper or safe convey-
ance for the poorer classes who are not well clothed, particularly for weakly or
sickly persons, or children. Mr. Felton states, the third-class Liverpool carriages
have seats, but they are entirely open : not only are the passengers subject to take
cold by the velocity at which they travel, but the sparks from the engine frequently
do great damage to the clothing of the passengers. I have seen women's cloaks
and other clothing very much damaged by being set on fire by the sparks from the
engine. Mr. Kennett states, that the risk and exposure of the poor people in the
open, stand-up, third-class carriages, particularly in the winter time, is so severe
that I would sooner pay the difference out of my own pocket than subject the poor
under my charge to the danger of that conveyance.'"

Another witness, speaking of the part of the country where he resided,

says, —

'; The vans and wagons have all disappeared. When they were on the road,
all persons had opportunities of finding conveyances, according to their means, to
all parts of the kingdom. The poorer classes usually piefened tiavelliog by wagon,
in which they were kept warm, and protected from the weather. These wagons
have now stopped ; the poorest classes must now walk six miles, the shortest dis-
tance to the railroad station, and they must then take the open carriage, and bo ex-
posed to, instead of screened, as formerly, from the inclemency of the weather."

We might multiply cases showing the disgraceful and systematic method
of ill-treatment pursued towards the poorer classes by railway companies in
all parts of the kingdom ; but, indeed, the fact is so notorious, that but
few of our readers can be unacquainted with it. One important fact which
Mr. Gait laid much stress on in his pamphlet — viz., that companies, as a
general rule, find it more advantageous to charge huh than low fares — is
strongly confirmed by the testimony of Mr. Laing. He says, —

" Notwithstanding the facts which prove the extraordinary development of which
the traffic on railways is suscepiihle, under a system of low fares, past experience
could hardly warrant us in anticipating the volununy adoption of the low fare sys-
tem to any great extent upon the British railways. The reason why high fares are
more profitable, is probably this: — the class of passengers who are prevented from
travelling by high fares, is in a great measure composed of persons travelling short
distances; so that an addition to the number of passengers is not a coi responding
addition to the mileage. Thus, upon the Manchester and Leeds Railway, which

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Railway Legislation.

159

adopts the third-class system, the number of passengers per mile of railway per
o, is 24,000 ; while, upon the London and Birmingham Railway, it is only
: : but, then, upon the London and Birmingham Railway, each passenger is con-
veyed, on an average, 66 miles, or three-fifths of the entire length of the railway;
■while, upon the Manchester and Leeds, each passenger is conveyed, on an average,
only 16 miles, or not quite one-third of the entire length of the railway. Hence,
the question for railway directors is not whether the reduction of fares, say of one-
half, would double the number of passengers ; but whether it would produce such
an extraordinary influx of passengers for short distances, as would make up for the
loss of those travelling long distances."

These important facts, viz., that the great companies would not volun-
tarily lower their fares, nor increase the accommodation for the poorer
classes, were fully established to the satisfaction of the Committee. It was
also shown, that but very little good resulted from the consTuction of com-
peting lines ; the parties, after a violent but short opposition, either came
to- an understanding as to the charges to be made, or else united their re-
spective interests by amalgamation.

Mr. Gait was examined at considerable length by the Committee. The
principal facts which he pressed on their attention were, first, The very
slight loss incurred by the adoption of averylowfare system ; be proved, from
sewral instances he quoted, that a reduction of from 50 to 70 per cent, on
the fares had never produced a greater reduction of interest on the invested
capital than % per cent. Second, That, so far as we could judge from infer-
ence, ly per cent. — the difference between the rate at which government
could purchase from the shareholders, and pay to the stockholders — would be
more than sufficient to meet the presumed loss occasioned by a great re-
duction in charges. The scale of fares Mr. Gait proposed, was as fol-
lows : — Mail passengers, travelling at the rate of 35 miles per hour, 2d.
per mile ; first division passengers' train, travelling at the rate of 25 miles
per hour, 1st class two miles for a penny ; 2nd class three miles for a penny :
second division, 1st class, 6 miles for a penny ; 2nd class, 8 miles for a
penny, travelling at the rate of 15 miles per hour. He entered into elabo-
rate statistical details, showing the profits on the respective classes, at the
rates be proposed. The beneficial results which Mr. Gait considered would
result to the country from the adoption of his scheme, he classified as fol-
lows : — 1st, The saving to the country of 5,000,000/. in indirect taxation :
2nd, The great stimulus to trade and commerce, by reducing the charges
of transit : 3rd, The saving to the country by the free transmission of
mails, and the complete carrying out of Mr. Rowland Hill's Post-office
Reform : 4th, The benefits conferred on very poor individuals : 5th, The
saving to the country by the conveyance of troops, military and naval
stores, bullion, &c. : 6th, Reduction in price of the necessaries of life :
7th, The universal good to all classes, rich and poor, by their being enabled,
for any purpose, whether of health, business, or pleasure, to derive all the
advantages which a comparatively free intercourse throughout the country
can afford.

Captain Laws, the manager of the Leeds and Manchester railway, was
Strongly in favour of government purchasing up all the railways. He con-
sidered " that great economy would result in the management of railways,
from the consolidation in the hands of government." He thought, however,
a reduction of fares 25 per cent, would be sufficient. Mr. Rowland Hill was
examined on the practicability of carrying out Mr. Gait's plan. He " con-
sidered there would be an enormous increase in the number of passengers,
but thought it would require a very longtime to make up the same amount
of receipts, if that could be ever hoped for." Mr. Hill seems to have for-
gotten that Mr. Gait never contemplated the same amount of receipts being
made up : the deficiency in them he calculated at, a million and a half ster-
ling ; how that deficiency was to be made up we have already seen.

But we must hasten to a conclusion. The committee having terminated
their labours, government brought in a bill — founded on the committee's
reports — which is now passing through the legislature. Its provisions may
be briefly described as follows : —

1st. The right of purchase of all new railways, paying 10 per cent, divi-
dends at the expiration of 21 years from the time of their opening.

2nd. On all lines hereafter to be constructed, or old lines whose acts have
been amended in the present, or shall be in any future session of Parliament,
a train of covered carriages shall be run each way per day, the speed not to
be less than 12 miles per hour, and the fare not to exceed a penny per mile.

This important clause comes into force on the 1st of November next, and
brings within its grasp most of the existing companies, — the London and
Birmingham, Great Western, and Grand Junction, inclusive.

At the present time it costs 27*. to travel in an open third-class carriage
from London to Liverpool ; from the 1st of November the traveller will be
conveyed in a covered carriage between the two places for 17s. Sd. This is
a most important practical reform ; and although it is far from going to the
extent we could wish, it is perhaps as far as government, under present cir-
cumstances, is enabled to go.

We look on this bill as but a prelude to a more important measure. It
is much to be regretted that the daily press is so deeply interested, in a pe-
cuniary point of view, in upholding the present monopoly, and keeping the
public in ignorance of the real causes which prevent that enormous reduc-
tion of fares and charges which might be effected were railways the property
of the state. But it is seldom the public can be long blindfolded, or the
truth concealed from them for any great length of time in which their inte-
rests are deeply affected ; and such, we are satisfied, will be the case in re-

gard to railway reform. Attention is now being directed to the subject ;
and the working of the new bill will throw still more light on the subject.
Passengers will be enabled to travel on the London and Birmingham and
the Grand Junction railways at one penny per mile ; but on others, which do
not come within the operation of the bill, the present charge is only a half-
penny, and on some even so low as a farthing per mile ! Will not such a state
of things direct attention to the principle, or rather want of principle, on
which the different scale of fares is regulated. Again, the Liverpool and
Manchester Railway does not come within the operation of this bill. The
lowest charge by this Company is twopence per mile; whilst the Glasgow
and Greenock Company charge only one farthing per mile. Is it likely
that the inhabitants of the two former towns, now that their attention
has been directed to the subject, will be long satisfied with this state
of things ?

How long the present system will last, depends entirely on the energy
and public spirit of the people. It has received a heavy blow by the pre-
sent bill ; and that it will be followed up when the public mind is a little
more enlightened on the subject, we have no doubt whatever: and at some
future day, not so distant, perhaps, as most people would be inclined to
imagine, may be realised the pleasing anticipation of " sixpenny fares to
Brighton," and " half-crown fares to Liverpool."

Art. VIII.— PRINCIPLES OF THE ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY.

We concluded our last paper on this very important and interesting subject
with a calculated tabular view of the maximum uniform velocity attainable by
the atmospheric system of propulsion, on the supposition that leakage is the
only retarding agent ; and that its amount is constant for the same apparatus,
whatever may be the intensity of pressure, or the degree of rarefaction of the
air in the vacuum tube, or main. If this supposition of a uniform leakage
were absolutely correct, the results of calculation might be relied on with
perfect confidence ; for there can be no doubt as regards the truth of the
theorem by which we have represented the law of retardation, and the conse-
quent decrease of motion dependent on it. We therefore infer, that if the
average amount of leakage be accurately ascertained for any particular ar-
rangement, this amount will serve as an element in all subsequent calcula-
tions relative to the case in question ; and it may likewise be adopted as a
criterion for judging, a priori, of the effect that is likely to arise from the
same cause in other cases, where the several conditions and circumstances of
construction bear the slightest resemblance to that from which the constant is
deduced. Our previous calculations were founded on data derived from the
experiments performed by Mr. Robert Stephenson on the Kingstown and
Dalkey Railway ; and, although the tone of this report certainly betrays a
leaning to the received methods of locomotion, yet every reader must be im-
pressed with a thorough conviction of the fidelity of its statements, and will
discover unequivocal proofs of practical skill and uncommon penetration at
every step of the inquiry. We availed ourselves of the data thus supplied to
us, without inquiring whether or not the averages deduced from the experi-
ments, and which are made the bases of subsequent calculations, are in reality
as accurate as their appearances would lead us to suppose. Few persons, we
believe, would entertain a doubt on the subject, and fewer still may feel in-
clined to incur the trouble of testing the results by an actual repetition of the
processes of calculation ; but seeing that the report, with the announcements
which it contains, has excited an extraordinary degree of interest in the public
mind, and given occasion for much animated discussion amongst the civil
engineers and others capable of appreciating the merits of the scheme, as well
as in the several journals devoted to scientific inquiries, both in this country
and abroad, we have formed the resolution of examining the numbers with
some attention, but, of course, with strict impartiality ; our sole object being
to elicit the truth, without regard to the interests of this or of that party,
who are now so widely separated in their opinions with respect to the practi-
cability of this beautiful and novel method of propulsion on railways.

The method employed by Mr. Stephenson for determining the average
amount of leakage on the Kingstown and Dalkey Railway, is exceedingly
simple, and easily repeated ; and it appears to us to be susceptible of a high
degree of precision, provided the instruments are sufficiently sensitive to indi-
cate minute variations of pressure : the same method may, therefore, be em-
ployed with success in other cases ; and if the operations be conducted with a
little attention to accuracy, the average amount of leakage for any particular
apparatus may be ascertained with a degree of precision sufficient for every
practical purpose. Mr. Stephenson says, " The most obvious method of de-
termining the amount of leakage when at rest, in the air-pump, the connect-
ing-pipe, and the vacuum tube, separately, is, to stop the engine after a cer-
tain amount of exhaustion has been effected, and then to note the rate at
which the mercury in the barometer falls, repeating the process with various
lengths of the vacuum tube, and with the pump and connecting-pipe alone."
By the method thus succinctly described, the experiments on leakage de-
tailed in Tables I. and II. of the report above referred to were made: we
cannot, of course, undertake to decide whether or not the results derived im-
mediately from the experiments, are rigorously and faithfully exhibited ; but
we take it for granted that they are so ; for it is impossible to suppose either
that Mr. Stephenson was incompetent to perform such experiments, or could
falsify their results. The calculated numbers, however, which he gives, are,

160

Principles of the Atmospheric Railway,

[July,

of course, open to scrutiny, and we shall here endeavour to test their
accuracy.

It may be proper, before we enter on these calculations, to lay before our
readers the formulae and the rules by which the process of computation is
performed — this being, in reality, one of the main objects of our inquiries ;
and such rules are the more needful, as they have not yet been developed in
a practical form.

It will readily be perceived that the principles of calculation depend upon
the fall of mercury in the barometer, and the space in which the air expands
itself: the data must, therefore, be the height of the barometer at the instant
of observation, and the cubic contents of the tube on which the observations
are made : consequently, if the state of the barometer be noted at equal small
intervals of time, the corresponding descents of the mercury will indicate
correctly the quantity of air that has produced the fall, and which must be
admitted from the atmosphere through the crevices and openings unavoidable
in the construction of the apparatus. To obviate the trouble of reference,
we shall here repeat the notation that we employed on a previous occasion
for the same purpose : and to this end,

Put d = the diameter of the tube into which the air is supposed to flow,
estimated in inches ;
c = the length of ditto in feet ;

■k = 3-1416, the circumference of a circle whose diameter is unity ;
h = the height of the barometer that is due to a perfect vacuum in
inches, or it may represent the fall that is due to the pressure
of the atmosphere ;
h' = the height at the time of observation, also in inches ;
and I = the leakage in cubic feet, corresponding to any given fall of mer-
cury in the barometer.
Then, by the principles of mensuration, the capacity or cubic contents of the

tube, in feet, is — ; and, according to the laws of pneumatics, the fall in

576
the barometer produced by the leakage, I, is expressed.by h — h! ; therefore,
since 30 inches, or h, corresponds to the whole tubeful of air of atmospheric

density, we get h : (h — h') :: : I ; consequently, by converting this

576
analogy into an equation, and reducing it in reference to I, we obtain
, _ c tt d2 (h — h')
576 A '

The process indicated by this equation is a very simple one, and the rule
for its reduction may be expressed in words at length, in the following
manner : —

Multiply the difference between the whole height of the barometer and the
observed height by the square of the diameter of the tube in inches, its length
in feet, and by the constant quantity, 3-1416 ; then divide the product by
576 times the whole height of the barometer for the leakage in cubic feet
corresponding to any given fall of mercury. '

It therefore appears, that if a series of observations be made at equal given
intervals of time, and the leakage be calculated for each observation, the suc-
cessive differences of these results will indicate the leakage due to the respec-
tive intervals ; and the sum of these differences divided by the number of
them, will give the average leakage for each interval. This average, however,
can be more readily found than by the method here described ; for we have
only to take the average variation of fall during the time of observation,
which being multiplied by the capacity of the tube in cubic feet, and divided
by the whole height of the barometer, will give the mean leakage, as before.
Having thus established a rule for calculating the quantity of leakage in any
given time, when the fall of the barometer during that time is given, we shall
next illustrate its use, by applying it to test the accuracy of the numbers as
tabulated in Mr. Stephenson's report. Since the air-pump and the conoect-
ing-pipe are constantly the same in the same apparatus, it is to be presumed
that the leakage from these sources will be constantly the same under the
same circumstances ; but since the state of the air is continually varying
during the time of working, it becomes necessary to determine what effect
this variation produces on the quantity of leakage. The length of the con-
necting-pipe on the Kingstown and Dalkey line is stated to be 1435 feet, and
its diameter 15 inches, its cubic content is, therefore,
3-1416 x 1435 x 152

576

= 1761 cubic feet.

Let this be divided by the whole height of the mercurial column, and we get
1761 -J- 30 = 58"7, a constant for the connecting-pipe in this particular
case, and the leakage for any observed height, h', is, therefore, expressed by
1= 587 (30 — h').
Mr. Stephenson states the cubic capacity of the connecting-pipe to be
1765 feet; differing from the result that we have just obtained, by 4 cubic
feet. This difference may be of very little consequence in a practical point
of view; but if the length and diameter of the tube are correctly given, we
can see no reason why the cubic contents should not be stated with equal ac-
curacy. It may be asked, why carry the calculations to such a high pitch
of nicety, when the errors of observation can never be reduced to a commen-
surate scale of minuteness ? We are fully aware of this ; but we nevertheless
maintain, that, where the data can be accurately assigned, it is better to use

a correct result than an approximate one — at least, in all cases where that
result is likely to have some effect on subsequent operations. But to pro-
ceed. In experiment No. 1, Table I., which was instituted for the purpose
of determining the leaking by the air-pump and connecting-pipe, it appears
that the observation commenced when the barometer showed a vacuum of
21*1 inches ; and at the end of four minutes, when the observation ceased,
the vacuum was only 7-5 inches; the intermediate heights corresponding to
each minute being 17'6, 14-3, and 10-9 inches respectively. This we shall
consider to be a good experiment, as the variations in the mercurial column
are sufficiently consistent, amongst themselves, to warrant that assumption.
We learn from it, that the fall per minute, between the height 21-1 and 7*5
inches, is very nearly uniform ; a circumstance which points to the fact, that
in equal times throughout the interval, nearly equal quantities of air have
been admitted, although the density of the included air has changed from a
rarefaction of 3-37 to 1*33 times ; the barometer having suffered a depression
of 13'6 inches during the time of observation. Here, then, we have several
methods of calculating the average quantity of leakage per minute : for we
may either proceed, as directed by the general rule, to calculate for each
height of the barometer, and take the mean of the consecutive differences, or
we may calculate for the whole range of the barometer, and divide by the
number of minutes in the interval ; and, lastly, we may calculate for the
several variations in the barometric altitudes, and take the mean of their sum,
or we may operate with the mean of the variations. All these methods wil
lead us to the same result; but as the last mentioned is the easiest applied
we shall adopt it in determining the averages for the several experiments
according to the data with which we have been furnished. The process for
the first experiment is as follows : —

At the commencement of the obser- 1 nl , . ■ ,

j 21-1 inches; inche

17'6 ,, fall in the 1st min. = 3*5

. 14-3 ,, fall in the 2nd min. = 3-3

. 10-9 ,, fall in the 3rd min. = 3-4

7'5 ,, fall in the 4th min. = 3-4

vation, the vacuum is .
At the end of the 1st minute, it is
At the end of the 2nd minute, it is
At the end of the 3rd minute, it is
At the end of the 4th minute, it is

Sum = 13-6

which being divided by 4, the number of minutes elapsed during the obser-
vation, the mean is 3'4 inches of mercury per minute; and the corresponding
leakage is 587 x 3'4 = 1 99*58 cubic feet per minute. Mr. Stephensoi
makes the mean fall 3-39 inches per minute ; but its correct value, as de
duced from observation, is manifestly 3-4, as we have given it above ; am
this makes a difference in the results of nearly 0-6 cubic foot per minute ;
difference which need not be regarded in practice.

In experiment No. 2, Table I., instituted for the same purpose, the ol
servations began with a vacuum of 22 '4 inches; and at intervals of oni
minute, the several heights observed in succession, were 19-0, 15'5, 11*9, 8'4,
and 5"6 inches; giving 168 inches for the barometric range in 5 minutes:
the mean leakage per minute, is, therefore,

(22-4-5-6) x 58-7 = m.23 ^ feet.

5
Since these two experiments are so nearly equal, we are justified in concluding

that, in so far as the air-pump and connecting-pipe are concerned, the leakage
is nearly uniform for all pressures ; but with these means two others are in-
corporated, deduced from experiments performed by Mr. Bergin : these give
the average leakage per minute as high as 231 and 250 cubic feet. The par-
ticulars of these experiments are not detailed, and consequently we are unable
to test the correctness of the results obtained from them ; they, however,
exhibit differences that are by no means satisfactory, when compared with
Mr. Stephenson's ; and for this reason, it seems to us, that, in as far as
correct results are desirable, it would have been better to omit them alto-
gether. Their admission augments the average to 219'45 cubic feet per
minute ; and, since this number enters less or more into subsequent calcu-
lations, they must all in some measure be affected by the discrepancy ; we
should, however, prefer the different 'sets of experiments to stand on their own
merits, instead of being incorporated with others, performed, perhaps, under
very different circumstances, and, as is very likely, with instruments of a
much less delicate construction.

The two foregoing experiments, by Mr. Stephenson, are all that have been
registered in reference to the air-pump and connecting-pipe ; the numbers
computed for each minute separately, are perfectly consistent with the dif-
ferences of the barometric altitudes ; and, had the smaller divisions on the
scale been indicated, it is very probable that the successive falls would have
been perfectly uniform ; a circumstance which could not be anticipated from
theoretical considerations alone, and can only be accounted for on the suppo-
sition that the area of the apertures or openings varies in the inverse ratio
of the pressures. These experiments, although but few in number, are
extremely valuable as regards their practical consequences ; for, from the
extreme regularity of the results, we are led to the inference, that nearly
equal quantities of air of atmospheric density enter into the pipe in equal
times, at all heights of the barometer within the limits of observation ; and
the average quantity per minute for the Kingstown and Dalkey line, accord-
ing to our computation, is 198-406 cubic feet, or, in round numbers, 199
cubic feet ; agreeing very nearly with the experimentalist's result. In addi-
tion to these two experiments, however, several other sets have been made on
various lengths of the vacuum tube, or main, including also the length of the

1841.]

Captain Warner's Explosive Force.

161

connecting-pipe ; and of these, an attentive examination may lead to some-
thing useful as regards the law of leakage, the condition of different lengths
being well adapted for detecting the changes that may occur in relation to the
density of the air as indicated by the different heights of the barometer
throughout the observation.

In the two experiments, Nos. 5 and 6, Table I., of Mr. Stephenson's
report, the length of the vacuum tube, including the connecting-pipe, is
stated to be 8578 feet : admitting that this is the correct length, a point that
can easily be determined by actual admeasurement, the cubic contents, with a
diameter of 15 inches, will be 10,527 feet very nearly ; for
3-1416 x 8578 x 225 = 10526.7g
576
and if this be divided by 30 inches, the standard height of the mercurial
column, we obtain I = 3509 (30 — ti), for the leakage corresponding to
any height ti ; or rather, we should say, for the quantity of air in the tube
corresponding to (30 — ti) inches ; the symbol ti denoting the state of the
vacuum at the instant the observation is made. Now, at the commencement
of the experiment No. 5, the barometer showed a vacuum of 21-3 inches;
and in twelve minutes afterwards it had fallen to 6'3 inches, giving a range
of 15 inches in 12 minutes, or T25 inches per minute. Mr. Stephenson
gives 1-28 inches per minute for the average ; but it is clear, from the regis-
tered observations, that it cannot be more than 1'25. In experiment No. 6,
the observations began when the barometer showed a vacuum of 22'3 inches,
and terminated in 14 minutes afterwards with a vacuum of 5-7 inches, giving

g.o

a range for the barometer of 166 inches, or = 1*1857 inches per minute;

the average influx of air for these two cases is, therefore, as below : —
_ (21-3 — 6-3) x 350-9

Experiment No. 5.

I

12

= 438-625 cubic feet

Experiment No. 6.

350-9

416-067

l = (22-3 — 5-7) x
14

But these include the constant leakage of the air-pump and connecting-pipe,
the average of which, according to our calculation, is 198-406 cubic feet ;
consequently, by subtracting this constant amount from each of the above
results, the leakage per minute for the vacuum tube, of 7143 feet in length,
becomes,

in the one case, 438-625 — 198-406 = 240-219 cubic feet,
and in the other, 416-067 — 198406 = 217-661 „

Difference per minute . . . = 22-558 cubic feet.
It therefore appears, that the average leakage per minute is greater in the
case of No. 5 than it is in No. 6, by 22-558 cubic feet; which shows that
the influx of air to the valve-tube, is not so regular as we found it to be for
the air-pump and connecting-pipe; the difference there being only 2-35
cubic feet in a length of 1435 feet.

In the experiment No. 11, Table I., the observations commenced with a
vacuum of 21"7 inches, and terminated in 11 minutes afterwards, with the
barometer at 5-6 inches; the corresponding heights in experiment No. 12
being 21-3 and 5-5 inches ; giving a range of 16*1 inches in the one case, and
15-8 in the other; the average falls per minute are, therefore, 1-464 and
1-436 inches respectively. Now, the length of vacuum-tube in this case, is
5938 feet, including the connecting-pipe ; the cubic content is, therefore,
equal to 7287 feet, which being divided by 30, gives 2429 for the constant
corresponding to the perfect vacuum : consequently, the leakage correspond-
ing to any height ti, becomes I = 2429 (30 — ti), and the average leakage
per minute for each of the two specified experiments, is as follows, viz. —

..•xt ii " 7 (21-7 — 5-6) x 242-9

Experiment No. 11.. . I = K- —

11

= 355-517 cubic feet.

Experiment No. 12.

/

(21-3 — 5-5) x 242-9 =

n

348-893

These results, however, as in the case of Nos. 5 and 6, include the constant
leakage of the air-pump and connecting-pipe : therefore, by subtraction, we
get for a length of 4503 feet of valve-tube,

in the one case, 355-517 — 198-406 = 157-111 cubic feet,
and in the other, 348-893 — 198-406 = 150-487 „
The observations in experiment No. 17, Table I., commenced with a
vacuum of 21-3 inches, and terminated in 7 minutes afterwards, with the
barometer at 6-l inches, the corresponding heights for No. 18 being 20-9
and 5-6 inches; giving a range for the two cases, of 15-2 and 15-3 inches.
In this instance, the length of tube experimented on, including the connect-
ing-pipe, was 3298 feet; and, consequently, the cubic content is 4047-25
feet ; the 30th part of which is 134-91, very nearly : hence we get

I = 134-91 (30 — ti)
for the quantity of air in the tube corresponding to any height ti ; and the
average leakage or influx per minute, for each of the two cases, becomes,

(21-3-6-1) x 134-91 = 293>716 cubic feet<

Experiment No. 17. . . I

Experiment No. 18.

t _ (20-9 — 5-6) x 134-91

7

294-871

Therefore, if from each of these the constant leakage of the connecting- pipe
be subtracted, the average per minute, for a length of 1863 feet, becomes,
in the one case 293-716 — 198-406 = 95-31 cubic feet,
and in the other, 294-871 — 198-406 = 96-465 „
Having thus computed the several sets of experiments registered by Mr.
Stephenson, we shall now compare the results with his own ; for when they
are placed in juxtaposition with each other, the differences are more readily
detected ; and as Mr. Stephenson uses nothing but whole numbers, we shall
take oar results to the nearest unit only. They are as follows : —

Comparative Table.

No. of the Experiments.

1

2

198
197

5

231
240

6

200
218

11

137

157

12

*137
150

17

72
95

18

76
96

Mr. Stephenson's results .
! By our calculations ....

199
200

The numbers as thus compared, with the exception of those corresponding
to experiments 1 and 2, show a very considerable difference in the several
cases ; but if we take 219 cubic feet per minute as the' mean leakage of the
connecting-pipe, the several numbers deduced from our formula for the dif-
ferent lengths of valve-tube, will stand as follows: — 220, 197, 137, 130,
75, and 76, — agreeing very nearly with Mr. Stephenson's results in some
places.

By blending his own experiments with ten others performed by Mr. Bergin
under a constant range of barometer from 20 to 6 inches, Mr. Stephenson
estimates the general average at 252 cubic feet per minute for the valve-tube.
It is clear, however, that his own observations would give no such result :
and, since Mr. Bergin obtains much higher means with a less range of the
barometer, we question the propriety of their incorporation ; for it is ob-
vious, all other things being the same, that they cannot both be right : and
for this reason we suspect that a standard obtained from two sets of observa-
tions differing so widely amongst themselves, cannot be a correct one ; and
whatever conclusions may be drawn from it must, therefore, be erroneous.

We have been led into this very minute examination of Mr. Stephenson's
primary experiments, because, in reading the report, we saw, or thought we
saw, some slight discrepancies in the tabulated numbers : some of them,
however, turned out to be mere typographical errors, and the rest are mere
errors of negligence or inadvertence, not calculated to affect materially
the general deductions ; but we nevertheless thought proper to search the
matter to the bottom ; and our practical readers will be benefited by tracing
the steps of the process.

Art. IX.— CAPTAIN WARNER'S EXPLOSIVE FORCE.

The exhibition off Brighton, by Captain Warner, of the effects of the explo-
sive agent, which he professes to have completely under control, has given
fresh stimulus to the subject, which had been for some time lying dormant.
It may be remembered, that, some years since, Captain Warner's invention
was brought into notice by accounts published in the newspapers, of an experi-
ment performed by him at Wanstead, in the presence of Sir Robert Peel,
Lord Ingestre, and many other persons of influence, in which he succeeded in
shattering to pieces a large mass of timber, which had been fastened together
in the firmest manner to withstand the shock. Several negotiations were sub-
sequently entered into with the Captain for the purchase of his secret, but the
conditions required were such as to cause the negotiations to end in nothing.
If we have been correctly informed, Captain Warner has much to complain
of. The Commissioners appointed by the Government to test the practica-
bility of his invention, finding that he was more accustomed to manage a ship
than to take part in a negotiation, and that he lacked the finished manners
and polished education of a modern politician ; instead of investigating the
merits of his invention, they undertook, in the most insulting manner, to
criticise his " parts of speech," and to catechise him in orthography rather
than in gunnery. The Captain naturally took offence, and thus ended one of
the commissions. The others were not more successful, and after all attempts
had failed to arrange an experiment on a large scale at the expense of the
the Government, the friends of Captain Warner determined to test his inven-
tion at their own cost ; and Mr. Somes, the ship-owner, having generously
granted the " John o' Gaunt," a barque of 300 tons measurement, Captain
Warner undertook to blow it to pieces off Brighton. This he very effectually
did, in the presence of thousands, many of whom were persons of distinction
and influence, who had gone there for the purpose of witnessing the experiment.
Captain Warner professes to have discovered, or invented, an explosive
force, far superior in destructive agency to any hitherto known. He also pro-
fesses to possess the means of controlling this force, so as to render its appli-
cation safe to the operator, and certain in its effects. In applying it, he
adopts two means ; one of which is to be employed in defence, the other is

* This number, in Mr. Stephenson's table, is obviously a misprint: it ought to
be 131.

VOL, II.

162

Rotatory Engines.

[July,

more especially adapted for attack. It is the defensive system he has hitherto
exhibited, and it is to be regretted he should have selected that means of
operating, as it is by far less satisfactory, and less novel than the other means
of destruction which he states to be at his command. The experiment off
Brighton, indeed, we consider completely failed to prove the invention to
possess any remarkable and hitherto unknown power of destruction. There
were no sufficient precautions taken to prevent any trick, if any such had been
attempted ; and though we have no suspicion of the kind, yet those who have
would certainly not be convinced to the contrary by the Brighton experiment.
The signal given from the battery for Captain Warner to commence operations,
was intended to remove all suspicion of previous arrangement for setting Are
to a fuse connected with combustibles on board, but so long a time elapsed
between giving the signal and the destruction of the ship, that, as a pre-
cautionary measure against deception, it was altogether nugatory. The pro-
posed mode of operating, indeed, was not such as to raise public estimation of
the application of the new power. The shell containing the destructive com-
pound was to be dropped into the sea from the steamboat on board of which
Captain Warner was, and the ship to be destroyed was to be towed over the
shell, by the steamer, the explosion being caused in some manner by the
ship itself. By some contrivance, the shell, which is buoyed up so as to
float a little below the surface of the water, is attracted or drawn to the hull
of the vessel, and explodes at the same instant. The smothered sound of the
explosion proved that it took place under water. Its force took effect between
the main and mizen masts, both of which were snapped off, and were thrown
into the air ; a large volume of white smoke, or vapour issued from the
larboard side of the ship, and for a time enveloped it. The injury done below
the water-line soon caused her to fill, and she sank within two minutes after the
explosion. The foremast remained standing, and apparently uninjured.

Some of the spectators said they could see through the ship, but though we
looked at her steadily, through a good glass, we could not see the aperture
through which the water entered. The decks must have remained, for as the
vessel sunk under water, there was apparently a second explosion, occasioned
by the escape of air from between decks.

In such an application of the power, it would be mainly serviceable to a
ship that was chased, or in blockading or protecting a harbour. If sub-
marine traps can thus be laid unperceived, the dangers of navigation would
be ffreatly increased, for it is probable that a chased ship would be obliged
to drop several shells before the chaser came within the range of any one,
and the remaining explosive traps would be more dangerous than sunken
rocks. But it is needless to anticipate dangers that may, perhaps, be easily
remedied. The question is, does the invention of Captain Warner, as shown
in the destruction of the ship off Brighton, present anything in its mode
of operation, or in its effects, greatly differing from previous inven-
tions ? In our opinion it does not. It is known that Mr. Fulton, the
American engineer, devoted much attention to the construction and appli-
cation of submarine shells, which he denominated " torpedos." Those
shells were to be either taken to the ships, to be destroyed and placed under-
neath by means of long poles, or they were to be made to float against the
object, and to be exploded by means of a trigger acted on by clockwork.
In the latter way he succeeded in destroying the hulk of a vessel in the
Hudson river, and he was still more successful in the destruction of a ship
of 200 tons off Walmer Castle, then the residence of Mr. Pitt, under cir-
cumstances very similar to Captain Warner's experiment at Bi ighton. The
following is Mr. Fulton's own account of the experiment, which took place
on the 15th of October, 1805, nearly forty years since :

" Yesterday, about four o'clock, I made the intended experiment on the
brig with a carcass of one hundred and seventy pounds of powder ; and I
have pleasure to inform you that it succeeded beyond my most sanguine
expectations. Exactly in fifteen minutes from the time of drawing the peg
and throwing the carcass into the water, the explosion took place. It lifted
the brig almost bodily, and broke her completely in two. The ends sunk
immediately, and in one minute nothing was to be seen but floating frag-
ments; her mainmast and pumps were thrown into the sea, her foremast
was broken in three pieces ; her beams and knees were thrown from her
decks and sides, and the deck planks were rent to fibres."

It appears from this statement that the destruction of Fulton's ship was
even more complete than that operated on by Captain Warner ; but as we
have no means of knowing the quantity of explosive compound employed by
the latter, the effect might have been produced with a much smaller weight
of explosive compound. As there was no fixed limitation of quantity, the
experiment, so far as showing the greater energy of the force employed, was
at the least defective. Neither in the mode of operating would it seem to
be more efficacious than Fulton's.

We do not mention these circumstances with a view to underrate Captain
Warner's invention, but to show that its efficacy has not yet been proved,
and that if, as he asserts, he possess the power of propelling his shells a
distance of six miles with unerring certainty, it is greaily to be regretted he
did not exhibit that power instead of performing an experiment which might
have been as effectively accomplished by known means.

The public naturally look with suspicion at the statements of inventors,
especially when their inventions are shrouded in secrecy ; therefore, Captain
Warner must expect his averments of the extent of the power at his com-
mand to be considered as the exaggerations of a sanguine temperament,
until he proves he can accomplish what he affirms. Having, therefore, two
modes of operating', one of which is different from all known processes,

and the other but varying little from previously known modes in some of its
non-apparent details, it was most ill advised to select the latter, which, in
fact, proves nothing, and leaves the matter involved in as much doubt as
before. The only good effect will be, that, attention having been thus
publicly called to the subject, a fair investigation must be instituted into
the merits of the invention, which we hope will be conducted on both sides
with candour and urbanity.

Art. X.— THE " CITY OF LONDON" STEAMER.

This is a new iron steamer, just completed by Mr. Robert Napier, of Glas-
gow, to trade between Aberdeen and London ; and she is a vessel that does
equal credit to the spirit of her owners and the skill of her constructor. She
is, without exception, the handsomest iron steamer of the sea-going class we
have ever seen ; not merely in the beauty of her shape, for that with Mr.
Napier has ceased to be a subject for commendation — but in the careful and
workmanlike manner in which the vessel is put together, and the nice finish
and skilful adaptation of each part to its proper functions, the " City of London"
is, in our belief, without a rival. We expected from Mr. Napier a sound and
excellent construction ; the material, we were sure, would be good, the work
manship sound and elaborate, and the strength of the parts abundant. But with
all our expectation, we did not anticipate that the " City of London " would
have been the admirable vessel we find her, and, indeed, we hardly expected
to find such perfection attainable in an infant art that is but the growth of
yesterday. Such of our readers, however, as have the opportunity, will, we
trust, visit the vessel and judge for themselves, so that they may be able to
test the justice of our commendations, which might otherwise appear extrava-
gant for persons of our ill nature. We trust the proprietors will afford every
facility to the public inspection, for it is only by such a survey that an
adequate judgment can be formed, not merely of the vessel's excellence, bul
of their own enterprise and discernment.

We cannot do more this month, among our other distractions, than sei
down a few of the more material dimensions of the vessel, announcing at th<
same time our intention to give further details in our next number. The pla
of the boilers, which will be found among the plates, is, in our judgment,
very excellent one, — heavier, it is true, than the tubular boilers, but lesi
experimental ; the proprietors probably thinking that one experiment was
enough at a time. The hanging water-bridges at the extremity of the fur-
naces is an excellent expedient, and one that we have often recommended,
though in a less effectual form than that in which it is here applied.

Dimensions. — Length over all, 230 feet; length of keel, 195 feet; breadth
of beam, 31 feet; breadth over all, 53 feet; depth of hold, 19 feet, 4 inches.
The keel, a bar of iron, 6 inches deep, by 3 thick, scarphed sideways at the
joints, and riveted through ; garboard streak f inch thick ; bottom plating,
\% in. thick ; plating, from round of bulge up to 15 ft. water line, \ in. thick ;
plating of top sides, f in. thick; frames, angle iron, 5ft. by 3, and 1 foot
apart ; floors, 20 inches deep, straight on their upper sides, and terminating
at the round of the bilge ; the floors are of f in. plate, and have an angle iron
both at their superior and inferior edges, which join together where the floors
terminate, and the upper angle iron runs 6 feet up the side, affording an at-
tachment to an internal bilge plate. There is no ceiling, nor diagonal
trussing amidships, which we think a defect. There are four water-tight
bulkheads, the rivets securing which to the sides, and also those of the frames,
are 8 inches apart, so as not to weaken the ship by a vertical row of close
rivet holes. A waterway plate, of 30 in. by -^ thick, runs right round the ship
paddle beams, a box of plate iron, 22 in. by 22 and Jin. thick. Main dec
beams,*T iron, 14 in. deep ; keelsons for engines, iron boxes, 14in. wide, an
the top of the inner keelsons ranging 4 feet from the bottom plating.

The engines are on the side lever plan, but very compact, and with
malleable iron framing.; the diameter of cylinder, is 71 in., and the length of
the stroke 6ft. 6in. The following is one of the indicator diagrams, the sig
nification of which may be easily read when it is known that 2'-jth of a
inch represents lib. of pressure.

— Atmospheric line.

Art. XI.— ROTATORY ENGINES.

Rotatory Engines have hitherto been to engineering, what the trisection
of an angle has been to geometry. They have occupied the ingenuity
of some of our most gifted mechanics, at various periods in the history of
the steam engine, but up to the present time, no rotatory engine has come
into common use, a presumption, at least, that no good one has been in-

IBM,]

Rotator// Engines.

163

rented. In plate XV. of our last number, we gave delineations of some
of the early varieties, the configuration of which we may here explain.
Fig. 1. is one of the rotatory engines contrived by Watt, in which E is a
cylinder, A a revolving piston, B a valve opening and shutting like a door,
H the steam, and K the eduction passage leading to the condenser. The
steam pressing between B and A forces A into revolution, carrying with
it the shaft D, and when the piston in its revolution meets B, it forces
back in a recess and passes by, when B is again immediately forced out
by the pressure of the steam behind it. The defect of this engine is, that
A strikes B very forcibly, so as much to injure the machine. The leakage,
moreover, is greater than in common engines.

Fig. 2. and 3. is a representation of a rotatory engine, contrived by Mr.
Murdoch. EE is a steam vessel, furnished with rollers A and B, toothed
into one another, and the ends of the teeth made steam tight, where they
rub against the steam vessel. C and D are the axes of the rollers, e e and
f f the ends of the steam vessel, H the steam pipe, K the eduction pipe, r
the steam valve, A the condenser, R the air pump, and Z a crank by which
the air pump is wrought. The steam entering at H, forces the rollers from
one another in their revolution, in order to proceed towards the vacuum at
K. There is much friction in this kind of engine, much leakage, and but
a small power realized, in proportion to the size of the machine. The same
scheme is proposed for raising water in Leupold's Theatrum Machinarum of
1720, where it is called the Machina Pappenheimiana. Figs. 5. 6. and 7.
represent a rotatory engine, contrived by Hornblower, and Figs. 9. 4. and
8. Carter's improvement. The steam is admitted between two movable
rectangular leaves, A and B, placed within a cylinder EE, and these leaves
being so provided with catches that they cannot move back, the effect of the
admission of steam between the leaves is to force the foremost of them into
revolution, ee ff axe. the ends of the cylinder, h the steam pipe, Jc eduction-
pipe, DC the axes by which the steam is admitted and discharged ; there are
two steam-valves a, and two exhaustion-valves, 4, in the flat surfaces of A and
B. The steam is admitted, and the exhaustion effected through the axes, which
are made hollow for that purpose. MM, fig. 8, are clamps lodged in the cir-
cular channels w w, and their configuration is such that they will turn round
easily enough in one direction, but when forced in the other will jam, so that
they serve the purpose of a racket wheel. Similar clamps are situated within
the boxes x x and y y, and they are connected with the short, double-ended
levers xy and NN, affixed to the shafts. These are all in our last Number.

Hornblower's second rotative engine here given differs from hia former one; it
ia represented in the annexed figurea, and consiata of a vessel in which the steam
operates, made of cast-iron, extremely resembling a globe, flatted at the polea, (aee
fig. 1) which shows one of its sides, the other being similar to it. Fig. 3 ia a re-
presentation of the parts of the machine which move round within the steam vessel,
and fig. 2 represents the interior of fig. 1, with its lid removed. The pipe A, at
fig. 1, receives the steam from the boiler, to which is connected a valve-box, cf any
usual construction, by which to regulate the admisaion of steam. At B the educ-
tion-pipe is connected, leading from the upper apartment to the condensing appa-
ratus, and turning in such a direction as may be most convenient for the discharging-
pump to be wrought by means of an arbor, turned by the axle of the machine ; on
which arbor ia a small fly-wheel, for the purpose of regulating the inequality of the
crank to which the pump-rod is attached. DD is a middle part of the ateam vessel,
furnished with flanges for the purpose of screwing it to EE, and also for receiving
the lid ; by which means the partition within ia aecured to its place, in the middle
of the machine, and the lid may easily be removed for the purpose of rectifying and
repairing the internal structure. G is the square part of one end of the axis of the
machine, over which ia placed a gland, H, divided into parts, in order that it may
be put on over the square, and properly embrace the round part of the axis.
Within this gland is a stuffing-box, for the purpose of keeping the axle both air
and ateam tight. In one aide of the lower apartment of the steam vessel is a small
opening, secured by a lid, for the purpose of cleaning that part of the machine.

Fig. 2 represents the partition within the steam vessel, which may be made
either of brass or iron, or of both those metals combined. BB is the lower flange,
the upper part being taken away. CC are the two openings or passages for the
vanes : these the inventor calls vane-ports ; and to obtain a proper idea of their
figure, it must be observed, that the largest vane-port is formed by the exterior
portions of two cones, z, and at y, by a portion of the concave part of a sphere.
The extent of this passage throughout must at least be equal to ninety degrees of a
circle, and the vanes of a sufficient width, so that two of them may always make
their entrance into the vane-ports before the other two make their exit. The edge,
c c, may, therefore, be supposed to descend into the lower apartment one half of its
depth, and to rise the other half to meet the eye ; but it is not necessary that x be
so deep all the way as y, but converge towards tl e centre of the machine. This is
the ascending vane-port; the descending one is included between DD, which are
rabbets or seatings for receiving a packing ; and x represents a rising edge, so aa to
obtain a depth at least equal to the thickness of the vanes ; one half of which
edging is below, and the other half above the main axis, These edges receive two
metal plates, fixed down with screw8 on them, for the purpose of confining the
packing. The part E ia also formed spherically, and is provided with a packing-
groove, which meets the edge of metal in the middle of the vanes, k, fig. 3. FF is
the main axle of the machine, laid in its place without the vanes ; one end of which
is to perform the work required, and the other is applied to the discharging-pump.
At DD the packing extends to WW, so aa to embrace the nave as well aa the de-
scending vane, by which meana both the nave and the vanes move steam-tight in
their revolutions, vvvv is that part of the partition which forms a plane at the
axis of the globe, and is secured in its place by being seated in a rabbet with the

Hornblower's Second Rotatory, 1807.
usual jointing materials on the interior margin of the steam vessel. GG are two
brasses let down into the partition, and they are raised or depressed by screws, as
adjustment may require. At 1 1 spaces are left for packing round the axle : and
the upper brasses which keep down the axle serve also to keep it in its place. At
HH are the stuffing-boxes mentioned in fig. 1 ; they have a division-plate of metal
in them, so that ss being supplied with steam from the valve-box, the packing of
each Bide of these vacuities is rendered air-tight. The manner in which the parti-
tion and vane-ports are constructed, iB by riveting the two parts, vvvv, together,
by means of flanges at ^1 1, first having mounted them on an axis, to correct, by
turning (either by hand or otherwise) the want of smoothness and truth from the
casting; and when this is done, the main axle is fixed to its place as a guide by
which to set up the four vanes, aa at fig. 3, where, by a mere inspection, it is plain
how this is performed. The open vane exhibits a frame of metal, which receives a
plate on each side : these plates, with the edge of metal, K, cast with the frame,
form grooves and vacuities to receive the packing. The nave being hollow, receives
two iron axles, which are curved in the middle, and there cross each other.

The following is Mr. Samuel Clegg's patent for a rotative engine ef 1809 : —

164

Rotatory Engines.

[July,

Pig. 1 is the underside of a circular piece of cast-iron, and of a diameter and
thickness proportioned to the size of the engine. I is the common centre of the
different circles shown on this piece. With any convenient radius less than that
of A A, describe the circle CC, and within the latter the circles DD and EE, — the
radius of the latter being the least of those now named. Prom the uses of these
parts, which will be immediately described, an idea of their relative dimensions will
readily be inferred. Let that part of the surface AB, AB which is contained be-
tween the circles A and C, be plain. Between the circles C and D sink a circular
groove CD of any given depth ; and between the circles D and E let another cir-
cular groove be cut, of the breadth DE, and of any given depth less than that of the
groove CD. Let the remaining part of the surface AB, namely, that included
between E and B, be cut down to any depth less than the depth of the groove DE.
Into the groove CD let such a number of segments of a circle be fitted as shall
form a complete circle, excepting the space at L, which is occupied by adjusting
screws or springs, to keep the segments close together. The segments are the
breadth (or nearly) of the groove CD, and of a depth less than that of the groove
CD. Those sides of them which apply to each other are to be ground together
plain, and air-tight if possible. Their under surfaces, which are shown in fig. 1,
are to be flat, so that the whole may form one complete plain surface, excepting the
space before mentioned, which is taken up by adjusting screws or springs, L, which
screws or springs are placed so far below the surface as to let a roller pass by them,
which will be mentioned hereafter.

Clegg, 1809.
Pig. 2 represents a vertical section of the plate and grooves of fig. 1, resting
upon a circular chamber or hollow space YY, to which chamber the said plate
forms a light covering, excepting that space occupied by Bprings or screws, LL, as
before mentioned. I, the centre of all the grooves and circles before described, is
also the centre of the shaft. On the shaft, I, is fastened a plate or coupling, Z, in
which is inserted a bar, P : this bar may be of any given breadth, but in depth
must be less than that to which the circle EB was cut below the surface AB ; to
tins bar is attached a wheel or roller, G, shown in fig. 3, upon a larger scale. The
manner in which it is attached to the bar F is also there seen, and it is so attached
to it that the top of the wheel or roller, G, shall always be higher than the top of
the bar F. The wheel G, being attached to the bar F, will, when the bar is made
to revolve, describe a circular path, HHH, along the plain surface of the segments
before described. Let that portion of the plain surface of each segment which
answers to the path of the roller, G, be rounded off iu such a manner as to make

that portion of the surface an arc of a circle, the convex circumference of which
is presented to the roller G. In fig. 3, at H, is shown a perpendicular view of one
of the segments, rounded off in the manner described, and presenting its convey
circumference to the roller G. There may, likewise, be another roller attached to
the bar behind it, to lower down the segments in the same manner in which they
are raised by the first roller. Now it is obvious, all the said segments being in
their places in the groove CD, fig. 1, that the roller G, in performing a revolution
round the centre, I, must travel along a series of convex arcs of circles, equal in
number to the number of tnents in the groove CD. The groove DE is, in fact,
a recess in the deeper groove CD, and may, if necessary, be filled with hemp or
tallow, or any other material which may answer the purpose intended. It must he
remembered that fig. 1 i6 a view of the underside of the machinery. Fig. 2 is a
section of it, supposed to be iu its proper position, resting as a cover to the circular
chamber, YY, and the segments resting upon a flat facing, 00. Each segment
projects over the facing 00 on both sides ; their projection on one side completes
the cover over the hollow chamber, and the other is the rounded surface for the
roller to lift them. The facing, 00, is exactly, or as nearly as can be, level with
the under-side of the plate AB AB, when the plate is on its place, as represented in
fig. 2 ; so that when the segments are all in their places, they complete the semi-
circular chamber, and fit so close on their seats and in the groove, that were the
chamber to be filled with any elastic fluid, they would prevent its escape, or nearly,
excepting where the space is left for the springs or adjusting screws. The use of
these segments, which are what the patentee claims as his invention, is as follows : —
Conceive a door or valve to be fitted in the hollow chamber at Q, and a piston, R,
likewise fitted in the chamber so as to move round in it, and the bar F made fast to
the piston, on the side and in the manner represented in fig. 1 ; then, if an elastic
fluid of sufficient strength enters the chamber at N, it will press equally against
the door or valve, and the piston; but the door or valve being immovable, and
the piston movable, the piston will be propelled forward in the circular chamber
by the elastic fluid. The bar F being fastened to the piston, and the roller G to
the bar F, in the manner represented in fig. 3; and the roller being in motion with
the bar and piston, the roller will lift the segments in succession as it comes in
contact with them. The segments before the bar being by this means lifted, allow
the bar to pass, and the operation being the 6ame in all, the bar and piston make a
complete revolution. Each segment, as soon as the bar leaves it, falls down by its
own gravity, or by springs, or any other contrivance, so that the opening which is
made for the bar to pass is closed before the elastic fluid reaches it ; the elastic
fluid being kept from the opening by the inner breadth of the piston exceeding the
outer diameter of each segment. The door or valve is lifted out of the way of the
piston, when the piston comes in contact with it, into the opening in the plate at N,
a recess being made in that segment which is opposite the door for that purpose ;
during which time the elastic fluid is shut out, but it enters again when the door
returns to its seat, and thus the operation continues.

Our next example is Mr. Turner's Rotatory Engine, patented in 1816. Fig. 1 i:
a plan of the engine, represented as if opened to show the internal structure.
Fig. 2 is another plan. Figs. 3 and 4 are sections, taken through the axis of the
engine in different directions, to show the internal parts. A A, B B, C C, is the
cylinder, or external case of the engine, made in two or more parts, which are
fastened together with screws, so as to form a circular or annular passage,
the transverse section of which is likewise circular, as shewn at E E, figs 3 and 4.
The piston F, fig. 1, is accurately fitted into this circular passage, and is caused to
revolve therein by the pressure of the steam, which is applied behind it or on the
side F, whilst a vacuum is made before it, or on the side G. The piston being con-
nected with a central plate G, which is fixed fast upon the axis or shaft H, the said
shaft is put in motion, and by wheel-work I, or other machinery, which is best
adapted, the power of the engine is communicated to any useful purposes to which
it is intended to be applied. The means by which the force of steam is made to
produce the rotatory motion is as follows : — Two valves or sliders, K and L,
are applied at the opposite sides of the annular passage or cylinder, E E, in
the manner represented in figs. 1 and 3. The edge of the central plate G,
which has the projecting arm to communicate with the piston, must be made
so that they can be made to shut up the passage of the cylinder E E, as
represented at L, and preveut the passage of the steam through the same, or
the slider may be opened, as shown by the dotted lines, to allow the piston F to
pass freely through the cylinder ; this is done by moving it sideways on its centre
3, out of the cylinder into the box or case M, which is provided for its reception.
The sliders are put in motion by a communication from the outside of the engine,
so that each one shall begin to open as soon as the piston F approaches it, and shall
be completely opened whilst the piston passes by, and that it shall theu descend
again upon its seat. N O, figs. 1 and 4, are two passages, through each of which the
steam is alternately introduced and withdrawn from the cylinder; the two passages
are placed on opposite sides of the centre of the engine, and are provided with valves
or cocks, which are adapted to be opened and shut by the action of the machinery
in such succession, that when steam is entered from the boiler, into the cylinder at
one passage, it shall be going out into the open air, or to the condenser at the oppo-
site passage. The machinery which actuates the slides K L, and the machinery
which opens the valves for the admission and exhaustion of the steam through the
passages N and O, act in concert with each other, and also with the motion of the
piston F; so that, as soon as possible after the piston has passed by the seat of a
slider, the same shall be lowered down into its place ready to close the passage of
the cylinder behind the piston ; and the instant the piston has passed by the next
opening, the steam is admitted to flow therein, and act between the slider and the
piston, to force the same forwards in the cylinder by its expansive force.

To explain the action of the engine more clearly, suppose the parts in the
position of fig. 1 ; the slider L is shut, and the steam is flowing, through
the passage O, into the space between the slider L and the piston F,
at the same time the passage N is open to the condenser, to exhaust the

1844.]

Rotatory Engines.

165

Turner, 1816.

steam from the remaining part of the cylinder, and remove the pressure from the
front side, G, of the piston. In consequence, the pressure of the steam acting
behind the piston of the side P, puts the same in motion in the direction of
the arrow, and drives the arm of the central plate before it. The slider K.
now in the act of opening, and by the time the projecting part of the plate G
arrives at its seat, it will be quite open into the box M, where it will remain until
the piston F has passed by its seat ; it then begins to descend, and by the time
the piston arrives at the opening of the passage N, the slider K will be completely-
shut and stop the cylinder. The instant the piston has passed over the opening of the
passage N, the steam valves are changed by the machinery, so as to admit the steam
into the passage N, and also to allow the steam to pass away, through the other
passage O, to the condenser ; in consequence, the steam enters the space between
N and K, and thus, being behind the piston, drives it still forwards towards
the slider L, which immediately begins to rise by the action of the machinery, and
as soon as the projecting part G of the central plate approaches it, it will have re-
treated into the box M, leaving the cylinder free for the passage of the piston.
Immediately after the piston has passed the slider, L descends again, and gets
settled to its place by the time the piston arrives at the opening 0 ; and the instant
the piston has passed over this opening, the steam-valves are changed again ; so that
the steam will be admitted at 0, behind the piston, and act between the slider L
and the back of the piston, to force it forwards, which is the same position
represented in the figure. By this means the pressure of the steam is always
made to act behind the piston, and the vacuum is made before the same. The
sliders K and L are put in motion by levers 9 and 10, which are fitted
on the outsides of the boxes M, hut move upon the same centre pins 3, as
the sliders move upon withinside the boxes, the levers being forked, as shown
at fig. 5, to reach on each side of the boxes ; and the centre pins 3, pass through the
sides of the boxes, and also through both forks of the levers 9, 10, hut do not turn
round in the holes. To communicate motion from the levers at the outsides of the
boxes to the valves withinside, curved rods, 11, 11, are carried from the levers through
the sides of the boxes M, and jointed to the arm of the sliders ; stuffing boxes are
formed round the rods to make light fittings where they pass through the sides of the
boxes M. The ends of the levers, 9, 10, are made to he included in an eccentric
groove or rein, Z Y, fixed to the central axis H ; the form of this is shewn in fig. 2,
and is such as to hold the sliders shut, except during the time that it is necessary to
lift up the same to allow the piston to pass by. To make the sliders fit steam-
tight when they are shut, they are made rather larger than the diameter of the
cylinder, and are received in grooves made round in the inside thereof, and the
valves are ground against one of the faces of each of these grooves, so that they
will fit tight without any packing. The piston is made of several segments
put together, with springs behind them, to throw them out against the inside
surface of the cylinder, and it is thus made tight without any packing of hemp.

The next case is the patent of Mr. Joseph Eve, taken out in 1825. Fig. 1,
presents an end section ; fig. 2, a longitudinal section of this engine, "a a, are the
cylinder and cone, revolving in contact in opposite directions, the cone having one
groove, and being one third of the diameter of the cylinder, which latter has three
wings or pistons ccc, the ends of which, as they revolve, touch the outer case e,
and do not admit any steam to pass. The steam is admitted through the pipe f,
and acting on the wing c, causes the cylinder to revolve until the said wing passes
the pipe g, when the volume of steam lodged between each two wings, is allowed
to escape. The wing, which has thus passed, falls into the groove d of the cone,
the bottom of which groove it touches in passing, thus allowing no steam to escape
between. The said wing c then passes again by the steam pipe/-, and is acted upon
as before described, and so on in rotation. The cylinder a, which is firmly fixed to
its axis b, rests on one side on the outer case e, through which the axis projects ;
but as there is some friction produced by the revolution of the said cylinder at its
two ends touching the outer case, I have placed a false end h h, under the opposite
end of the cylinder, which false end slides on the axis 6 freely, and has a thread
cut at the end, by means of which, and the adjusting nut i, the cylinder, if worn
at the two ends, can be easily tightened and adjusted. The adjusting nut is con-
fined by the collar k, which collar is screwed to the outer case. The conical shape
of the small runner, which can likewise he moved upwards or downwards in the
outer case, serves to keep the two convex surfaces of the cylinder and cone in contact.

" The groove d, in the conical runner, is cut into a separate piece of metal, which
slides by an adjusting screw o up and down ; so that when the engine is adjusted,
the groove d, on the piece of metal, into which the said groove is cut, can he moved
up and down, so as to fit the wings of the cylinder.

" Letters nn, in fig. 2, represent 2 cog-wheels running into each other, attached
on the outside of the engine to the axis of the cylinder and cone, placed there for
the purpose of producing a corresponding revolution of the said cylinder and cone,
thus causing the groove of the cone to present itself regularly to the wings of the
cylinder ; o is a pinion fixed to the other end of the axis, by means of which any
machinery can be put into motion.

"Another variety of constituting a steam engine on this principle is shown by an
end section view in fig. 5, and an external view in fig. 6. This engine has a cylin-
der with two small conical runners on each side, the said conical runners being of
the same construction as before described, with one groove cut into each, and being
one third of the diameter of the cylinder. There are two induction and two
eduction steam pipes, and, although the engine may be, with the exception of the
addition of one of the conical runners, exactly of the same size as the one first
described, a double quantity of steam is requisite, and twice the power of the for-
mer engine is gained : the steam enters through the pipe fa, and acts on the wing
c, which, after having passed pipe^'o, where the steam escapes, falls into the grooved of
the lower cone, and agpearing at the induction steam pipe/"l, is loaded again witli
steam pressure, which it discharges at the second eduction pipe g o, and then enters
the groove of the upper cone, which having passed, it is loaded again at the first-
mentioned induction pipe.

166

Rotatory Engines.

[July,

Fig. 1.

Fig. 5.

" Letters m m are bridges, by which the spindles on axis b b b are supported. This
engine has three cog-wheels nnn attached to the three spindles, so as to cause the
cylinder and cones to revolve in unison, and, like the first described engine, a pinion
o on the opposite end of the axis of the cylinder. Fig. 7, shows an end section ;
fig. 8, a longitudinal section ; and fig. 9, the exterior.

" The two conical runners in this engine are of an equal length and diameter,
each has two wings or pistons attached, and two grooves cut into it, and in revolv-
ing in opposite directions, the wing of one runner falls alternately into the groove
of the other. The steam enters by pipe/| and as the cylinders are running in con-
tact, it cannot escape between them, but acts upon the two wings in opposite direc-
tions, and escapes at (he eduction pipe g, after the said wings have passed the same.
By reference to fig. 8, which represents a longitudinal section, it will be seen that
the two cones have each two false ends pp, sliding freely on their spindles ; the
two outer cases e e fit over the runners and their wings exactly, each of the four
false ends has an adjusting nut, by which the engine is tightened, if steam should
escape, or slackened, if it should run too tight. Each pair of the false ends, where
they join, have a plate that connects them and breaks their joints, so as to prevent
an escape of steam ; this plate p slides into the groover, cut out of the false ends,
as exhibited by fig. 3, and fig. 4, the former showing an end view of the false ends
with the connecting plate in the middle. On these false ends packing rings, ggg,
which are confined to the sliding plate as exhibited in the latter figure, are placed.
These rings press against the hollow outer cases, and prevent any steam escaping by
them. These packing rings are shown in section, in fig. 8. It will be evident
that the false ends need not be made true, if the connecting plates and packing
rings, as above described, be adopted, and that the engine, if provided with move-
able false ends, conical runners, and the afore-described connecting plates, and
packing rings attached, as shown in fig. 8, can always be kept steam-tight, and by
use the various parts, on which there is any friction, will fit better."

Fig. 1 is the representation of a rotatory engine that has been for som
time in operation at Glasgow. The revolving piston is an eccentric, an
in its revolution raises a valve furnished with strong guides to resist the
disturbing pressure, and its end is rounded to accommodate the bearing1
surface to the eccentric in all its positions.

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

Eve, 1825.

The Earl of Dundonald, 1844

1844.]

Marvels of the Day.

167

Fig. 2 is Beale's rotatory engine, in which the steam is admitted on the
one side of an eccentric frame, furnished with rollers, which serve the place
of pistons ; and the centrifugal force is reckoned capable of keeping the
rollers against the interior of the cylinder.

Fig. 3 is the engine shown in the last patent of the Earl of Dundonald.
It is not very correctly represented in the accompanying sketch, which is,
nevertheless, copied from the rough drawing given in his specification.
This plan very much resembles that contrived by Watt, except that an
eccentric is substituted for a leaf, and a ball and socket joint is introduced
in order to enable the steam and exhaustion doors to make a steam-tight
junction with the eccentric.

The following is the description of Mr. Peter Borrie's Rotatory Engine,
of 1844, which is certainly the most creditable specimen of a rotatory
engine hitherto brought under the notice of the public. This engine is
represented in one of the plates of our present number. The letters in all
the figures refer to similar parts. Fig. 1. is a transverse section, through
the centre of the cylinder; Fig. 2. a longitudinal section of the engine ; Fig.
3. a transverse section through the centre of the air pump, and showing
an end elevation of the other parts; Fig. 4. a side elevation of the engine ;
and Fig. 5. a ground plan. A is the foundation plate, to which all the
parts of the engine are directly, or indirectly, attached. B is the external
cylinder, fixed to the foundation plate. C is a smaller cylinder, revolving
within the external one, on a shaft D, whose centre is placed so far above
that of the external cylinder, that their circumferences may touch one
aLother at the upper point A1, thus the space between them gradually in-
creases from A1 to the lower point h- ; (the shaft D passes through steam
tight stuffing boxes in the cylinder ends, and revolves in bearings on the
frames ZZ, which are firmly bolted to the foundation plate, and stayed to
the cylinder.) EE are two sliding pistons, consisting each of two arms,
connected together by four rods passing over the shaft, their breadth is
equal to that of the outer cylinder, and their joint length over their ex-
tremities is necessarily somewhat less than its diameter, owing to the eccen-
tricity of the revolving cylinder; these pistons slide freely at right angles
to one another, through passages made in the circumference of the revolving
cylinder, their sliding motion being caused by the pressure of one of their
extremities on the ascending side of the outer cylinder, (whichever side
that may be,) and the eccentricity of the revolving cj'linder through which
they slide. As their length is always slightly varying during the course of
a revolution, the difference is made up by metallic packing placed between
the two thicknesses of plates of which the arms of the pistons are com-
posed; the packing is pressed by springs toward the sides and circumference
of the outer cylinder, and will be understood by referring to Figs. 1. and
2. on the drawing. There are metallic packings (in the passages in the
inner cylinder through which the pistons slide) which are pressed on the
flat surfaces of the pistons by springs, and prevent the steam passing to
the interior. There are also two steel rollers at the inside of the packings,
which are pressed up to the flat sides of the pistons by screws, these are
for the purpose of diminishing the friction of their sliding motion. These
rollers would not be necessary excepting in large engines. The rim of the
inner cylinder is made to project into metallic packing boxes in the cylinder
ends, thus the steam is entirely prevented from passing into the interior
of the inner cylinder ; a packing box is also placed at the point of contact
A1, to prevent the steam passing to either side. It will therefore be under-
stood, that the steam only acts on the projecting part of the sliding pistons,
between the inner and outer cylinders. The steam in coming from the
boiler, through the steam pipe F, has first to pass the slide G, which is
worked by the handle H, it is used for regulating the speed of the engine,
and also for stopping it, when required ; after passing the above slide, it
enters the steam tight jacket J, the bottom of which is the slide face having
the four cylinder ports K, L, M, and N, and the eduction port Q on it,
a slide O worked by a handle P passes over these ports for the purpose
of reversing the motion of the engine, there are two posts O1 and O2 on the
slide, one of which, O2, (in the position the slide is shown on the drawing)
is open to the steam port L, the port N is closed, and the two ports 1V1 and
K are open to the eduction port Q, so that when the slide is in this position,
the engine will necessarily move in the direction indicated by the arrows,
and by moving the slide along until the port I)1 is above the steam port K,
then will the port M be closed, and N and L open to eduction, so that the
steam will act at the opposite side of the cylinder, and consequently the
motion be reversed. It will here be observed that the lower cylinder ports
M and N are never used for admitting steam, but only for leading off the
eduction; the object in placing them so low in the cylinder is to allow the
vacuum to act upon the pistons sooner, it will be kept in mind then that,
in whatever direction the shaft revolves, the steam is always admitted at one
of the upper ports K or L, and the eduction led off at its opposite lower
and upper ports. All these ports where they lead into the cylinder are
divided into bridges placed diagonally across them, so that the pistons may
pass freely over them. From the relative position of the two cylinders
the distance between their circumferences gradually increasing from contact
at the upper point A1, to the greatest distance at the lower point A2, (which
in this case is one-sixth of the diameter of the external cylinder, but may
be varied according to circumstances,) it will be seen that in whatever direc-
tion the engine revolves, the area of that part of the pistons which is acted
on by steam and vacuum gradually increases, so lhat the principle of expan-
sion is carried out to its fullest extent, without the aid of expansion valves

and gear. The steam passing through the eduction passage Q is conducted
by the eduction pipe R to the condenser S. T, is the injection slide, placed
at the lower end of the eduction pipe, and conducting the water up the
pipe, so as to act fully on the steam in passing downwards; it is worked
by a lever and rod connected to the handle U, which is placed in proximity
with the other starting handles H and P. V is the blow through valve. W
is the air pump, which is a double acting one, the interior arrangement of
its valve, &c. is shown at Fig. 3 ; it has a metallic packed piston, which is
worked from the main shaft by a crank and connecting rod, and the piston
rod is kept parallel by two slide guides bolted on the air pump cover. X
is the hot well and Y the discharge passage. The pumps are worked from
the main shaft by an eccentric C, connected by rod and lever to a rocking
shaft d, on which are keyed two levers e and/-, which are connected by rods
to the pumps g and A ; the pump g, is intended for the bilge water, (sup-
pooing this to be a marine engine,) and the pump A, for feeding the boilers,
the latter has its valve chest,/', bolted on the hot well.

It will he observed, that the steam in the compartment between the vanes
is cut off from all connexion, either with the boiler or the condenser, and
as the space in which the steam is confined is constantly enlarged by the
revolution of the cylinder, the expansive action of the steam tends, wedge-
like, to assist in the production of this rotatory motion. The steam, in
short, having a tendency to enlarge its bulk, forces the cylinder round
as the only means it has of enlarging the dimensions of its prison house.
In the engine shown on the drawing, the steam is expanded to about 2£
times its original bulk before it escapes at all. The passages, N and K
are additional steam and exhaust passages, principally used in reversing the
engine ; but we do not enter into further details, and shall conclude this
notice by a few remarks on the advantages the projector anticipates from
this engine, in comparison with the common reciprocating one. The draw-
ing represents au engine with outside cylinder, 3ft. 6in. diameter, and 1ft.
6in. long ; and internal cylinder, 2ft. llin. diameter. The steam is supposed
to be at 301bs. pressure above the atmosphere, and the vacuum in the con-
denser to be 121bs. per square inch. From these data, the projector calcu-
lates that, at a speed of 50 revolutions per minute, allowing 10 per cent,
for friction, the engine will raise l,976,4001bs., 1 foot high per minute,
with a consumption of -37 cubic feet of water, in the shape of steam. We
do not altogether understand the very long calculation by which Mr. Borrie
arrives at this result ; but, from somewhat simpler computations of our
own, we believe he is not far wrong in his result which makes this engine
one of about 60 horse power. As it is admitted, that a common low pres-
sure condensing Boulton and Watt engine requires about three times the
quantity of steam for the same power, the patentee arrives at the conclusion
that his engine will save two thirds of the coals consumed by the ordinary
engines. Several considerations prevent us acquiescing in this. In esti-
mating the quantity of steam used in a Boulton and Watt engine, 37 per
cent, is allowed for friction, leakage, &c. besides one-twelfth more forfilliDg
the passages, slide valves, &c. In Mr. Borrie's estimate of the powers of
his own engine, he allows only 10 per cent, for friction, and nothing at all
for steam wasted in filling passages. Then, again, there can he no fair com-
parison between a high pressure condensing and expansive engine, with
steam at 301bs. on the inch, and expanding to above twice its original
volume, and a low pressure non-expansive engine. We think, however,
that this engine promises well ; and it is obviously the production of a
person that knows what he is about.

Art. XII.— MARVELS OP THE DAY.

Jeffary's Cement. — This composition has been tried on the bottom of a vessel
employed in the North Sea as a tender to the " Blazer," surveying vessel. The
experiment has not in this case proved successful, as the cement in some parts was
washed off; and where this did not take place, the bottom was very foul with
weeds, &c. ; the vessel has, in consequence, been re-coppered.

The Comet. — This new visitor was discovered by M. d' Arrest, at the observatory
at Berlin, on the night between the 9th and 10th of July. It was first detected in
the constellation Hercules, near the star v. About 47 minutes after midnight its
direct ascension was 244° 25' and its northern declination 45° 23' ; and at the end
of 24 hours the former was discovered to have decreased by about 1^ degrees, and
the latter by about 36'. The comet appears as a clear round nebula with a well-
defined diameter.

New Thermometer. — A German, named Stohrer, has recently constructed a
metallic thermometer, founded on the different capacity of extension in different
metals. A layer of steel and one of zinc are closely united together in their
whole lengths. As the zinc contracts or extends more than the steel by changes of
temperature, the united metallic layer is variously deflected according to the degrees
of heat or cold, and these degrees are indicated on a scale by a baud, put in motion
by a thread, the tension of which is governed by the amount of deflection of the
metal. This instrument is said to be very sensitive of the least changes, and well
adapted to determine high degrees of temperature. The contrivance is, however,
not new.

Riissian Gold. — According to a late account, the gold-producing region of Siberia
has been established to extend from the eastern slope of the Ural to the Altai
mountains, and auriferous strata run also along the Chinese frontier over a tract of
80,000 geographical square miles. Within the 200dth part of this extent, along the
Ural alone, 300 pouds (or 12,000 pounds) of gold are raised yi-.iT y. The gold has
been obtained hitherto only from the Band, but Hoffmann has lately discovered it
in the granite of Siberia.

168

Marvels of the Day.

The Clay Cure. — A new curative agent has made its appearance in Paris, to
which adherents, probably, 'will not be wanting, any more than to homoeopathy and
hydropathy. A physician, Dr. Paisant, on the well-known fact that birds fre-
quently pick up clay and sand in order to scour themselves out, and also that some
tribes in America eat earth in time of famine, has invented a clay-cure. The
patient by eating clay cleanses his stomach. All diseases are to be cured by clay,
which is administered partly by means of broth, in pills, plasters, or baths.

Raihvay between Prague and Brum. — The formation of the railroad between
Prague and Brunn (Moravia) is in active progress. At one part, however, near
the commencement of the line, where it runs along the side of the Zisca moun-
tain, the road has sunk from a want of proper support, and it is expected that con-
siderable time aud money will have to be expended in rendering this part of the
Hue secure.

Great Hungarian Railway. — At a general meeting of the directors of the Hun-
garian central railway, held at Presburg, on the 29th of June last, it was deter-
mined tiiat the work should be carried along the left bank of the Danube, and
be commenced without delay. The long-projected branch road, from Ganserndorf
to Presburg, is to be an atmospheric railway.

Bavarian Railways. — It is confidently reported that, on the most imperative
orders of the government of Bavaria, the railroads between Nuremberg and Bamberg,
and that between Strasburg and Donanworth, are to be completed and ready for use
at the end of August. The levelling for the western railroad from Bamberg to
Frankfort on the Maine is everywhere going on most actively. At the end of July
the directors of the Bavarian and Saxon railroads purpose to meet at Leipsic to
deliberate on their mutual interests.

Statistics of German Locomotives. — On the twenty-two German railroads at
present in existence, 296 locomotives are employed. 194 of these are of English
manufacture, 57 of German, 16 of Belgian, and 29 have been manufactured in
America. Of the above-mentioned English locomotives, 81 were made by Mr.
Stephenson, of Newcastle; 62 by Sharp and Co., of Manchester ; 11 by Turner
Evans, of Newton ; 10 by Rothwell, of Bolton; 5 by Forrester, of Liverpool; 5
by Longridge, of Newcastle ; 5 by Kirtley, of Warrington ; 5 by Taylor, of the
same place, and 4 by Bury, of Liverpool. Of the German, 20 were manufac-
tured by Borsig, in Berlin ; the rest in different other manufactories in Germany.

H. M. S. " Camperdoivn." — This ship, of 104 guns, has arrived at Portsmouth,
and is to be raze'ed : this will transform her into a ship of the line of 80 guns. We
should be glad to see the whole of the smaller first-rates served in the same 'way.
Their dimensions vary very little from those of the old " Canopus," formerly of 84
guns, now reduced to 80 — an old French design of the last century.

" Camperdown." " Canopus."

Length 196ft. Oin. 193ft. lOin.

Breadth 51 2 51 6

Tonnage 2278 tons. 2257 tons.

Frigates of B0 Guns. — There are seven frigates, of 50 guns, ordered to be built
for the Royal Navy, from designs by the Surveyor of the Navy, and tho builders of
Chatham and Portsmouth Dock-yards. They are of improved dimensions, and
may be expected to be superior to any frigates of this class hitherto built. Also a
new construction of brigs of 10 guns.

Dimensions. 50-gun frigates.

Length. Breadth. Depth. Constructor,
ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. Tons.

Constance, Arethusa, 1 0 52 8 16 3 2126-f Sl,!:veEr of

Liffey ... J |_ the Navy.

Leander, Shannon . 181 4 49 10 16 8 1960 Mr. Blake.

Raleigh, Severn . . 180 0 50 0 16 8 1935 Mr. Fincham.
Old 50-gun frigates.

Barbara (Raze'e) . . 178 5 47 11 13 10 1770

Vernon .... 176 0 52 8 17 1 2083

10-gun brigs.

New class. ... 93 0 29 0 13 6 328 / 8a7*y°T of

the Navy.

Old class .... 90 0 24 6 11 0 235

" Retribution." — This steam-vessel (known as the " Watt") was launched at
Chatham Dock-yard on the 2nd ult. She is of the power of 800 horses, and is to
he armed with ten guns. We have already given her dimensions.

Forward. Abaft.

Draught of water at launching 10ft. 6in. 9ft. 7in.

Diameter of wheels 34 0

Breadth of ditto 13 0

Draught of water when fully equipped .... 18 0 18 0

Weight of engines, including water in the boilers, 600 tons.

Coals 500 „

The consumption of coals will bo about 69 tons per day; she will take on board,
therefore, seven days' coals.

FROM OUR OWN CORRESPONDENT.

Calcutta. — Ocean Steam Navigation. — The "Hindostan" leaves to-morrow
morning, with about eighty passengers— a larger number than was expected, this
being a bad time of the year for a passage home. The last homeward passage she
appears to have executed famously — barring the accident at starting— as her average
speed was 95 knots an hour the whole way. I understand that, on her next re-
turn, she is to go into dock, to be overhauled. The dock is a private one, and is
now being lengthened to receive her. I mentioned in my last, that the Bombay
Express Mail reached us nearly two days before the " Hindostan " arrived ; and I

now find that the cause of this most extraordinary occurrence was, that the Hon
Company's steamer, the " Cleopatra," had quickened her pace to an average speed of
8 knots an hour, being under steam on the voyage from Suez to Bombay only 15
days and 23 hours. The commander, whose first trip it was, exerted himself so
much, and pleased the passengers so well, that they subscribed a handsome sum to
purchase some token of regard. The " Hugh Lindsay," in 1833, in performing the
same voyage, was under steam 23 days and 17 hours — on an average of 5"2 knots
an hour. We have, however, got ahead of the Bombay Mail this month, as thai
left Calcutta seven days ago, to be in time for the Bombay vessel, which starts
twelve or thirteen days sooner, in this and the next two or three months, as the
S.W. monsoon sets in about this time. An extra steamer was despatched from
Bombay, about a week ago, for the Red Sea, to provide against accidents. The
" Hindostan," however, has not altered her day of sailing in consequence of the
monsoon ; and it remains to be seen whether she will reach Suez in good time
or not.

Tlw Rajmahl Canal. — It appears that the question of expending the money
requisite for the construction of the Rajmahl Canal has been referred by Lord
Ellenborough to the Home authorities. When the answer will be returned to India,
it is difficult to guess, as the question will, of course, be made the subject of sundry
controversial and adjourned meetings of Proprietors ; and when these preliminaries
have been settled, and the resolution has at last been formed, that the work is to
go on, the decree will probably reach us when those who took a lively interest in
the measure will have retired from the council or from the service ; and twenty-
five years more will perhaps elapse before the work is begun in earnest. His
Lordship, the Governor-General, however, is not an engineer; and there is to
little glitter and display about so sober and useful a work as a canal, to captivate
his imagination. Indeed, as was observed the other day, this Protean personage
does not belong to any of the learned professions, nor unlearned neither, unless that
of an amateur soldier may be designated as such, who is afflicted with a thirst for
glory and the " bombastes furioso." This " Napoleon the Little" did not think it
necessary to send home for leave, when he ordained thirty lakhs of rupees to be
distributed among the soldiers, or gave away sweetmeats among the Sepoys. Oh.
no ! these were steps, of the expediency of which no doubt could be entertained,
because they ministered to the purposes of vain-glory : but an undertaking of so
sombre a hue as a canal, or any other work of utility — that was only to be done
by warrant from the Court of Directors.

Recovery of Articles from the Wreck of the " Memnon." — T observe that one of the
East India Company's lieutenants, who had been sent to the " Memnon," to recover
what he could from the wreck, has returned to Aden with the most valuable por-
tions— viz., the greater part of the wrought-iron work of the engines; the copper
sheathing and boilers ; all the guns, except one 68-pounder; the cables, anchors,
and much of the engineer's stores. Another steamer belonging to the Company,
the "Zenobia," has departed this life. Her engines have been taken out at Bom-
bay, where it was tried to sell the bull a few days ago ; but the natives would not
give even a third of the sum demanded.

Coal Mine in the Punjaub. — Some German geologists eame out to this country
lately, at the suggestion of General Ventura, to work a coal-mine in the Punjaub —
(that nice tit-hit, which it is supposed our Governor-General will be inquiring after
next cold season) — but they have prudently stopped short at Ferozepore, ovving to
the present troubles among the Sikhs.

Assam Tea Company. — A meeting was held, a few days ago, of the shareholders
of the Assam Tea Company. Its present condition does not appear to be very
flourishing — at least, so say the shareholders, whose idea of prosperity is, of course,
bounded by the per-centage. The capital of the Company originally consisted of
8,000 shares in England, and 2,000 in India, at 50?. each. The Company have
locations in the northern and southern divisions of Assam, where they grow their
tea — bringing into market 150,0001bs. of tea yearly, which sells for 2s. per lb.
200,000?. of capital has been already expended ; and a further instalment on the
shares is now to be called for. It is proposed to lessen the cost of production, by
sundry alterations in the management, so that it should not exceed Is. 3d. per lb.,
and that the monthly expenditure of the Company should be reduced to 700?.
Should this be carried out, a clear annual profit would be realized of 6,600?., or
13 per cent, upon the amount of the original capital. The Company have a saw-
mill, which, as they have not the means of bringing into operation, and, as they
can find no person to farm the mill, they propose to bring it from Assam to Cal-
cutta. There are probably many expenses now incurred in the production and
packing of the tea, which might be lessened, without detriment to the quality. For
instance, some expense must be incurred in papering and civilizing the appearance
of the boxes containing the tea, which is certainly unnecessary. If it be supposed
that such refinements are protections against pilfering or adulteration, the same
ends could he accomplished by using a simple and cheap covering of gunny,
branded with the mark of the Association; but it is well known that people bent
upon fraud, will, if the opportunity be afforded them, overcome far more serious
obstacles than either hieroglyphic papering, or any covering, however well daubed
with private marks.

New Church in Calcutta. — Before winding up, there is one thing I wish you to
tell our worthy friend Sandy Gray, with my kind remembrances, and that is, that
his freens, the Free Kirk folks, are actually going to adorn Calcutta with a fine
Gothic church. The design has been presented to them by a Capt. Goodwyn, of |
the Engineers, who has also offered to superintend the construction. The esti- i
mated cost is 3,000?.; and of this there are funds to the amount of 2,080?. already
available. 800?. has been expended on a piece of ground, about an acre in extent, j
which will afford room for a commodious school-house as well as the church.

MAC.

DETAILS OF THE CITY OF LONDON IRON STEAMER.

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THE ARTIZAN.

No. XX.— AUGUST 31st, 1844.

Art. I.— POLE ON THE CORNISH ENGINE.

Appendix G to the Nev> Edition of Tredgold on the Steam Engine; being a
Treatise on the Cornish Pumping Engine. By William Pole. London:
John Weale. 1844.

A curious farrago is this evergreen new edition of Tredgold on the Steam
Engine, with its multitudinous appendices, and endless repetitions and contra-
dictions. If an edition of a book, after the lapse of time that has taken place
since this edition appeared, can still be called new, it is not easy to understand
what length of life would suffice to render it old ; and if any new book on the
steam-engine may be tacked on to the end of Tredgold, though without any
more natural connexion therewith than with any other treatise on the same
subject, it is difficult to assign any dimensions beyond which Tredgold may
not swell within the next decennium. The worst of it is, too, that a large
part of the additions are not new additions ; but every writer of an appendix
must begin at the beginning for himself, and either repeat or contradict the
statements of his predecessor, and here, at Appendix G, we have Mr. Pole
discoursing of Savery and Newcomen with as much zeal and prolixity as if
not a word had previously been said upon the subject. That there is not a
large accumulation of useful information in this leviathan treatise, we by no
means maintain ; for it would be easy to point out a great deal that is de-
serving of commendation ; and we know of no work that is better executed,
as regards engraving and typography. But the repetition, and, what is worse,
the inconsistency that is perpetually recurring, is intolerable ; and cheap as
the work may appear, it is not so in reality ; as, were the rubbish cast out,
it would collapse into insignificant dimensions. The fact is, Tredgold and
his appendices are, at best, only the materials of a didactic treatise ; the com-
ponent parts have never been harmonized or digested, but have been thrown
together in a heap ; and their proper selection and arrangement pre-supposes
that knowledge on the part of the student, which it is the object of a treatise
on the steam-engine to impart. For these sins, however, Mr. Pole is only
to a small extent answerable ; and his criminality is considerably diminished,
if, as we take the fact to be, he wrote his book without any design of making
it an appendix to Tredgold at all. We are disposed to consider the production
before us in this view of the case, as, in the jurisprudence of criticism, as
well as in that of graver tribunals, the offender is entitled to the benefit of the
doubt.

Mr. Pole divides his work into two parts. The first of these is an histo-
rical account of the application of the steam-engine to the drainage of the
Cornish mines — beginning, of course, with Savery, and ending with Lean's
reports. There is a good deal of research displayed in this compilation ; but
it is a compilation merely such as laborious dulness may at any time accom-
plish, and stands but little recommended by sagacity of remark or vivacity
of narration. Indeed, Mr. Pole is pretty nearly as long-winded as Mr.
Farey, without his profundity or exactitude, and appears to have nearly as
great an affection for adorning his pages with an array of notes, which tell
of nothing so strongly as of his inexpertness at weaving what he has to say
into a continuous story. He appears to think nothing can be unimportant
to the reader that he may happen to know ; and, instead of giving us a selec-
tion of his ideas, or such as bear with most propriety upon the subject, we
are overwhelmed with a mass of heterogeneous rubbish, of which the greater
part is antiquated, and the rest of but little value. On the ground, indeed,
of his book having nothing to do with Tredgold, Mr. Pole may plead that he
was entitled to give an historical account of the improvement of the steam-
engine, and that his book would have been incomplete without some such
introduction. But we have strong doubts of the validity of this plea in the
case of a book treating not on the steam-engine in general, but only of otie
variety of the steam-engine. If such a latitude be allowed, the first man that
undertakes to write a book upon the rotative engine may claim the same
liberty : the discourser on rotatory eDgines will come next, and then the
industrious authors on railways and steam navigation ; so that we shall have
the same old story ten times told in any collection of discourses which,
taken together, only professes to give one account of the steam-engine under
all its modifications. In the case of Tredgold's original treatise, or Farey's,
or any other work pretending to treat of every kind of steam-engine, the
case is different ; for these books are supposed to be complete in themselves ;

VOL. II.

and the possessor of one of them is not supposed to possess the others, so
that they would certainly each be imperfect, if the history of the invention
were omitted. But the author of a discourse on one branch of the subject
has no more right to go back to Savery or Newcomen, than the author of a
general treatise has to repeat the exploits of these venerable personages under
each division of the subject.

The second part of Mr. Pole's treatise is devoted to the explanation of cer-
tain plates of Cornish engines which accompany the work, and which strike
us as being somewhat superfluous, after the plates already given by Mr.
Wickstead. They are certainly very well engraved plates, and, we doubt not,
very exact ones ; but we are not aware that the engines represented possess
any peculiar virtue, or are superior in any respect to those Mr. Wickstead
has given. We see very little use in this multiplication of things that are
almost identical ; and we do not anticipate that such productions will be
found to sell. In fact, a book upon the Cornish engine, however good it
might be, could not be expected to have a large circulation, as the number
of people interested in that description of engine is inconsiderable compared
with the number interested in engines generally ; and its sale would be very
much in the inverse proportion of the difference. We fear, however, that this
book will not materially satisfy even the wants of the Cornish engineer, as it
is very deficient in that practical information that men engaged in the con-
struction of engines require ; and we believe we may safely say, that the
workmen of Hayle or Perran would give very little for such a treatise.
There is a great deal of useful information about the duty of engines ;
and the chief differences between a Cornish and Boulton and Watt engine,
are certainly stated very well ; but there are no practical rules given for
guiding engineers how to make engines upon the Cornish plan, or for com-
puting strengths or dimensions. The sizes, indeed, of some of the parts are
given incidentally in some places of the volume, and a good number of dimen-
sions are marked upon the plates ; but there is a lamentable dearth of rules
and general dimensions, though these are the elements which constitute the
main value of a practical treatise. — It is time, however, that we should lay
before our readers a few extracts ; and we may first take two or three para-
graphs at random from Part the First, and by which we think it will appear
that Mr. Pole stands clearly convicted of discoursing of the antiquities of
engineering science, though such topics are only allowable in the case of a
treatise upon the steam-engine in general.

" Thomas Savery, commonly called Captain Savery, early brought into use an
effective machine for raising water by the agency of steam ; and although his engine
never appears to have been actually used in the Cornish mines, the efforts he made
to introduce it into the county entitle him to mention here.

" Of his life and history, little is known. By some parties he has been called a
sea-faring man ; but a passage in his ' Miner's Friend' decidedly negatives this
notion. Switzer, in his ' Hydrostatics,' vol. ii., page 325, speaks of his engine as
the invention of a ' gentleman with whom I had the honour, long since, to be well
acquainted. I mean the ingenious Captain Savery, some time since deceased, but
then a most noted engineer, and one of the Commissioners of the Sick and
Wounded.' It has been asserted he was originally a working miner; but the sup-
position is highly improbable, and entirely without proof. He was a Fellow of the
Royal Society, and a man of superior attainments ; of great talent, and energy of
character; occupying a good station in society, and possessing a tolerable share
of opulence.

" It is by no means certain from what source the title of Captain, handed down
to us in connexion with his name, was derived. In the 'Transactions of the
Royal Society,' he is designated simply ' Mr. Savery ;' and in his ' Miner's Friend,'
and his ' Navigation Improved,' he styles himself ' Thomas Savery, Gent. ;' from
which we may infer it was not an appellation which the Royal Society acknow-
ledged, or which he himself was at all anxious to display. Mr. Farey suggests that
he might have been called Captain by the miners of Cornwall, in consequence of
his bein<* employed to drain the water for them, and of his attempts to introduce
his engine there ; but for the first statement there does not appear any proof; and
it must be noticed that the Cornish miners are not in the habit of giving the ap-
pellation of Captain to any strangers who may visit their country, but restrict it to
those among themselves, who have the actual superintendence of their mining or
engineering operations.

" It seems that his project had attracted the attention of the miners before this
work appeared ; for he commences his address to ' the Gentlemen Adventurers in

170

Pols on the Cornish Engine.

[August,

the Mines of England,' in the following language : — ' I am very sensible a great
many among you do as yet look upon my invention of raising water by the impel-
lent force of fire as a useless sort of project, that never can answer my designs or
pretensions ; and that it is altogether impossible that such an engine as this can be
wrought underground, and succeed in the raising of water and draining your mines,
so as to deserve any encouragement from you. I am not very fond of lying under
the scandal of a bare projector ; and, therefore, present you here with a draught of
my machine, and lay before you the uses of it, and leave it to your consideration
whether it be worth your while to make use of it or no.' The latter part of the
work is devoted to a curious ' Dialogue between a Miner and the Author,' wherein
are stated and answered several objections that had been brought against the
engine."

Then, as to Newcomen, —

" It is often imagined that the general principle of producing a vacuum by the
condensation of steam, was what Savery claimed, and on this ground the injustice
of pretensions has been animadverted upon; but it is not at all probable that the
patentees would have so quietly submitted had this been the foundation of Savery's
demand, as they well knew that Papin had anticipated him in this by many years,
although probably Savery himself was unaware of Papin's prior discovery.

"It must have been the peculiar method of effecting the condensation, by the
application of cold water to the exterior of the vessel to which Savery asserted his
right, and to this he was justly entitled as its inventor. Papin proposed to allow
the steam to condense by simply removing the fire from the vessel and letting it
cool of itself by exposure to the air : this would have been very slow in its opera-
tion, and hence, when Newcomen is reported to have consulted Dr. Hooke on the
applicability of Papin's project, the doctor replied, ' Could he make a speedy va-
cuum under your piston, your work is done.' It seems plain, then, that for the
purpose of ensuring this ' speedy vacuum,' Newcomen took advantage of the plan
adopted by Savery, and, on the interference of the inventor, was glad to make the
best terms he could with him.

" On the trial of the first engine, however, an accidental hole in the piston sug-
gested the mode of condensation by injection ; a plan almost as much superior to
that of Savery as the latter was to that of Papin.

" A singular error with regard to this discovery exists in the account of the
steam-engine given by Robison and Watt in the Encyclopedia Britannica (sixth
edition), and in Robison's Mechanical Philosophy. Savery's engine, said there to
be described ' as improved and simplified by himself,' is represented, both in the
drawings and in the text, as working with an injection, and Mr. Watt says in a
note, ' It does not appear that the Marquis of Worcester knew anything of the use
of an injection, as the machine described by him operated only by the expansive
force of steam, whereas the injection was used in Savery's engine from the begin-
ning, and is in all probability his invention.' It is difficult to imagine how
this mistake could have arisen, unless it is accounted for in the fact that Desagu-
liers, (from whom Watt says he derived the principal part of his early knowledge
of the steam-engine,) described Savery's engine as improved or altered by the doc-
tor himself, he having added the injection apparatus to the machine. Neither the
' Miner's Friend ' nor any account of Savery's engine earlier than that of Desagu-
liers, has a trace of such application, and there can be no doubt that the history of
the accidental discovery given by Desaguliers himself, and which Robison and
Watt must have strangely overlooked, is the true one. Indeed, Robison's account
of Savery's engine is otherwise imperfect ; he erroneously spells the name Savary,
and in one place gives an account of the explosion of a boiler erected by Captain
Savery, in consequence of the attendant overloading the safety-valve.

" Some years elapsed, after the date of Newcomen's patent, before he built any
of his engines, as we are informed his first were erected at collieries in Warwick-
shire in 1711 or 1712. Their superior adaptation for mining purposes immediately
became evident, and after the important invention of Humphrey Potter in 1713
(improved by Beighton in 1718), which made them self-acting, they soon were
generally used in those parts of England where fuel was cheap, particularly in the
coal districts of the midland and northern counties."

Every thing material in all this had been already given in Tredgold, and
must be very well known to every one likely to read a book on the Cornish
pumping-engine ; for it is not to a treatise upon one particular part of the sub-
ject, that a tyro, desiring to learn something of the steam-engine, will go ; so
that we could hardly hope for a popular circulation to this treatise. Nor has
Mr. Pole the qualifications for a popular writer, even if no impediments were
presented by the limited nature of the subject. Who ever before saw such
an attempt at a style as is afforded by such disjecta membra as the fol-
lowing ? —

" In 1775 Mr. Smeaton erected an atmospheric engine, with all his improve-
ments, at Chacewater Mine, near Truro. This was the most powerful engine then
in existence, and probably the largest he ever made.

" The cylinder was 72 inches diameter, and the stroke of the piston was 9 or 9-J-
feet; the water-load was equal to 7§lbs. per square inch of the piston, and the
lift was SI fathoms (306 feet).

" It had, when originally erected, one boiler 15 feet diameter, placed imme-
diately under the cylinder, and an extra one, constructed to collect and make use
of the waste heat from the furnaces upon the works. This latter, however, being
found a failure, it was removed after a very short use, and two new boilers of the
same construction and dimensions as the centre one were added, being fixed in low
buildings on each side of the engine-house. These were found successful in fur-
nishing the engine with steam.

" This engine supplied the place of the atmospheric engines formerly on the mine
with a C4-incb, and the other with a 62-iuch cylinder, both 6 feet stroke.

iccept-
sure of
of his

" Mr. Smeaton reported that the duty of the new engine was greater than that
of the two old ones, in the ratio of 7 to 4. After working a few years, it was
altered by Watt, who was paid a large sum by the proprietors, as a composition for
the use of his patent upon the works of the mine.

" Smeaton raised the average duty of the atmospheric engine from 7,000,000
to about 10,000,000. The duty of the Long Benton engine is stated by Mr.
Farey to have been = 9,450,000, ' exclusive of friction.'

" The duty of the Chacewater engine is not known, but after the side-boilers
were added it was probably equal to the average."

These weighty facts are certainly narrated in a most inartificial style, and
seem rather to be a collection of loose pencil notes cast together at random
than consecutive parts of a systematic treatise. To these notes, however,
other notes are appended at the bottom of each page ; and the whole collection
is so miscellaneous and disjointed, that we really think some other title than
that of a treatise on the Cornish Engine should have been adopted. We speak
not now of the matter, but the style, which is tedious and lawyer-like, and is
never quickened by a spark of vivacity or a glow of imagination. In de-
scriptions of particular varieties of machinery, it is, of course, necessary to
adhere to the simple matter of fact — and there quaintness becomes a virtue ;
but an historical discourse upon the steam-engine imposes no such restriction ;
and the Dr. Dryasdust style will not do for such a subject. If Mr. Pole had
imitated the manner of Dr. Lardner's treatise a little more closely, which
has already reached a seventh or eighth edition, his book might have had a
wider popularity than it is now likely to acquire ; but it stands doomed, we
fear, to obscurity, as well by its own dull and heavy manner, as by the small-
ness of the number of persons that care a straw about pumping-engines. It
appears, however, that the present volume does not close the work, but that
it is to be followed by a theoretical investigation of the principles of the
Cornish engine ; but we think the proviso should have been added — if the
present volume pay : — a consummation of which we have not the smallest ex
pectation. We would not, however, be understood as saying anything in
disparagement of Mr. Pole's skill as an engineer by this prediction, but we
think him an infelicitous writer upon engineering ; and, with Mr. Farey's
example before us, it is idle to expect that a writer will make himself accept
able merely because he understands the subject. A far higher measure
skill than Mr. Pole possesses would be overshadowed by the vices
style, which is totally devoid of animation, and is disjointed, tedious, and
insipid.

Mr. Pole states that he was very well used by the Cornish engineers during
his visit to that county ; and he here takes upon him the difficult office of
their defender. The following is his apology for Hornblower : —

" He always maintained an excellent character in Cornwall, and was much
esteemed by all who knew or employed him. In the unfortunate disputes with
Boulton and Watt, which were carried on ostensibly by him, he is represented to
have been more sinned against than sinning ; and to have been thrust forward by
parties whose interest it was to keep in the background themselves, while their
battles were being fought by others.

" He was of a very ingenious turn of mind, which was combined with sound
practical knowledge and judgment. His engines were always well made, and bore a
good character at a time when almost all others in the county had become much
deteriorated. His invention of the double cylinder engjne would alone, if he had
done nothing else, cause his name to be remembered as long as the steam-engini
exists, or its history remains upon record.

" It is, however, singular that the mistaken and over-driven zeal of some of
Watt's friends has led them to think it necessary to Watt'3 fame that the merits
of Hornblower should, if possible, be buried in oblivion. For not only have the
most unfounded calumnies been circulated to his disadvantage, but his inventions
have industriously been ascribed to other parties ; his name and the account of his
works have purposely been concealed ; and those who have attempted to take his
part have been persecuted for their liberality. We may however hope, for the credit
of our country, that this morbid feeling is now gone by; and that, while we yield
to none in the high and deserved honour we ascribe to the great and immortal im-
prover of the steam-engine ; yet we may be permitted to give the due share of
merit to others who have laboured industriously, and not unsuccessfully, in the
same field,"

It cannot be doubted that Hornblower was a person of much ingenuity ; and
we believe he contrived his double cylinder engine without any knowledge
of Watt's previous conclusions touching expansion ; .but his theft of Mr.
Watt's invention in the Tincroft mine engine admits neither of excuse nor
palliation. It is idle to say that in these piracies he was put forward by
others : he was no man's slave ; and an honourable mind would have spurned
any offers that were the price of its integrity. Bull, again, and Trevi-
thifik, both Cornish engineers, were implicated in another infringement, and
sought, by a legal quibble, to cover their dishonesty. We really think that
the Cornish engineers of the present day would act wisely in giving these
people up ; for if they defend their iniquities, they themselves will be thought
equally bad ; and no sophistry can exempt them from the just indignation of
those who hold the rights of patents to be as sacred as the rights of any other
species of property, and the pilferers of either to be culpable.

The most interesting part of this volume, in our eyes, is that which gives
an account of the progressive increase in the duly of the Cornish engines. In
1800, when Watt's patent expired, and Boulton and Watt's agents retired
from Cornwall, the average duty was about twenty millions ; and since that
time the duty has steadily risen until it has reached the average amount of
sixty millions, being three times the former performance. These extraordinary

11

i

1844.]

Ecclesiology.

171

results have been produced by publishing periodical accounts of the perform-
ance of the engines, compiled by a registar of eogines appointed for that pur-
pose— a most simple expedient, and one, we doubt not, that would be of
equal efficacy in other cases.

The chief sources of the economy with which the Cornish engines work lie
in the large employment of the principle of expansion — a slow combustion of'
the coals on the fire-grate, with a large heating surface for the absorption of
the heat, and the careful prevention of any material escape of heat from the
surfaces of the boilers, steam pipes, and cylinders, by the employment of effec-
tual clothing. There is nothing novel in any of these expedients, for they
have been long known to be sources of economy ; yet the Cornish engineers
have the merit of having carried them further than any one else in practice,
and of having derived from them a greater measure of economy than any one
expected. High pressure steam was rejected by Watt from prudential mo-
tives, and, as we think, not without good reason ; for accidents by explosion
would have been more likely to arise in his time from the inexperience of
attendants ; and even one such calamity would have been wellnigh destruc-
tive to the character of his improvements. His fears, however, on this head,
limited the degree of expansion he was able to employ, without at least em-
ploying larger cylinders than would then have been convenient ; so that he was
obliged to content himself with a smaller performance than he knew to be at-
tainable by the more considerable employment of the expansive principle. The
question was one of expediency rather than of skill, and had reference not so
much to what was best in the abstract, as to what would best consort with the
circumstances of the time.

Mr. Pole's book is illustrated by several plates of Cornish engines ; which
would be all very well, if they had not been rendered superfluous by the simi-
lar plates given by other authors. In the mechanical part of the work no
other feeling than admiration can have place ; and it is a sufficient praise to
say that it is got up in the same style as the other works issued by Mr. Weale ;
but it is much to be regretted that works distinguished by these mechanical
honours should be so rarely able to support them with any intrinsic merits of
their own. In fact, these very distinctions give the works enjoying them a
greater air of pretension, which almost necessarily subjects them to a severer
criticism ; for broad margins and stately typography make it appear as if
every word was thought precious, and the disappointment is correspondingly
great when, instead of golden sentences, we only meet with vain repetitions, or
vulgar and inexpert narration. We wish we were able to quicken the dry
bones of our engineering sages with the warm sunshine of a poetic fancy; for
such an operation would make those laborious personages endurable as writers
without lowering their capacity as engineers.

Art. II.— ECCLESIOLOGY.

This is a new name for a new fancy — or it might be more correct to call it a
revival of sundry old and exploded fancies, which have of late been brought
forward with surprising assiduity. In as far as it emanatesjrom an attach-
ment to the study of architecture, and of church architecture in particular,
and, accordingly, is calculated to improve that class of buildings, it is entitled
to respect. Nevertheless, we are more inclined to condemn than to admire
the spirit in which it is pursued.

In the first place, instead of promoting the study of architecture in general,
Ecclesiology, as represented by the Cam. Cam., or Cambridge Camden So-
ciety, it confines itself exclusively to one branch of it, and of that, to one
single style. Not content with recommending our English pointed, or
Gothic, as decidedly preferable to any other for churches, the Camdenists
endeavour to depreciate and to depart from the study of all other styles ; and
that not so much on rational grounds, as on assumed and overstrained reli-
gious ones. Instead of attempting to make clearly manifest what may be
doubtful to some, that Gothic is the very best, and, in fact, the only mode
of architecture suited for religious buildings at the present day, and intended
for Protestant worship — consequently requiring to be somewhat differently
treated from those adapted to the ceremonies of the Romish Church — they
inveigh against Greek, Roman, and even Italian, as strongly tainted with, and
forcibly expressive of, Paganism, although those have now been so long natu-
ralised, not only among ourselves, but throughout the whole of Christendom,
that all idea of Paganism, in connexion with them, is clean worn out and
effaced. To us, this dread of Paganism seems to be a little, or more than a
little over-acted,-~pusbed to a superstitious if not to a hypocritical extent ;
for, if acted upon consistently, it ought to lead to the prohibiting the reading
of Homer. Nay, we rather wonder that no scrupulous and tender con-
scienced Camdenist has yet not taken exception at, and pointed out the
shocking impropriety of the word " pulpit," derived as it is from the pulpitum
of the Roman stage.

That those who thus preach up Gothic architecture, by preaching down all
other styles, should represent Ecclesiology as even still more important in a
religious than in an artistic point of view, both because they themselves un-
derstand very little more of architecture than what can be picked up from
studying it historically, and because their acquaintance with ecclesiastical
archaeology gives them a sort of superiority over the professional architect in
matters relating to former usuages in church-building, upon which great
stress was laid in Romau Catholic times, but which have since fallen not
only into disuse, but into oblivion, is by no means unnatural. Accord-
ingly, the Camdenists assume a very dictatorial d'kaut en bas tone towards

professional men ; and claim, as far as it is at all in their power to do so, a
positive and direct authority over them ; issuing, for their edification, formal
mandatory instructions, not to be disobeyed or infringed without incurring
something as much like " commination" as the times will permit.

One reproach — and intended by them to be a most overwhelming one —
which they are continually throwing out against the whole race of architects
during the last three centuries, is, that they are utterly ignorant of the prin-
ciples of " canonical and Christian design ;" although there has been at least
this excuse for them, that attention to such principles was never required of
them, since both the clergy and the laity were just as ignorant of, or just as
indifferent to them, as architects themselves.

By no means do we defend a departure from those general principles per-
vading and manifested in our ancient ecclesiastical edifices, since a feeling for
and adherence to them would have saved us from a vast number of buildings
which are more or less discreditable to art — some of them thoroughly so, and
which certainly do betoken indifference as to appearances and propriety of
character. But there is no occasion for now running all at once into quite
the opposite extreme, by labouring to bring again into repute a certain archi-
tectural mysticism, which is far better suited to the creed, the practices, and
the constitution of the Romish than of the Reformed Church. Of such mys-
ticism, a great deal consists in conceits both superstitious and fantastical;
among which some of those based upon numerical allusions have quite as
much of the enigmatical as of the symbolical. The meaning of triplicity,
with reference to the Trinity, is obvious enough, and presents itself in various
shapes. We find it in the three leading divisions of the plan — nave, tran-
sept, and choir ; and in the subdivision of the first into a centre and two side
aisles ; but it is pretty plain that many fancied allusions and meanings of the
kind must have been found afterwards. We may allow the triangle to be
significant of trinity, the analogy being obvious enough ; but the case is very
different in regard to some other numerical meanings, which, even when
pointed out and explained, are not at all felt, but rather strike as frigid and
far-fetched conceits : for instance, what sort of connexion can be perceived
between an octagon and regeneration ? yet the former is explained to denote
the latter, because seven sides of the figure express the seven days of the
creation, and the eighth, re-creation, or regeneration ! As it appears to us,
this kind of symbolism is no better than a sort of religious punning — border-
ing, too, somewhat upon profaneness. Not a whit less fantastic, nor at all
more intelligible, is a good deal of the symbolism of colours. At all events,
these last are frequently applied or appropriated in manner very inconsistent
with the meaning attributed to them ; since, why should not white rather
than black be the livery of the clergy ? the former being received as expres-
sive of purity, the other as the livery and complexion of the evil one
himself.*

The truth is, symbolism, even in its mildest forms, is little suited to the
present age, which is less likely to receive it with reverence, or any sympathy
with it, than to treat it with scorn, as the offspring of puerile superstition
and priestcraft together. Even granting it to be perfectly harmless, the
policy of attempting to bring it again into vogue is exceedingly questionable ;
and, indeed, unless something more than is avowed be aimed at, the object
does not seem at all in proportion to the pains and zeal bestowed upon it.
That there is something more in the matter, therefore, than what at first
sight shows itself, may be suspected ; and this something seems to be nothing
less than the establishing, for the maternal church, and all belonging to it, a
peculiar sanctity, which, it is expected, will reflect itself upon the mere office
of the ministers of the church spiritual, irrespective of either conduct or
qualifications.

The return of Camdenists and Puseyites to many of the forms of the
Romish church may, no doubt, be viewed favourably enough by those who,
though they still call themselves Protestants, are Papists in spirit ; but the
zeal of the former, in proselytizing to their own very strict theologico-archi-
tectural notions, and their claim to infallibility in all such matters, can hardly
be agreeable to any professional men, except, perhaps, those who are willing
to submit to their arrogant dictation in order to obtain their favour and pa-
tronage. Were the Camden Society content with recommending the study
of ancient models, and with assisting in promoting such study, both rationally
and intelligently, they would be entitled to our approbation. Instead of
which, their aim is to tie us down to an equally servile and superstitious ad-
herence to precedent, on all occasions and for every purpose, no matter under
how widely different circumstances the imitation may be applied. According
to their doctrine, not only must everything that is authorized by ancient
custom and example be retained, but nothing whatever must be altered or
added. We are invariably to look backwards, without once attempting to
advance a single step forwards : in fact, we are not allowed to admit the pos-
sibility of any advance of the kind being made, since that would be downright
heresy, and heterodoxy both religious and architectural, and would betray a
want of implicit faith in the infallibility of the Camden Society and its
" councils." Unluckily for the credit of their infallibility, they have made
but a bungling and blundering business of restoring the Round Church at
Cambridge ; and that, too, at a most enormous expense — not at all less than
double what the same work might have been executed for by proper manage-
ment. And, after all, that edifice is anything but a suitable model for a
church at the present day ; and even its architectural interest is comprised in
its antiquity, and the unusual form of its plan.

* In Africa, the devil is represented as being white.

112

Bookbinders' Cutting-Press and Plough, and other Machinery for Cutting Paper.

[August,

Art. III.— PRINCIPAL TRANSVERSE VERTICAL SECTIONS
OF THE EXPERIMENTAL BRIGS OF 12 GUNS.

The forms of the midship sections of these brigs are very dissimilar.
" Mutine," " Osprey," and " Sspiegle," have rising, hollow floors, and the
"Daring" and "Flying-fish" very nearly straight, curving slightly the
contrary way. The "Mutine" and "Osprey" are the production of two
ship-builders, designed from their observation of ships which have possessed
good qualities; and the " Inconstant," the finest frigate of her class in the
Royal Navy, appears to be the ship to which their observation has been
directed, for they are very similar to her, so much so as to give them the
appearance, under water, of an " Inconstant" reduced. Their midship
sections are almost identical. The " Espiegle" is manifestly the production
of constructors who follow the principles of naval architecture laid down by
Chapman, in conjunction with the superior Theory of Stability of Floating
Bodies, by Atwood, which points out the advantage of giving great solidity or
capacity both above and below the load water-line, in relation to the whole
displacement, to the extent to which the ship may incline when sailing on a
wind : in this respect she has the advantage over any of the others. The
" Daring" is very similar to the " Waterwitch," by the same constructor,
the midship section of which is like that of the old brigs of 10 guns, with an
increase of four feet and a half to the whole breadth. The " Flying-fish" is
designed on the opinions which the constructor has published, that the sta-
bility or " bearing, is that feature in a vessel's form which protrudes or
swells the body to any extent longer or wider than that which the body
possesses at the line of flotation ; and, being above the water's edge, sustains
her when pressed by wind, and when embarrassed by shipping a sea :" that
this " feature of bearing or swell should be from six inches to three feet
above the line of flotation :" in the " Flying-fish" it is two feet six inches :
and that " nothing tinder water can be considered bearing," &c.

DIMENSIONS, &c.

Length

on the

Draft of

Intended

load

Breadth,

■water at

load draft of

Constructor.

water-
line.

extreme.

launching.

water.

ft. in.

ft. in.

Forw.

Aft.

Tons.

Forw.

Aft.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

ft. in.

102 6

31 4

7 0

13 10

258

12 6

16 0

Mr. White.

Espiegle...

104 0

31 8

9 0|

11 10|

261

12 6

14 6

Sch. of Naval Arehit.

Flying-fish

100 3

32 4

9 0

12 2

2G6J

12 4

14 0

Sir Will. Symonds.

Mutine ....

100 6

31 10

9 0

11 8

2444

12 6

14 0

Mr. Fincham.

100 0

31 10

7 6

12 9

241|

12 0

14 4

Mr. Blake.

5 5'

Eh '-

The following are the dimensions of the masts and yards of
Dimensions op the Masts and Yards.

Main -mast from the deck to lower side of trussel-trees

Head .....

Main top-mast, whole length, head included

Head .....

Main top-gallant-mast, from lower side of fid-hole to hounds

Pole ......

Main yard, whole length, yard-arms included

Yard-arms, each .....
Main topsail-yard, whole length, yard-arms included

Yard-arms, each ....
Main top gallant-yard, whole length, yard-arms included .

Yard-arms, each ....
Main royal yard, whole length, yard-arms included

Yard-arms, each . . .

Fore-mast, from deck to lower side of trussel-trees

Head

Fore-top mast, whole length, head included .

Head .....

Fore-top gallant-mast, from lower side of fid-hole to hounds

Pole

Fore-yard, whole length, yard-arms included .

Yard-arms, each ....

Fore topsail-yard, whole length, yard-arms included

Yard-arms, each .....
Fore-top gallant-yard, whole length, yard-arms included

Yard-arms, each . ...

Fore royal -yard, whole length, yard-arms included

Yard-arms, each .....

Gaff

Boom .......

Bowsprit, exclusive of housing

Jib-boom . . . .

these brigs : —

Length.

Diam.

ft. in.

in.

46 3

23

12 0

42 6

14

5 9

20 0

8

13 6

58 0

13*

2 5

43 0

n

3 7

28 6

7

1 2

21 0

4*

0 10

41 9

22

11 0

39 6

14

5 4

18 6

7

12 6

52 6

m

2 3

39 0

8i

3 3

26 0

6}

1 1

19 6

4

0 10

37 0

Si

57 0

13|

27 6

22

30 0

9*

Art. IV.— BOOKBINDERS' CUTTING-PRESS AND PLOUGH,
AND OTHER MACHINERY FOR CUTTING PAPER.

The ordinary cutting-press and plough differ somewhat in size ; but out
measures are taken from those used by our own bookbinder, and which he
informs us are sufficiently large for all books not exceeding the size of impe-
rial folio. The cutting-press in question consists of two pieces of beech-
wood, 5 j inches wide, 4-J inches deep, and 40 inches long, which are called
the cheeks of the press : these are united by two wooden screws, 30 inches
long, and 3 inches diameter, having large wooden heads pierced with transverse
holes for the iron lever, or press-pin, by which they are fastened. The screws
are inserted 24 inches asunder through both cheeks of the press ; they are
fitted into screwed holes in the one cheek, and pass through plain holes in
the other. To cause the press to open when the screws are unwound, two
small wooden bars, called garterpins, are inserted transversely through the
cheeks, and also through grooves turned in the plain parts of the screws be-
neath their heads ; the garters, therefore, lie as tangents to the screws. Two
square bars or guide-pieces, Hin. by l^in., are placed parallel with and ex-
terior to the screws ; the bars are fitted through both cheeks, and are made
fast in that which has the garter-pins. The press has, in addition, two fillets
of wood, about lin. by ^in., fixed to the moving cheek, so as to form a
shallow groove, lfin. wide, for the guidance of the plough, as will be ex-
plained.

The press is commonly supported at the top of the shaving-tub, or a box
measuring about 40in. long, 30in. wide, and 40in. high, so as exactly to fit
the extreme length of the screws and the cheeks of the cutting-press ; which
latter rest on two fillets fixed within the ends of the shaving-tub, at about
36 to 38 inches from the ground. Sometimes the cutting-press is only laid
on two beams fixed at the proper height, independently of the shaving-tub.

The plough bears some resemblance to the cutting-press, insomuch as it
consists of two pieces of wood 5iu. by 10in., and lfin. thick, united by one
central screw, having a garter-pin, and two square side-bars, or guides, to
cause it to open in parallelism and with freedom. The knife of the plough
is a blade of steel, about 5 or 6 inches long, by lfin. wide, and full xVn-
thick : the end is sharpened as an angle of 90°, and the apex of the angle is
very slightly rounded : the knife is sharpened on the upper side only, or with
one bevil, all around the end. The opposite extremity of the knife somewhat
exceeds the general width of the blade, and is pierced with a square counter-
sunk hole, by means of which it is attached to the one cheek of the plough
by a screw and fly-nut, proceeding edgeways through the one cheek of the
plough, near its centre, and close against the garter-pin.

In the plough two things are principally important : first, that the cheek
should fit easily, yet accurately, into the groove formed by the fillets of the
press ; secondly, that the knife should be exactly in a line with the lower
edges of the cheeks, so that, if the plough is laid on a flat board, the two
cheeks and the knife may touch the board at every part. The knife should

18 »■.]

The Coal Trade.

173

not swerve from this direction, as, whether it point above or below the true
plane, it will in either case fail to cut the edges of the paper flat and true.
Should the knife, when first screwed on, appear to deviate from the true po-
sition, it is bolstered up, or packed with little pieces of paper between the
cheek and the blade : it is also important that the knife should be very sharp,
and but little rounded at the end.

In using the cutting-press, the paper, whether in the quire or sewed as a
book, is always pinched between two boards, not less than 4 inches longer
than the paper, about 3 to 4 inches wide, and i to ^ inch thick ; but the
boards are always taper, or about one-fourth thicker on the one edge than
the other ; and the thicker edges are placed upwards, that the paper may be
pinched the tightest at the top, where it is to be ploughed.

The one board is placed exactly level with the cut to be made, which is
often indicated by two marks made on the paper with the compasses : this
board guides the entry of the knife, and is called the runner, as the knife
rests or runs upon it in the first entry. The other board is allowed to project
about one quarter of an inch above the paper, and supports the last leaves,
that would otherwise curl over and refuse to be cut : this board is called the
cut-again board, as the knife cuts against it at the conclusion of the process.
The runner and the cut-again board serve exactly the same offices as the
straight edge and cutting-board, when we cut a few leaves of paper with the
penknife.

Ifa ream of paper is to be ploughed, the marks, if used, are made on the
outside quire with the compasses ; the ream is then knocked up evenly, by
supporting all the quires lightly between the two hands, and allowing them
to fall on the board or table, so as to arrange the backs and ends correctly
together : the ream is then laid on the cut-again board, and is covered with
the runner-board, which is placed against the compass marks, or within the
required distance of the fore-edge of the paper. The cutting-press is opened
a little beyond the collective thickness of the paper and boards, the three are
pinched together in the left hand, and lowered into the press, the screws of
which are then partially closed with the right hand, to prevent the paper
dropping through : should the work have shifted, it is then adjusted partly by
each hand, one above and one below the press, until the runner is about flush
with the cheeks, and the fore-edge of the paper projects exactly the right
quantity above the runner : the screws of the press are then made quite fast
with the press-pin.

The paper having been fixed, the workman takes the plough in his right
hand, and holding it suspended by its handle, swings it round by a small
motion of the wrist, until it is opened to the width of the work, and the man
places himself at the end of the cutting-press, with three heads of the press
and plough screws all towards the right.

The workman holds the plough-screw in both hands — his right hand on
the head, his left on the opposite extremity, and bearing very lightly down-
wards, he slides the plough quickly to and fro through the groove formed by
the fillets on the cheek of the press, and at each stroke he advances the
plough-screw, little by little, in a manner that is imperceptible to an ob-
server, but which, by advancing the knife, cuts off some three or four leaves
at every stroke ; and this is continued until the knife has gradually proceeded
across the entire ream of paper, and penetrated slightly into the cut-again
board. The press is now slightly relaxed, and the paper and boards are
removed from the same ; the two boards are placed in the same order against
the one end of the ream of paper, and sometimes a square is used to denote
their exact position, or points are marked as before ; the two ends of the
paper are then successively ploughed off, exactly as already described.

In ploughing books the routine is somewhat different. The sheets are first
sewed together, then the two pieces of milled-board, for the sides, are cut
with the shears exactly parallel, and to their intended width, but are left
somewhat longer, or with the top and bottom edges rough ; the boards are
then secured to the bands or strings upon which the sheets are sewed ; the
back is hammered to the proper degree of roundness, and various preparatory
works are done ; but as yet the edges of the paper are uncut.

The top and bottom of the book are first ploughed ; to accomplish which,
the milled-boards are slipped downwards the quantity they are intended to
project beyond the leaves, which is easily done, as the strings will readily
yield to that extent. The top of the book is then placed between the runner
and the cut-again boards, and the milled-boards and leaves are ploughed off
flush. Previously to ploughing the bottom edge, the milled-boards are
slipped upwards : by this arrangement the boards and leaves become exactly
parallel. * As, however, the hard milled-board injures the edge of a sharp
knife, it is usual to have two ploughs ; the less sharp is used for cutting
through the cover, then the finishing plough, which has a keener edge, is
employed for the leaves, and the other is resumed for ploughing through the
second milled-board.

To cut the fore-edge, which is the last to be accomplished, and requires the
most skill, the following course is adopted. Two marks are first made on
the paper, to show the position to which the milled-boards extend ; which
latter are then thrown back, and two thin slips of wood or metal, called
trindles, are inserted at the ends of the book, between the boards and the
backs of the sheets ; the whole is then knocked forcibly on the work-bench ;
this removes for the time the roundness of the back, and also throws the mass
of leaves forward or beyond their true place. The leaves are then tied round
with a string, to keep them in the position thus temporarily given ; the
trindles are removed, the boards are thrown quite back, and the leaves only
are pinched in the press between the runner and cut- again boards as usual,

but a little below the compass marks. After the book is cut, and the string
removed, the back, when opened, soon recovers its rounded form, and the
fore-edge becomes hollowed in the same degree : the regularity of the hollow
is the test of the work having been skilfully done. Many processes remain
to be performed, such as covering and embellishing the book, which are col-
lectively known as forwarding and finishing.

The cutting-press is also called the laying-press, probably because it is
merely laid on the fillets at the top of the shaving-tub, in order that it may
be readily turned over, so that its other side, which is smooth and without
fillets, may be used in finishing the backs of books, putting on the lettering
pieces and inscriptions, and, in fact, for most of the works of the bookbinder
which do not require the superior pressure of the standing-press, in which
the books are piled perpendicularly, and are compressed very powerfully by a
vertical iron screw, descending from the framework above, and tightened with
a Wer six or eight feet long.

In the above description we have described the plough and cutting-press
in most general use amongst bookbinders and stationers ; but various other
contrivances have been at various times more or less employed. Four of
these contrivances are figured and explained in the Transactions of the Society
of Arts, London, to which we refer the reader. — In Vol. XXIII., page 347,
will be found Mr. J. S. Hawkins's scheme for cutting the three edges of books
or paper at one fixing. — In Vol. XXIV., page 116', is described Mr. Isaac
Hardie's bookbinders' cutting-press, with only one central screw. This has
a rectangular frame, morticed together, and has grooves in the two end pieces
for the guidance of the moving cheek. — In Vol. XLIX., part 1, page 85, is
figured Mr. W. T. Penny's plough, in which the knife is fixed by two screws
and fly-nuts, intended to hold it more securely in its position. — In Vol. ■
XLIX., part 2, page 165, are minutely described Mr. M. Staunton's book-
binders' cutting-press, which has a horizontal stage to support the lower
edges of the paper, parallel with the cheeks of the press, and an additional
stage and apparatus for paper that is narrower than the cheeks of the press.

In addition to these contrivances, rewarded by the above-named useful
Society, it occurs to us to notice the mechanism adopted by paper-makers
and wholesale stationers, which is sometimes called the vertical plough. A
ream or more of paper is placed on a table, and covered with a board exactly
of the size to which the paper is to be ploughed : this board is pressed down
on the paper by a vertical screw, in the end of a vertical beam, proceeding
downwards from the ceiling. The board has grooves on three of its edges,
which serve to guide a particular kind of plough, made and used somewhat
after the manner of a carpenter's plane, but with the knife flush with the
outside. The three sides of the paper are ploughed in succession at the one
fixing, and every parcel is reduced to an uniform size, and the edges become
exactly square with one another.

The late Mr. Oldham's paper-cutting machine, for ploughing the paper
for bank-notes, is described in Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and
Mines, article Bookbinding, pp. 157 — 161. The paper is laid on a hori-
zontal platform, that is raised by a screw until the paper is powerfully pressed
against the lower side of a beam which is attached to the standards of the
machine. The beam is exactly of the width required in the paper, and has a
dovetailed groove on each side, for the guidance of a plough, of appropriate
construction, which slides freely thereon. The plough has two vertical knives
that are simultaneously depressed by a thumb-screw. The screw is moved a
small quantity at every stroke of the plough, which, as in the last contrivance,
is worked somewhat like a carpenter's plane.

Mr. George Wilson's patent paper- cutting machine is the last we consider
it necessary to speak of. In this machine the paper is laid on a horizontal
table, and is compressed by a vertical screw ; after which a long, straight
knife, that exceeds the width of the paper, is brought down by a rack-and-
pinion movement, and pares off the edges of the paper by one simple down-
ward cut, like that of a chisel ; or the knife may be used to divide a ream
of paper through the middle of the sheets. The machine has a fence and
graduations for determining the exact size to which the paper is to be cut ;
and the office of the cut-again board is fulfilled by a square bar of lead, into
which the knife slightly penetrates. The action of Mr. Wilson's patent
machine is entirely unlike those in which a narrow-ended knife is used with
reciprocating motion ; the wide and straight knife is also far more rapid and
accurate in performance ; but we consider the patent machine to be, on the
whole, better suited to the purposes of the stationer than of the bookbinder.

Art. V.— THE COAL TRADE.

An Historical, Geological, and Descriptive View of the Coal Trade of the
North of England, and a General Description of the Coal Mines of
Belgium. By Mathias Dunn, Colliery Viewer, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
W. Garrett.
There is no subject of greater importance to the manufacturing interests of
this country than the supply of fuel ; since, by its means, the power is
created that propels the machinery on which our very existence as a nation
depends. It seems strange, therefore, that so very little general interest is
felt respecting the mode of supplying this necessary article, or the proba-
bility of its exhaustion. It might be supposed, indeed, from the want of at-
tention to the matter, that coal either grew spontaneously with sufficient

174

The Coal Trade.

[August,

rapidity to renew the constant gathering, or that it existed in mountain
masses, like chalk and granite, in quantities sufficient to supply the wants of
endless generations. The thickness of the main bed of coal in Northumber-
land does not exceed six feet ; many of the pits are worked at depths of 400
yards ; and the operations of the miners are frequently obstructed altogether
by contortions of the strata, that alter the positions of the beds of coal, and
not unfrequently deteriorate their quality. Some of the best and most pro-
ductive beds of coal have been already exhausted ; therefore, though there is
not in reality any cause for alarm respecting the probable duration of the
coal-fields of Great Britain, the continuance of the supply at the present
prices is not so much a matter of course as appears to be generally supposed ;
and, independently of that consideration, the coal-trade is a subject that
involves many points of interest.

In the work now under review, the author considers the question princi-
pally in its bearings as a trade, in reference to the supply of the London
coal-market; but he gives at the same time many particulars respecting the
geological structure of the coal-fields of Durham and Northumberland, and
the modes of working the mines. One of the most interesting portions of
his volume is the description of the rise and progress of colliery engineering
since the year 1700; in which the different stages of improvement arising
from the application of scientific principles are successively noted ; and, of
course, the steam-engine and the safety-lamp take prominent positions in
this survey. The first introduction of railways was for facilitating the con-
veyance of mining products ; and, so early as the commencement of last
century, wagon-ways were constructed of wood in the coal-pits ; but these
original railways, and the carriages on them, were of very rude construction.
The wheels were made of wood, sometimes studded with nails ; and it was
not till 1767 that cast-iron wheels were introduced. To these succeeded,
nine years afterwards, tramways of cast-iron, which were first used under-
ground. Steam-engines, for draining mines, were applied soon after their
invention; but, up to 1750, scarcely any pumps exceeded eight or nine
inches in diameter ; and a single haystack boiler was the complement of each
engine. Notwithstanding these defective arrangements, coals were sold at
10s. per Newcastle chaldron of 53 cwt., or about 4s. the ton. At that low
price, however, the collieries were more profitable than at present, as the
depths of the pits seldom exceeded 300 feet ; and coal lower than 60 fathoms
was generally considered inaccessible. The wages of the hewers at that time
did not exceed Is. \Qd. per day. Little was then done for the ventilation of
the mines, nor was much needed. The first ventilating furnace was em-
ployed in 1732.

The improvements in the steam-engine, by Watt, gave additional stimulus
to the collieries. The first double-stroke engine was erected about 1790 ;
but it was not till some years later that the great advantage to be derived
from steam power, in general mining operations, became known. Its appli-
cation was then rapidly extended ; and by its means, combined with better
modes of ventilation, and the invention of the safety-lamp, by Dr. Clanny,
in 1813, and its improvement by Sir Humphry Davy, in 1815, veins of coal
were "won" at depths which had been previously considered as impracti-
cable as we now consider it would be to reach the centre of the earth. The
invention of the safety-lamp, however, has rather tended to increase the
sacrifice of human life in collieries, than to its preservation ; for it was stated
in the evidence given before a Parliamentary committee, in 1835, that the
loss of life by explosion, in the counties of Durham and Northumberland,
daring the eighteen years previous to the introduction of the safety-lamp,
was 447 ; and that during the eighteen subsequent years, the number was
increased to 538. This paradoxical effect from the use of the safety-lamp, is
attributable principally to the increased risk in working what are termed
" fiery" collieries, which would not be approachable with an unprotected
flame; and it is in some degree owing to the neglect of ventilation, arising
from too great confidence in the protective influence of the safety-lamp.

That part of the subject in which the public generally are more imme-
diately interested, is the regulation for supplying the demand for coal; and
it receives additional importance, by placing in a prominent position the
question of the right of landed proprietors " to do what they like with their
own." Though coal is one of the necessaries of life, and though the manu-
facturers of the country mainly depend on receiving a supply of fuel at a cheap
rate, yet in the great coal-yielding districts in the north of England, the
owners of collieries are banded together, for the purpose of limiting the
supply, and thus keeping up the price.

Mr. Dunn is a colliery viewer and mining engineer ; therefore his interests
are bound up with those of the coal- owners ; and his book affords a good
illustration of the contraction of view which circumstances of education and
position occasion in the minds of men of sound sense. It is much too
common in every profession, for the members of it to regard the rest of the
world as made for their special benefit, instead of regarding their profession
as established for the benefit of mankind. With the same self-satisfied
complacency, therefore, that a lawyer considers the whole human race to
have been created merely to form clients, so Mr. Dunn, the colliery viewer,
sees the population of this kingdom as existing only to become purchasers
of coals at the highest attainable price. The interests of the public are alto-
gether lost sight of: Mr. Dunn's mind is not for an instant obscured by
any doubt of the moral right of the coal-owners to do what they like with
their own — even to the withholding of all supply, should they think fit : the
only question with him is, by what means the colliery proprietors can obtain
a remunerating price for their coals. Speaking of the middle of last century,

he observes, in rather a melancholy tone, on the natural superabundance
of the supply to the demand, —

" Notwithstanding the limited powers of production then known, so confined was
the application of coal to the purposes of life, that the trade would always be over-
done, and the sale constantly demanded a similar artificial restriction to that which
now prevails; for, even early in the seventeenth century, when not more than a
dozen collieries supplied the Newcastle trade, the owners were obliged to buy each
other out of the market, or use other expedients for curtailing the over-supply."

The expedients which have been resorted to for the purpose of raising the
price of coals have failed, as most monopolies do, to answer their proposed
ends ; and, with all these combinations of the coal-owners against the public,
we find that they are dissatisfied, and always complaining of the over-supply.
•Fortunately for the public, coal can be procured from other parts of the
country than Northumberland and Durham ; consequently the monopolists
are obliged to arrange their regulation quantities so as to prevent the Scotch
and midland coal driving them out of the London market. It appears from the
Parliamentary enquiry in 1836, that the collieries are capable of producing twice
or thrice the required vend, and new collieries were in the course of opening,
capable of raising a million tons of coal annually, a quantity nearly equal to
half the consumption of London. These additional supplies would, of course,
add to the difficulty of restriction ; and, by extending the regulation to the
new collieries, the quantities produced by each must be diminished, and ti
profits correspondingly lowered.

We cannot sympathise, as does Mr. Dunn, with the perplexities and dii
culties of the coal monopolists. We view their regulation to restrict th<
supply, and to raise the price of coal, as unrighteous warring against the in-
terests of the people, and as a dangerous stretch of the prerogative of landed
proprietors; therefore we rejoice at their discomfiture, as we would at the
defeat of a foreign enemy who would attempt to stop our supplies of food.
There has been much agitation of the public on the question of monopoly of
the supply of corn by our farmers ; but in that case the persons deriving ad-
vantage from the monopoly constitute a large and important class of the
community, whose ruin would occasion national distress. Neither do the
farmers endeavour to restrict the supply of the home produce. For the coal-
owners of Durham and Northumberland no such plea can be advanced. They
are altogether insignificant as a part of the nation ; their monopoly is founded
exclusively on selfish principles, without a pretext of public benefit ; and it is
carried on in a manner the most flagrantly odious — that of withholding thi
supply which nature abundantly affords, in our own country, for the avowei
purpose of enhancing the price.

The embarrassed state of the coal-owners induced an experiment to b
made, in 1833, of throwing the trade open ; but the glut of the market havin,
reduced the price to about seven shillings the ton, the colliery proprietor!
again conspired to limit the supply, as they found the evils of monopoly to be
less than those of free competition.

Mr. Dunn affirms that the collieries are even now worked without profit,
nevertheless fresh pits are being sunk, and the capacity of production is in-
creasing faster than the demand. The monopolists, we are told, are ruined
with things as they are, whilst to revert to open trade would be destruction.
The duty levied on coal exported has increased their difficulties ; and thus we
find the monopolists, according to Mr. Dunn's representation, working their
pits at a ruinous loss, in spite of all their efforts to keep up the price of coals,
reckless of the comforts and necessities of the people, and at the hazard of di-
minishing the respect for property, which constitutes the basis of civilized
society.

A description of the coal-mines of Belgium, drawn up from actual observa-
tion, constitutes a valuable portion of Mr. Dunn's volume ; but into this
branch of his subject we have not space to accompany him. The results of
his observation appear to be, that in all details of the collieries, and in mining
engineering, the Belgians are far behind the English. The galleries are not
more than three feet high; the ventilation is imperfect; and, in consequence
of the mode in which the works are laid out, it is impossible to employ the
labourers advantageously, therefore nearly double the number of persons are
employed to produce the same number of tons of coal that the system which
prevails in the north of England would require.

The Belgian coal field is very extensive, and the veins of coal numerous ;
but none of them are so thick as the heavier workable beds o'f coal in England.
The coal districts in Belgium are estimated to occupy an area of 486 square
miles ; those of France, 914 ; those of Great Britain, 4,251 ; and the propor-
tionate mining areas in the three kingdoms are stated to be, Great Britain,
one twentieth ; Belgium, one twenty-second; whilst the coal fields of France
occupy only one two-hundred and ten parts of the whole area of that kingdom.
The stores of mineral fuel in Great Britain are amply sufficient to supply the
demand, according to the present ratio of consumption, for thousands of years
to come, therefore no fears of exhausting the supply can be urged by the coal
monopolists of the north in defence of their restrictive regulations, which are
based altogether oil the worst principles of monopoly.

1844.]

New Telegraphs at the Exhibition of French Industry.

175

Art. VI.— IRON DWELLINGS FOR THE EAST.

Memoir on Wrought- Iron Roofing, as applicable to every Description of
Building ; and showing the Modification necessary to adapt the System to
European Dwellings in India. By Capt. Henry Goodwyn, Bengal
Engineers. Calcutta. 1844.

It is not often that mechanical works printed in India come across our
path ; but here is one, the production of a Captain in the East India Com-
pany's Engineers, who puts it forth, for the purpose of recommending
roofs made of iron to be used in that country instead of those constructed
of wood. "The peculiar construction," Capt. Goodwyn says," of the
wrouo-ht-iron roofs herein advocated, renders them very applicable to
Indian buildings, where change of localities and stations are often the result
of political and economical measures. They can, from the simplicity of
arraugement, be easily taken to pieces ; and the parts being light, can be
transported by any mode of carriage, and be adapted to any other building
of the same span. Structures, too, of increased width and accommodation,
can by these means be erected, which could not be executed in timber,
except at a very heavy expense : and, in proportion as the span increases,
the iron roof becomes more economical than one executed in timber ;
effecting, besides, a saving in masonry, and being infinitely lighter." We
expected, after hearing of " the peculiar construction of iron roofs herein
advocated," that we should have met with something new; but we find
nothing in the work before us that is not familiar to every tyro in this
countrv; and, indeed, we suppose even the graduates of the Putney College
are acquainted with most of Captain Goodwyn's examples. The recipes
of Messrs. Fox and Co., of the London Works at Birmingham, appear to
have been largely drawn upon ; and much is made of " the latest edition
of Tred°-old ;" respectable sources of information, no doubt, but not to be
accepted as oracles. As a compilation, however, the work is deserving of
praise : it is concise and practical ; and though it does not indicate any
vigorous genius, it bears the impress of good sense, and a respectable ac-
quaintance with the subject. Capt. Goodwyn, it appears, is one of the
olbcers of Engineers, whom the East India Government has permitted to
visit the works of art in this country, with a view of keeping up their skill
to the level of European proficiency ; and he appears, upon the whole, to
have made a good use of his opportunities. The officers of the corps of
Engineers, indeed, appear to be very generally distinguished among their
fellow soldiers for the extent and usefulness of their information; and
most of them devote that time to acquisitions in science, which the exqui-
sites of the other cantonments of military art too often spend in idleness
and debauchery. It is a just, and by no means inconsiderable praise to
Capt. Goodwyn, to say that he sustains with honour the high reputation for
sense and science the Royal Engineers have deservedly acquired.

In the present publication, Capt. Goodwyn confines himself to the advo-
cacy of iron roofs for oriental dwellings — one step, certainly, in the right
direction, but not the only one that is needed. It strikes us that iron
houses present many attractions for residents in the East ; and, we believe,
only require an introduction to insure an extended adoption. By making
the walls and roof double, and interposing charcoal between the plate-
surfaces, the inconvenience arising from a rapid transmission of heat might
be obviated ; while the impermeability of iron to damp, its intolerance of
every kind of vermin, and the impregnable wall it presents to the attacks
of the white ants, which eat up the timber of other houses, give it advan-
tages such as no other material enjoys. Then, again, iron houses are so
portable, that they may be carried and set up anywhere : and we believe
the destructive epidemics, from which our troops lately suffered at Scinde,
would have been materially assuaged in their virulence, had our army pos-
sessed even a small number of iron houses, where the sick might have
received suitable attendance.

After describing in detail the various modes of constructing roofs, Capt.
Goodwyn gives a collection of tables of the sizes and weights of iron bars,
pipes, and plates. There is also a volume of gigantic and awkward draw-
ings—the lithography of which does not tell greatly in favour of Calcutta
art. These drawings represent certain cast-iron roofs executed in England

such as the one over the engine-shed at Reading — the roof at Cowlairs,

on the Glasgow line — that over Messrs. Fox and Co.'s factory at Birming-
ham with "details of construction, having reference to ventilation and

lichtin". The last plate exhibits the roof of the collegiate church at Man-
chester" and a sketch of the application of cast-iron ribs to the formation
of a pointed roof in the Gothic style, where two ribs springing from the
buttresses are united by a cast-iron ring in the centre. Respecting these
specimens, the author" says, " I am aware of the difficulty — and also of
critical observations that may arise with regard to the introduction of cast-
iron into Gothic construction — viz., that the massive appearance of the
very beautiful timber and stone erections of former times, cannot by this
means be successfully imitated ; and the correctness of the style must be
partly deviated from : but the elegant and lofty groined vault is still open
to the lovers of the style — (and it has no warmer advocate than the writer
of this Memoir) — it is only necessity that compels to a substitution of a
material that is indestructible in a country and climate where timber is
i subject to such various and rapid modes of decay." We are unable, how-
ever to extend this notice further, yet cannot close it without expressing
i our gratification at seeing works of this scientific and useful character issue

from the Calcutta press. There is a rising mind there, the development
of which we shall watch with solicitude, and which will one day bear fruit
that will repay the tenderest care.

Art. VII.— NEW TELEGRAPHS AT THE EXHIBITION OF
FRENCH INDUSTRY.

We should have earlier noticed the mechanical devices shown forth at the
late exhibition of the industrial products of France, but really we have met
with very few of them worthy of notice in our pages. Most of the schemes
which have come under our observation there, are either old, or vision-
ary, or unimportant ; yet their merits are extolled in no very measured terms
by the French newspapers, which appear to deal still more largely in mag-
niloquence than the journals on this side of the water. We give the following
translation from V Illustration, as an example of the happy self-complacency
in which the French people appear to rest, and the large expenditure of elo-
quence that is made upon a very trivial matter. The remarks touching the
applications of the electric telegraph in this country, will give our readers
some amusement.

" One of the distinctive characters of our time, is the desire to shorten space,
economise time, facilitate the communication of man with man, and people with
people. With this aim, every day brings new inventions ; everything is placed
under contribution — steam, electricity, light, gas. Some of these days will be
found The Arrow of Abaris, or the Wonderful Carpet, of the thousand and one
nights. Whilst, for the greater promptitude, if not for the greater security of tra-
velling, a host of inventive intellects are seeking to multiply these wonders — such
wonders as would have driven from their propriety our worthy progenitors, and
made them exclaim, Sorcery ! Locomotives by steam, and electricity, atmo-
spheric railways, &c. ! and when every day sees new attempts to direct the
aeronaut's course, the telegraph has not been behind. This magnificent invention,
which permits the transportation of thought and speech to enormous distances,
almost with the rapidity of speech itself, appears to he on the eve of great improve-
ments ; — at least, many inventors flatter themselves with success ; and whatever
may be the foundation of their hopes, or the real capacity of their attempts, we
cannot the less applaud them ; for so many combined efforts cannot fail to produce
some useful result.

" It is objected to the system of telegraphing now in use, and which has remained
almost as the brothers Chappe left it, that it is not rapid enough — is unable to perform
at night — that it is interrupted by fogs and other atmospheric accidents — that it has
not a concise or varied enough language for what it ought to express. Contempo-
rary inventors have sought a remedy for these defects. The most original attempt
is that which would use the electric currents. This mysterious power, a thousand
times more rapid than speech — quick as lightning — would trace again, at immea-
surable distances, by ways hidden from every look, the message entrusted to it.
But, great as it would be to arrive at such a result, we think it has not yet been
obtained. Electricity and galvanism still are an unknown world, in which our
Columbuses of science have scarcely planted the foot ; and till now, the electric
telegraph has appeared to us but as a scientific curiosity, without any useful appli-
cation. A line has been established on this system in Germany. I believe Eng-
land, if I mistake not, has also made her little essay on a railway (!) ; but all that is
yet but as a study, and constitutes, if we may be allowed so to speak, but the tele-
graph of the laboratory. France, mother of this ingenious art, has been more pru-
dent; and, without essaying, from the very first, such original and fabulous inno-
vations, has wisely held by the way of improvement. We must first of all mention
a sort of movable telegraph applied to warfare, that the Minister of War appears to
have received with favour — the invention of an old officer, M. Darel ; but the mili-
tary telegraph has not yet, that we are aware of, figured in the field of battle, and
has not even had, like the aerostat of Fleurus, the honour of commencing, and at
the same time ending its career, by a victory.

" The greatest inconvenience attending Chappe's telegraph, is the impossibility
of working during night and fogs, which often interrupt its most interesting com-
munications. Many systems have been suggested to remedy this. Of the two
principal ones, it may be said, they are as opposite as light and darkness; for, in
the first, the telegraph is dark on an illuminated ground ; in the second, it is illu-
minated lines on a dark ground. The controversy between these systems was
brought before the Chamber of Deputies, on the occasion of demanding a grant to
make the necessary experiments. The first was keenly defended by M. Arago ;
the second not less keenly supported by M. Pouillet. Finally, a grant was voted
for the trial, and the administration authorised M. Guyot to establish a line — that
from Paris to Tours, according, I believe, to his system ; which consists in light-
ing the arms of the telegraph by means of various coloured flames, maintained by
means of a peculiar liquid gas, the composition of M. Guyot. It cannot be con-
cealed, that the placing and maintaining of these lights in isolated telegraphs during
winter, and in storms, would be difficult, and, at times, impossible. It was equally
to be feared that the combinations of colours, invented by M. Guyot, would mis-
carry, by reason of fogs and atmospheric refraction. A new inventor came forward,
who thought he had surmounted these difficulties. This was M. Morice, who,
having been director, for several years, of a telegraphic line, brought to the inquiry
a long practical acquaintance with the operation and defects of the telegraph. He
therefore proposed a new combination for lighting the arms of the telegraph, which
he thought simpler, and less expensive than M. Guyot's. The proposal of M.
Morice has been received by the government. An understanding has been come to
by him and M. Guyot, and both have been ordered to establish a line, whose com-

176

The Building Arts.

[August,

parative results will form the basis of the final judgment. But the inventors of
the telegraph are not yet exhausted. M. Ounemond Gonon offers a perfectly-
new system, the fruit of twenty-five years' assiduous study. M. Guyot, and espe-
cially M. Morice, preserving the combinations of Chappe, proposed simply to render
them visible by night. M. Gonon entirely changes these combinations, and adopts
new ones, which enable him to forward a dispatch ten times quicker than can now
he done. From the calculations of M. Gonon, which are based on numerous ex-
periments made in the United States; the advantages of his system, compared with
that of Chappe, will be considerable. Chappe's telegraph gives but a hundred
signals — that of M. Gonon, forty thousand. By the first, the number of signals
must be five or six times that of the words in the dispatch ; by the second, five or
six less are sufficient. Chappe's has never given more than three hundred words
in a day, in the most favourable weather ; Gorton's will give a thousand words per
hour. And this rapidity obtains not merely in the combination of its signals, out
also in the facility of its operations.

" The annexed woodcut will explain the mechanism. It consists of four dials,
M, with handles, which serve to move four needles, F ; and of six stops, or pedals,
P, by means of which are opened or shut six casements, constructed like ordinary
Venetian blinds. For night work, the needles will be illuminated by movable, and
the casements by fixed lights. Their different combinations form, as we have said,
forty thousand signals, which compose M. Gonon's General Telegraphic Dictionary.
These signals translate all the ordinary words in most European languages, and
constitute thus a universal language. Moreover, they express at once all new
terms, which, at need, may be created, — figures, fractions, marks of punctuation,
paragraphic distinctions, underlinings, &c., &c. By dint of study, to which he has
devoted himself, M. Gonon claims the discovery of transmitting, often by one
signal, one or two hundred words correctly and fully exhibited; besides that of
applying his French Dictionary to every language written with the same character;
and, further, that of sending dispatches with an economy of from twenty to fifty
signals per cent, on the number of words. Such results — and M. Gonon asserts
thev have been verified by numerous experiments made in the construction of
thirtv-seven telegraphs, and on a line established at the expense of the American
Covernnicnt— would be, in truth, very remarkable : and we have thought it our

duty to enlarge on this new invention. It would even be desirable that the Govern-
ment should study this system, and appreciate its real merit. Such useful attempts
cannot be encouraged too much. The country will reap the fruits of them ; for,
as we have already said, from all these efforts and researches advantageous results
must follow."

Art. VIII.— THE BUILDING ARTS.

CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY.

We concluded our last paper on the subject of Constructive Carpentry
(Art. VI., No. XVIII.), by showing the geometrical condition that must be
satisfied when the whole system is in a state of statical equilibrium. This
was all that the proposition required to be done; but the principle there
unfolded being of such great and extensive utility in the Building Arts, w<
consider it worthy of a more enlarged and comprehensive development. It
is with this view that we again revert to the subject ; but, before extending
the investigation, we shall first illustrate the use of the formula already ob-
tained, as we are apprehensive that, in its present state, the mere practical
reader will not be able to apply it : for this purpose we propose the fol-
lowing

Example. — Suppose an assemblage of five straight, uniform, and inflexible
bars, arranged in a vertical plane, and mutually connected at their extremi-
ties, to be kept in equilibrio by weights laid upon the several points of con-
nexion, the bars being conceived to be void of weight, and free to move about
these points ; it is required to assign the position of the bars with respect to
the horizon, the several equilibrating weights, when taken in order from the
left of the system, being 180, 86, GO, and 80 cwts. ; the constant horizontal
thrust at each joint, 50 cwt. ; and the inclination of the first bar to the
horizon, 78 degrees, 30 minutes.

Here it is obvious, that, to assign the position of the bars in the case of an
equilibrium, is the same thing as to determine the value of 9 in the equation
of condition w = n (tan. $ — tan. 6) for each value of w, the values of n
and 0, as well as the several values of w being given. Now, in order to this,

let both sides of the equation be divided by n, and we get tan. <p — tan. 9 = — ,

n
from which, by transposition, we obtain

tan. 9 = tan. (j> — _.
n
Therefore, by applying this equation to each angle of the system, the inclina-
tion of each bar to the horizon will become known ; and, consequently, if the
lengths of the several bars are given, the figure can easily be delineated.
The process of calculation may be described as follows : —

Rule. — Divide the weight on any angle or joint of the system by the
constant horizontal thrust, and subtract the quotient from the natural
tangent of the angle which one of the bars about that joint makes with the
horizon, and the remainder will be the natural tangent of the angle con-
tained between the horizon and the direction of the other bar ; continue this
process for each joint in the arrangement, and the positions of all the bars
will thus be found.

By the question, the weight on the first joint, or that connecting the first
and second bar, is 180 cwt., and the inclination of the first bar to the horizon
is 78° 30', the natural tanger.t of which is 4915157 ; but 180 divided by 50
is equal to 3'6 ; therefore, by the rule we have

tan. 9 = 4-915157 — 3-6 = 1 315157 = nat. tan. 52° 45' ;

this is the inclination of the second bar ; hence its position is known.

The weight upon the second joint is 86 cwt. ; its quotient by 50 is, there-
fore, equal to 1'72 ; but we have just seen that the tangent of the inclination
of one of the bars about that joint is D315157 ; therefore, by subtraction,
we get tan. 9 = D315157 — D72 = — 0-404843 = nat. tan. 22° 2' below
the horizon, or in a contrary direction ; a circumstance that is known from
the negative affection of the tangent.

The weight upon the third joint is 60 cwt. ; its quotient by 50 is 1*2 ;
subtracting this from the tangent of the angle last computed, we have
tan. 9 = — 0-404843 — 1-2 = — 1-604843 = nat. tan. 58° 4' below the
horizon, or directed downwards ; a circumstance that is known from the
negative sign of the tangent.

The weight upon the fourth and last joint is 80 cwt. ; its quotient by 50
is 1-6 ; which being subtracted from the previous tangent, gives

tan. 9 = — 1-604843 — 1-6 = — 3-204843 = nat. tan. 72" 40',

still under the horizon, or directed downwards. Thus we infer, that as long

as ~ is less than tan. ip, the bars estimated from the commencement of the
n

system are directed upwards ; but when - exceeds tan. <j>, they are di-
re

rected downwards, as respects the successive joints. This is important, as
directing the workmen to the proper positions of the respective bars. The
foregoing process may be brought into one view, as follows : —

1844.]

The Building Arts.

177

When

w = 180 cwts., tan. Q = 4-915157 — J^? = 1-315157, & Q = 52° 45' above the horiz.

w = 86

to = 60

i = 80

tan. A = 1-315157— 1 =
50

tan. 0 = — 0-404S43 — _ =
50

■ 0-404S43, & 0 = 22° 2' below the horiz.

1-604843, &9=58°- V

tan. 0 :

SL° = — 3-204843, & fl = 72° 40'
50

Having thus determined the several angles at which the hars are inclined
to the horizon, the construction of the figure hecomes a matter of great sim-
plicity, and has next to be shown ; but since the lengths of the bars have no
influence whatever on the equilibrium, it is not necessary to specify any par-
ticular length ; we are therefore at liberty to assume any length we please ;
and this being the case, the construction is effected in the following manner :—

Draw HR, fig. 8, of any convenient length at pleasure, to represent the hori-
zon, or base of the system, and in HR take any point A as the position of the
leading bar. At the point A make the angle FAB equal to 78° 30', the given
inclination, and set off AB equal to the length assigned to the bar AB.
Through B draw B a parallel to HR, and at B make the angle a BC equal to
52° 45', as calculated for the angle in question, and set off BC equal to the
length appropriated for the second bar.

Through, the point C draw the straight line C b parallel to B a or HR, and
at the point C make the angle b CD below C b equal to 22° 2', as indicated
by the negative tangent, making CD equal to the assumed length of the
third bar.

Through D, the third joint or angle of the arrangement, draw D c parallel
to HR, and make the angle c DE equal to 58' 4', still tending downwards,
and set off DE equal to the length of the fourth bar. And, finally, through
the point E draw E d parallel to HR, and make the angle dEF equal to
72° 40', the last of the computed angles ; then will EF intersect the horizontal
lineHR in the point F ; so that AF is the span, and ABCDEF is the system
of bars sustained in equilibrio by the given weights applied at the angles
B, C, D, and E.

Since the position of the polygon has now been fixed, the thrusts in the
direction of the several bars may readily be computed : this, also, is impor-
tant, and requires to be attentively considered by practical men, as the prin-
ciple enters very largely into constructions connected with the Building Arts,
and is of daily occurrence even in the minor details of carpentry. We shall,
therefore, to avoid confusion in the figure, and render the subject as intelli-
gible as possible, give an enlarged diagram, and show the method of deter-
mining the thrusts at each of the angles or joints, both by construction and
calculation.

Let ABCDEF, fig. 9, be the balanced polygon, of which AF is the hori-
zontal base, and AB, BC, CD, DE, and EF, are the constituent bars, sus-
tained in equilibrio in consequence of the weights w, wv w.2, and wy sus-
pended from the angles or joints B, C, D, and E ; the extreme bars AB and
FE being fixed at the points A and F, about which they are freely movable.

£■:.

i

On the vertical lines passing through the angles B, C, D, and E, set off
BG, CH, DK, and EM, respectively equal to 180, 86, 60, and 80; then
will BG be the linear representative of the weight w, suspended from the
angle B ; CH the representative of w1 ; DK that of w2, and EM that of the
extreme weight w , suspended from the angle E. The system being thus
prepared, we have now to determine the thrusts in the direction of the several
bars, induced by the weights w, m> , w2, and wg, suspended from the angles
or points of connexion, B, C, D, and E.

Complete the parallelograms B e Gf, CyHi, D iKk, and E I M m ;
then are the diagonals BG, CH, DK, and EM, respectively, the resultants
of the thrusts or pressures in the directions of the bars about the several
joints or angles from which the weights are suspended. That is, BG is the
resultant of the thrusts in direction of the bars BA and BC ; CH the re-
sultant of the thrusts in direction of the bars CB and CD ; DK the resultant
of the thrusts in direction of the bars DC and DE ; and, finally, EM is the
resultant of the thrusts in direction of the bars ED and EF : consequently,
the several composants represent the thrusts in the directions of the bars ;
and if these be severally taken in the compasses, and applied to the same
scale from which the resultants were taken, the magnitudes of the several
thrusts will become known.

Thus we see that B e and B/ are the thrusts in the directions B A and BC ;
but Bf is equal to C g, and they act in opposite directions ; consequently
they destroy each other's effects. The same may be said of the thrusts C h
and D i, as well as D k and E I ; so that we have only te measure B e, Bf,
C h, D k, and E m, which are severally the thrusts or pressures in the direc-
tion of the respective bars. The thrusts, as measured by the scale of con-
struction, are, Be = 251 cwt. ; B/=83cwt. ; C h = 54 cwt. ; D * =
95 cwt. ; and Em = 168 cwt. ; these measures being expressed in the nearest
unit only, the fractions not being correctly indicated by the scale ; but,
nevertheless, the results obtained in this way may, in many cases, be suffi-
ciently accurate for practical purposes ; and they will on all occasions serve
as a check upon the results obtained by the more tedious and irksome process
of calculation to which we now proceed.

In the triangle of forces B e G, all the angles and the side, BG, are known ;
consequently, the sides B e and G e, or B/, which is equal to it, can readily
be found. Thus, the angle B e G is equal to the difference between the
angles BAF and a BC ; and the angle GB e is the complement of the given
angle BAF. Hence we have by trigonometry,

sin. B e G : sin. GB e : : BG : G e ; and sin. B e G : sin. BG e : : BG : B e ;
and by restoring our notation, it is, for the thrust in direction of BC,
sin. ((j> — 9) : cos. 0 : : w : G e = w cos. <p cosec. (<p — 9).
And for the thrust in direction BA, it is

sin. (0 — 9) : cos. 9 : : w : B e = w cos. 9 cosec. (0 — 9).
These two equations, therefore, are symmetrical; and the same will occur at
each joint of the figure, paying proper attention to the signs of the angular
magnitudes. Hence, the rule will be as under : —

Rule. — Multiply the weight upon any joint of the figure by the natural
cosine of the angle made by the contiguous bar with the horizon, and again
by the natural cosecant of the difference of the angles made by each of the
bars about the joint in question, and the product will give the thrust in the
direction of that bar adjacent to or in connexion with the one which has the
cosine of its elevation employed in the process.

This rule is perfectly intelligible when considered with a little attention ;
but the peculiar arrangement of the quantities in the equation, although
extremely simple, renders it inconvenient to express it in words ; but the
meaning will be rendered clear, by reference to the diagram : thus, for
instance, when we want to calculate the thrust in the direction of the bar
BC, we must employ the cosine of the angle made by the bar BA with the
horizon ; and when the thrust in the direction BA is made the subject of
calculation, we employ the cosine of the angle made by the direction of the
bar BC, and so on with the other joints of the figure. The process of cal-
culation is, therefore, as follows, using the logarithms to shorten the work : —

Weight on the joint B = 180 cwt log. 2-2552725

Angle made by the bar AB = 78° 30' log. cos. 9-2996553

Difference of the angles (78° 30' — 52° 45') = 25° 45' . log. cosec. 0-3620649

Thrust in direction of the bar BC = 82-6 cwt log. 1-9169927

Angle made by the bar BC = 523 45' log. cos. 9-7819664

Sum of the first and third logarithms above log. 2-6173374

Thrust in direction of the bar BA = 250-79 cwt.

log. 2-3993038

Weight on the joint C = 86 cwt.
Angle made by the bar BC = 52° 45'
Difference of the angles (52° 45' + 22

log. 1-9344985

log. cos. 9-7819664

2') = 74° 47'* log. cosec. 0-0154996

Thrust in direction of the bar CD = 53-95 cwt.

log. 1-7319645

* It must here be observed, that the angle at tins joint falls under the horizon,
and therefore changes its sign from — to + ; hut for all the other joints the
6jgn — is retained in the term cosec. {<p ■ — 9).

178

Naval Architecture.

[August,

Pursuing a similar process for the thrusts in direction of the bars DE and
EF, we find them to be 94'55 cwt. and 167'S6cwt. respectively. And
exactly in a similar manner may the thrusts be found for any other arrange-
ment.

Art. IX.— NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.

Method of proceeding with the Construction- Drawing of a Ship.

In our last Number we described the manner of calculating the abscissae of a
parabolic curve for a line of sections of a ship ; from which the areas of all
sections, at any distances from the midship section, before and abaft it, may
be obtained by measuring the ordinate of the curve, and multiplying it by the
divisor taken for the midship section. To proceed with the construction
drawing, draw a line for a middle line of the half-breadth plan, and above it
at a distance somewhat greater than half the extreme breadth, draw another
line parallel to it for the lower part of the rabbet of the keel, and extend it at
the after-part. On the middle line of the half-breadth plan set off the sta-
tions of the several sections from the midship section forward and aft ; and
the distance from the midship section to the fore-part of the rabbet of the
stem, and the after-part of the rabbet of the stern-post. From all these
points draw perpendiculars to the middle line, and extend them upwards for
the stations or perpendiculars in the sheer plan. On the foremost and after-
most of these set up the height of the load water-line from the lower part of
the rabbet at the stem and stern ; draw in this line, and others parallel to it,
at equal distances of two or three feet apart. A line for the fore-part of the
rabbet of the stem is drawn, breaking in with that of the keel in a fair curve,
and raking slightly from a perpendicular at the upper part ; and a straight
line for the after-part of the rabbet of the stern-post, nearly perpendicular,
or quite so, to the keel : the advantage of which will be, that a greater plain
of lateral resistance is obtained, and the ship will make less lee-way than if
greater rake were given to the stem and stern-post : the rudder will likewise
act to greater advantage.

At a convenient distance abaft the sheer plan, on the line of the lower part
of the rabbet of the keel extended, draw a perpendicular to this line for a
middle line of the body plan ; on each side of which set off half the extreme
breadth ; and at these distances draw lines parallel to the middle line from
the rabbet to the height of the top-side. Set up the height of the load water-
line at the midship section, and draw a line perpendicular to the middle line
the whole breadth of the ship, and others parallel to it, at the same distances
apart as those in the sheer plan. On the right side of the middle line for the
fore-body set off the half-siding of the stem at the upper and lower part, and
on the left side the half-siding of the stern-post at the upper and lower part ;
draw also these half-sidings in the half-breadth plan: on these lines the
water-lines will end. Having made this preparation, the form of the midship
section may be drawn.

As the form of all the sections in the middle part of the ship depends on
that of the midship section, such form should be given to this section that the
ship shall have sufficient stability, and that the lateral resistance shall be
great ; also that the direct resistance may be as little as possible : which
objects are attained by preserving the breadth above and below the water
within the limits of the immersed and emerged bodies when the ship inclines
from ten to twelve degrees, and by giving as much rise and hollow to the
floor as circumstances will admit : from the limit of the emersion the curve
should gradually be made to round downwards until it meets the curve of the
floor in a fair line. The effect of this will be, that such a form of ship will be
produced, the greater part of the displacement of which will be nearer the
surface of the water than that with any other form (having the same dis-
placement and the same principal dimensions) where the resistance is less
than at a greater depth ; the centre of gravity of the displacement when the
ship is inclined will be carried farther towards the inclined side, and the
upward pressure of the water will act at a greater mechanical advantage to
restore the ship to her upright position ; and the rising floor, with the
straight of breadth from the water downwards, will ensure great lateral
resistance. The area of the curve should be calculated, and such alterations
made as may be necessary, until the exact area is obtained.

The Load Water-line.

It is desirable that the load water-line should have as great an area as can
be given to it, that the variation in the draft of water, by the consumption
of provisions, water, &c, may not be considerable. In the half-breadth
plan, at the midship section, set off the half-breadth of the ship, and at this
distance draw the middle part of the load water-line very nearly straight and
parallel to the middle line, curving slightly towards it, that it may not appear
to be hollow, which it would do if it were perfectly straight : towards the
extremities let it curve more suddenly till it meets the half-siding of the stem
and stern-post : by giving this line a great straight of breadth, or by pre-
serving the breadth for a considerable distance before and abaft the midship
section, stability and lateral resistance are attained. This line and the mid-
ship section are the most important lines in the construction, as on them
depend some of the most important properties which a ship ought to possess.

The next step is to draw a bow and quarter-section, which are from eight
to ten feet from the stem and stern. If all the sections from stem to stern
were of such form that the parts above were exactly similar to the parts
below water, within the limits of immersion and emersion, and if the centres

of gravity of these solids were in the same transverse section as that in which
are the centres of gravity of the ship and the displacement, the ship in rolling
would revolve round the middle line of the load water-line, on the suppo-
sition that the centre of gravity of the whole system were at this height ; the
advantage would be, easiness of motion, and, consequently, less strain would
be brought on the various parts of the structure. The form usually given to
the fore and after-parts of ships above the water, renders such an arrange-
ment impracticable : all ships are more full above than below the water, near
its surface, forward and abaft ; the consequence of which is, that there is a
tendency to immerse a larger solid when the ship inclines than is raised out
of the water on the opposite side ; and as the displacement is the same when
the ship is inclined as it is when she is upright, the ship rises in the water
bodily as she inclines, and falls as she rights again, which motion causes
uneasiness ; and the greater this is, the more will the fastenings of the ship
be strained. To reduce this as much as possible, the solids of immersion
and emersion should be so formed that the inclined water-line may intersect
the water-line, when the ship is upright, as nearly as can be to the middle
line : and that the line of intersection of these two planes may be parallel to
the middle line, it is necessary that the centres of gravity of the solids of
immersion and emersion are at the same distance from the midship section.
Where this is not attended to, and where there is a great difference betwee:
the solids above and below the water, the ship, as she inclines, revolves roun
a diagonal axis, and the wear and tear experienced is excessive. The bo
section is drawn, and its area calculated, such alterations as may be requisib
are made, until the area agrees exactly with that obtained from the lim
of sections.

A second water-line is next run off, for which there are two points through
which it must pass — one at the midship and one at the bow station : this line
should conform with the load water-line.

An intermediate section between the bow and midship sections is next to
be drawn, for which there are two breadths, at the upper and second water-
lines. This section will partake of the character of the midship section, and
its area must agree exactly with the area which the line of sections gives.

For a third water-line, there are three points and the ending to determine
its form.

Other sections are in a similar manner drawn between these, also between
the bow section and the stem ; and a fourth water-line is run off : after
which it will be found that the sections can be drawn in of the required area,
or so nearly that it will be necessary to make very little, if any, alteration
in them.

The lower water-lines may be run off in the half-breadth plan, and as
many sections in the body plan as the constructor pleases.

The quarter section is next drawn ; and it is to be observed, that the after-
sections will have no contrary flexure below the water, in consequence of the
form which custom has given to the after-part of ships above the water.
Proceed in a similar manner with the after-body as was shown for the fore-
body, and a general idea of the design of the ship under water may be
formed.

To complete the sections above the water, draw the top-side line in the
sheer plan, and transfer the heights of the several sections to the middle line
of the body plan : from the straight of breadth, at the midship section, draw
this curve upwards, giving it the intended tumbling-home at the top-side.
Draw the top side line in the half-breadth plan, and transfer the breadths to
the heights of the corresponding sections in the sheer plan, and extend the
sections to these breadths, and correct them between the top-side line and the
load water-line, by running off, in the half-breadth plan, a number of lines
parallel to the load water-line of the body plan.

The body may afterwards be "faired" in the usual manner by diagonals
and bow and buttock lines : if the water-lines run off well in the half-breadth
plan, and the areas of the sections agree exactly with the line of sections,
there will seldom be any necessity to make any alterations in the sections
below the load water-line.

The " draft of the ship'' can with facility be made from the construction
drawing ; the former being a representation of the ship to the outside of the
timbers of the frame, while in the latter the plank is included.

The head and stern are afterwards put to the sheer plan according to the
taste of the constructor.

Art. X.— WARMING BY HOT WATER.

A Practical Treatise on Warming Buildings by Hot Water, on Ventila-
tion, and Combustion. By Charles Hood, F.R.S. Second Edition.
Whittaker and Co.

In presenting a second edition of his work on warming houses by hot water,
Mr. Hood has the rare satisfaction of having no errors to correct in his ]
earlier treatise, though the lapse of years has added much to the stock of .
knowledge, and has enabled him to render the work far more complete. The
object proposed is to explain and to render familiar the principles on which
the application of hot water to the heating of buildings depends, and to show
the best forms of apparatus by means of which it may be accomplished.
Mr. Hood commences by explaining the cause of. the motion of hot water in
the pipes of the apparatus, for on the constant circulation of the heated fluid
the whole operation depends. He takes occasion to correct an erroneous
statement respecting the cause of this circulation that appears in an appendix

1844-.]

Architectural Topics of the Day.

179

to Tredgold, in which the phenomenon is attributed to difference in the
level of the water, owing to its expansion by heat, whereas the difference in
the weight of the columns of the ascending and the descending fluids, is the
actuating force. If a pipe fixed in the top of a covered boiler, quite full
of water, be carried upwards for some height and then bent, and the other
end inserted in the bottom of the boiler, after passing horizontally, there
will be no circulation of the fluid in the pipes so long as it remains of the
same temperature ; but when the boiler is heated, the water in the pipe in-
serted in the top becomes hotter than the water in the return pipe, which is
farther from the source of heat, and the expanded heated fluid being lighter
than the cooler fluid in the return pipe, the equilibrium is destroyed, and
the heavier column flows down and raises the lighter column. It is by the
greater weight therefore of the cooler fluid in one column that the circulation
in the pipes of a hot-water warming apparatus is entirely effected, on the
same principle as a syphon ; and as the continued diffusion of heat from the
pipes depends on the constant supply of fresh heated water from the boiler,
it is essential that the circulation should be maintained. This is the main
point to be attended to, in constructing such an apparatus, and though the
principle seems simple enough, there are many difficulties in the practical
application that often prevent the circulation of the water if care be not taken
to surmount them. In the first place, proper provision must be made for
the expulsion of air from the pipes ; for as they act on the same principle
as a syphon, the admission of air would prevent the rising of the water from
the boiler in the same manner as it prevents the fluid from rising in the
shorter arm of a syphon. When .the exclusion of air is effected, the rapidity
of the circulation will depend on the difference in the weights of the water
in the rising and in the return pipes, and that again will be regulated by
the difference of temperature. When the difference of temperature amounts to
10° of Fahrenheit the cooler column of water in a pipe two inches diameter
and one foot long, will weigh 32 grains heavier than the hotter column, and
if the pipes be 20 feet high the difference, or actuating force, would be about
one ounce. This amount of force would be amply sufficient to keep up a
brisk circulation, provided the water did not meet with many obstructions
from convolutions and sharp turnings of the pipe. It is necessary, therefore,
to regulate the moving force to the friction which it will have to overcome,
and also to dispose the pipes in such a manner as to present as little obstruc-
tion as possible to the flow of the water through them. This is one of the
points which Mr. Hood seems not to have sufficiently considered ; and he
treats as an " error '' the opinion that additional power is gained by allowing
a gradual fall of the water on its return to the boiler. It is true that no
power is actually gained by such an arrangement, but as elbows are thus
avoided, and the friction diminished, there is less loss of power, which is in
practical effect equivalent to a gain.

Since the motive power is obtained by difference in the temperature of the
returning and of the rising water, it would appear at first view, that the
greater the length of pipe, or, in other words, the greater the space to which
the heat is imparted, the more rapid would be the circulation of the fluid.
.To a certain extent this is true, but when the pipe, especially if of small
diameter, has to traverse a building horizontally, the additional friction of
the water counterbalances the advantage gained by the greater weight of the
descending column ; and, unless the rise of the pipe be adjusted to the dis-
tance it has to traverse, the friction will retard the motion, and render it too
sluggish to be effective. One essential point to be observed in the arrange-
ment of such an apparatus is to carry the pipe from the top of the boiler
directly, and with the least turning possible, to the highest point of the
building to be warmed, by which means the heat of the rising column is pre-
served, and the diffusion of warmth in different rooms by the convolutions of
the pipe cools the water and increases the force with which it is impelled on
its return.

Mr. Hood treats of the laws governing the difference of heat from different
bodies, and their capacities for caloric, so far as that subject has reference to
his immediate object, and he enters most completely into the principles and
the construction of the apparatus for warming buildings by hot water, but he
fails to show the economical or other advantages of the plan, excepting in
comparison with the rival mode of heating by steam, which are thus
slated : —

" The specific heat of cast-iron being nearly the same as water, if we take
two similar pipes, four inches in diameter, and one quarter of an inch thick,
■the one filled with water, the other with steam, each at the temperature of
212°, the one which is filled with water will contain 4-68 times as much heat
as that which is filled with steam ; therefore, if the steam-pipe be cooled
down to the temperature of 60° in one hour, the pipe containing water would
require four hours and a half under the same circumstances before it reached
the like temperature. But this is merely reckoning the effect of the pipe and
of the fluid contained in it. In a steam apparatus, this is all that is effective
in giving out heat ; but in a hot-water apparatus there is likewise the heat
from the water contained in the boiler, and even the heat from the brick-
work around the boiler ; which all tends to increase the effect of the pipes in
consequence of the circulation of the water continuing long after the fire is
extinguished ; in fact, so long as the water is of a higher temperature than
the surrounding air of the room. From these causes the differences in the
rate of cooling of the two kinds of apparatus will be nearly double what
is here stated ; so that a building warmed by hot water will maintain its
temperature after the fire is extinguished about six or eight times as long
as it would do if it were heated by steam."

The subject of ventilation is treated in a very practical manner, in reference
more especially to the mode of warming apartments by hot water, for when
any other plan of heating rooms than by open fires is adopted, special pro-
vision is requisite for the supply of fresh air, not only in sufficient quantity
to afford oxygen to the blood by respiration, but also to carry off the mois-
ture evaporated from the body. We cannot now follow Mr. Hood into the
consideration of this branch of his subject, nor into the more distinct depart,
ment of the combustion of smoke, which he discusses ; we shall merely
mention the quantities of air he estimates to be necessary for a perfect ven-
tilation in contrast with the excessive quantities prescribed by Dr. Reid.
Mr. Hood views the subject in reference to the quantity of air requisite to be
heated by his apparatus ; Dr. Reid considers it as a wholesale dealer in air,
and the following are their different results. The former allows, in winter,
3-| cubic feet per minute to carry off the insensible perspiration, and only
one quarter of a cubic foot for the pulmonary supply ; and for summer, five
feet per minute. Dr. Reid considers ten cubic feet per minute should be
allowed to every individual, and during his experiments on the members of
the House of Commons, he sometimes gave each member doses of not less
than sixty cubic feet per minute of his infallible nostrum for all complaints.

Art. XI.— ARCHITECTURAL TOPICS OF THE DAY.

A programme has been issued for what may fairly be termed a universal
competition — all the architects of Europe being invited to send in designs ;
therefore, if we may judge from the numbers of those who join general com-
petitions in their respective countries, a most formidable collection of draw-
ings will have to be examined. By those who are not yet aware of the real
purpose, it will, no doubt, be imagined that it must be a very important
occasion indeed, — a work of extraordinary magnitude or magnificence, for
which all the architectural talent of Europe is thus put upon the alert ; yet
the intended edifice, a senate-house, or house of assembly for the Hungarian
Diet, to be erected in the city of Pesth, does not seem to hold out such a
singular opportunity for the display of ability or taste, as to induce those at
a distance to give their attention to the subject, — when individual chance
of success is likely to be so greatly diminished by the expected number of
competitors. One circumstance which will probably deter many, is, that
there being no restrictions whatever as to style, so neither is there any guid-
ance ; but, being left to exercise their own discretion and taste in that re-
spect, architects are also left to guess at a venture what sort of taste is most
likely to find favour with the people of Pesth. On [the other hand, should
the invitation be responded to by very many, those who shall have the task
of examining all the designs, and making the decisive selection, will probably
be not a little puzzled by the contrariety of styles and ideas submitted to
them. Other information than the mere drily-stated items of the pro-
gramme, is, if not indispensable, highly desirable ; therefore it is not un-
likely that most of those who think it worth their while to compete, will
consider it also worth while to make a trip to Pesth, in order to make them-
selves thoroughly acquainted with the locality of the site, and various other
circumstances. Far more improbable things have happened, than that this
competition should cause an influx of architect visitors into that city. What-
ever may be the actual reason for it, as none is assigned, it does appear not a
little strange that it should be intended to erect the " Dietal Palace" within
what is now the new market-place, an open square, of rather more than 600
English feet from east to west, by 550 feet from north to south. Although
the edifice is not to cover more than ^ths, or less than a third of this area,
(its precise position in it is left to the competitors,) it will so greatly abridge
the open space, that such alteration will be no very great public improvement
to the city, however ornamental to it may be the structure itself. It is stated
in the programme, that, with the exception of what must be left for public
street or thoroughfare in front of the surrounding houses, the rest of the
ground will be laid out as a promenade, plans for which are to be included
among those for the building itself. Yet, what can be done within the very
limited space afibrded for such purpose, beyond enclosing the edifice with
some kind of ornamental balustrading, we do not very well perceive. Taken
by itself, it may be an advantage that the building will be entirely insulated ;
yet, unless it also adapts itself to the shape of the " square," and be like that
in the proportion of 9 to 10, the general effect will not be particularly good.
On the other hand, such proportions being observed, the building becomes a
square mass, with four fayades, of such nearly equal extent, that the difference
will hardly be discernible. One of them, however, is to be distinguished
from the others; for the programme directs that " the principal front must
face the Danube;" from which we should infer that it is contemplated to
clear away, at some time or other, all the buildings on the south side of the
square, between that and the smaller square, called the " Joseph's-Platz,"
and also those between this last and the river-quay, so as to open a direct
view of the " Dietal Hall" from the Danube, which, so lung as it shall be
quite shut up from it, the building cannot properly be said to " face." Still
our idea is entirely conjectural ; and, after all, nothing more may be meant
than that the principal front is to face the south, although it is rather fanci-
fully expressed. On looking at the general " situation-plan" accompanying
the programme, we perceive there is a very extensive edifice, probably of re-
cent date, in the immediate vicinity of the square where the Dietal Hall is to

180

Moral Influence of the Fine Arts.

[August,

be erected ; namely, the theatre, whose size considerably exceeds the dimen-
sions allowed for the building which is made the subject of so very extraor-
dinary a competition ; as if it were to be a work of such surpassing magnitude
and importance that it could not safely be intrusted to any of the architects
who have hitherto been employed on the public edifices of the city. At all
events, it would be desirable that those who intend to compete should know
something as to what the other public buildings are, in order that they may
the better judge what is likely to be considered sufficiently grand, yet not
extravagantly so. Except that there are to be three spacious halls — one for
the magnates, another for the delegates, and a third for mixed sittings, —
there does not seem to be much opportunity for architectural design, as all
the rest will consist of mere offices and business rooms, and those so very
numerous that it will require a good deal of contrivance to get them out
of the plan, unless the building be made to consist of an unusual number of
stories. However, the competition may be of service in exercising the inge-
nuity of many architects ; and it may also prove the means of exciting some
inquiry, and eliciting some information in regard to the architecture of a city
which is said to contain several noble public buildings, but of which scarcely
any tolerably satisfactory account is to be met with in any English publica-
tions. One point in the instructions, which we have omitted to call attention
to, is, that, in forming the plans, due regard is to be paid not only to the
locality of the building, and its national importance, but also to " the social
condition of the country I" — which last is a very odd and very puzzling
" condition" to be attended to in an architectural programme.

Art. XII.— BARKER'S WATER-MILL.

We lately gave in The Apprentice, some formulae deduced from experiment
for computing the power, speed, and right dimensions of the parts of the
Barker's water-mill. To these particulars we are now able to add others ;
and our readers, we believe, will excuse us for giving the series entire, though
at the expense of some repetition. The formula; apply to a machine with
two straight arms ;

A denotes the height of the fall in feet ;

n the number of horses' power of the machine ;

w the width of each jet in feet ;

d the diameter of the machine in feet ;

c the diameter of the central opening ;

r the revolutions of the machine per minute.

Formula.
(1.) Power of water, 100 ; power of machine, 75 to 80.

(2.) '104n = «?■•■*/( -134w)=«.
J h x a/A VA x a/A'

(3.) The depth of each jet = w x 5.

(4.) iv x 50 = d. To suit certain arrangements, the diameter may either
be made somewhat larger or smaller than this.
(5.) w x 12-5 = c.

(6.) 155 x VA = r.
d

Example. — Let the height of the fall be 64 feet, and the required power
equal to that of 100 horses.

•104 n -104 x 100 10-4

Here-

= "0203125, and the square root

A x a/A 64 x 8 ' 512

of -0203125 = -1425149 = w .-. -1425149 or -142515 foot, is the width of
each jet.

And by formula (3.) we have -142515 x 5 = -712575. Hence -712575
foot is the depth of each jet.

The diameter of the machine being w x 50, we have -142515 x 50 =
7'12575 feet for the diameter of the machine.

By formula (5.) we have -142515 x 12-5 = 1-7814375, which is the dia-
meter of the central opening in feet.

And formula (6.) r = 155 X Vh = -155 * 8 = 174 ; that is, the ma-
v ' d 7-12575

chine will make 174 revolutions per minute.

As 33000 lbs. raised one foot high per minute is equal to 1-horse power,
we have 33000 x 100 = 3300000 lbs. = 100 horses' power ; and 3300000-r-
62-321 (weight of a cubic foot of water) = 52951-6535 = the number of
cubic feet of water which 100 horses' power will raise one foot high per

minute. But the height of the fall being 64 feet : = 827'37,

64
that is, 100 horses' power will raise 827-37 cubic feet of water 64 feet high
per minute. Now, if we suppose the machine to give 78 per cent, of the

power of the water which works it, then = 1060| = the

number of cubic feet of water which will be used by a machine of 100 horses'
power, the fall being 64 feet, and the power of the machine 78 per cent, of
the power of the water.

The following will in part explain the theory of Barker's mill. — Let us
imagine the machine working at a velocity the same as that which a heavy
body would acquire in falling a distance equal to the height of the fall of
water, as the result of that velocity will not in any case be far from a maxi-
mum ; and the explanation and calculations will be rendered exceedingly
simple, if we suppose the speed of the machine to be the same as now
named.

It may be as well to remark, that the diameter of the machine is measured
from centre to centre of the jet-pipes ; and we may also state, that the speed
of the machine is measured at the centre of the jet-pipes.

As before, we shall suppose 64 feet to be the height of the fall — that height
being as well adapted for our purpose as any other.

The height of the fall being 64 feet, we have a/64 x 8-0458 = 8 x
8-0458 = 64-3664 = the speed of the machine in feet per second.

And as the centrifugal force which is caused by the water's being whirled
round in the arms at the speed above-named, will of itself create a pressure
as great as that of the column of water in the main-pipe and machine, we
have 64 feet (pressure of water in main-pipe) + 64 feet (pressure from
centrifugal force) = 128 feet, which is the internal pressure of the water at
the outer end of the arms when they are in motion : therefore, a/128 x 8-0458
would give the velocity of the water passing through the smallest section of
the jet-pipes, if it (the water) met with no resistance in the main-pipe and
the machine. But, as the water meets with some resistance, we shall, if we
take 7-72 in place of 8-0458, give ample allowance for this. Hence,
a/128 x 7-72 = 11-3137085 x 7-72 = 87^34182962 = the velocity of the
water in feet per second passing through the smallest section of the jet-pipes
when the arms are in motion, at the speed before named.

By subtracting the velocity of the machine from that of the water, we
obtain the velocity which remains in the water after it has left the machine.
Hence, 87'34182962 — 64-3664 = 22-97542962 feet = the velocity per se-
cond of the water after it has left the machine. And

r22-97542962y
8-0458 )

2855582 = 8-1543371364 feet = the head or pressure which would give the
water a velocity of 22-97542962 feet per second. Now, as the force which
remains in the water after it has left the machine must be lost, we have this
proportion, 128 feet (twice the height of the fall, or the whole force which
gives motion to the water) : 100 per cent. : : 8-1543371364 feet (the pres-
sure which would give the water the velocity which remains in it after it has
left the machine) : 6*37 per cent. That is, there is a loss of 6-37 per cent,
of the whole force of the water occasioned by the water's leaving the machine
with some velocity or force remaining in it.

The theoretical velocity of the water in feet per second being = a/(A + A) x
8-0458, and its actual velocity V(h + A) x 7-72, we can from this determine
the amount of loss which is occasioned by the resistance which the water meets
with in the main-pipe and the machine. For the square of 80458 will repre-
sent the theoretical power of the water as 100 per cent., and the square of 7-72
will represent its real power. Hence, 8-04582 or 64-73489764 : 100 : : 7'722
or 59-5984 : 92-07. That is, the actual power of the water is 92-07 per cent,
of its theoretical power ; and 100 per cent. — 92-07 per cent, = 7'93 per
cent. = the loss. But as the centrifugal force doubles the pressure of the
water, the amount of loss caused by the resistance which the water meets
with in passing through the main-pipe and the machine, will be = 7'93 per
cent, x 2 = 15'86 per cent.

6-37 per cent, (the force which leaves the machine with the escaping
water) + 15 86 per cent, (the amount of loss which the water meets with in
passing through the main-pipe and the machine) = 22-23 per cent., is the
total amount of loss ; for the remaining portion of the force of the water is
directed in the best possible manner for turning the machine. This being
the case, we have 100 per cent. — 22-23 per cent. = 77'77 per cent, of the
power of the water for the power of Barker's mill.

Art. XIII.— MORAL INFLUENCE OF THE FINE ARTS.

Thf. arts termed fine, polite, or liberal, when spoken of abstractedly, or
without relation to other arts, are painting, sculpture, and architecture ;
but, in the popular division, they consist of music, painting, sculpture,
engraving, rhetoric, gardening, architecture, and are distinguished from the
useful, or mechanical arts by their respective objects. The object of the
latter is to produce utility or profit ; that of the former is to please or
gratify the taste by exhibiting whatever they can that is graceful, lovely,
elegant, novel, wonderful, or sublime. Absolute or relative beauty is a
quality common to all their productions, and it is by the power of their
works to raise this emotion that we judge of the perfection of those works.
Some of the fine arts are also useful, still, the most striking feature in the
outward expression of their productions is- ornament. Such are architec-
ture and gardening.

The propensity to imitation is common to man, and leads even now the
rude sons of the country to carve on wood or stone some rough resem-
blance to the human face or form. The glassy surface of the unruffled
lake reflecting in calm beauty forest, field, village, either burnished
with the golden blaze of sun-light, or softened into milder radiance by the

1844.]

Sketches in the Levant, by a Member of the Club.

181

silvery beams of the' fair queen of night,' would suggest a means of picturing
out in a more durable form all the charms of a landscape, as a memento of
scenes and hours of friendship now far distant or long passed away. The
varied beauty of nature in the green velvet lawn and the embroidered
meadow, the gently meandering rivulet and the rushing cataract, the grave
browed mountain and the silent valley, no doubt gave rise to the picturesque
in gardening. The magnificent temple of nature, whose roof of thickly in-
tertwining branches and closely thatched leaves is supported by strong and
graceful columns of various forms, possibly furnished the first idea of archi-
tecture, and contributed assuredly to the perfection of the art. That the
fine arts are the legitimate result of the laws of mind seems farther evident
from their adaptation to the mental constitution, from the involuntary spon-
taneous approbation shown them in all ages, and in all countries, and by
nearly all classes of society. This universal admiration arises from their
appealing to a common principle of human nature — taste, which, though
differing in some of its applications, is essentially the same in all mankind.
Taste is somewhat analogous to the love of nature, and serves the same end
with respect to human productions as the love of nature does with respect
to natural objects. They are sometimes both called taste, and it is a fact,
so nearly are they allied to each other, that by improving one of them we
improve the other at the same time.

The love of nature seems, indeed, to have been the origin of the fine arts,
of those, at least, which are imitative. Both of these principles were doubt-
less implanted within us for good purposes; and their final cause, which we
cannot now consider, is as illustrative of the Divine wisdom and goodness
as serviceable to mankind. That faculty of the mind over which the fine
arts peculiarly and immediately preside is an important one, and is, in fact,
that over which morality and religion exercise their greatest control. It is
the sensitive part of our nature — the passions and emotions. And here we
perceive the grand reason why their moral influence should be seriously
considered, because they touch the springs of feeling ; and why, though
founded in nature, their application should be sacredly guarded, so as to
prevent the perversion of their original purpose. That they possess great
influence over mind, appears probable from their nature and qualities, and
certain from history and experience.

The power of music, poetry, and oratory, is too generally acknowledged
to need illustration or argument. The corrupting power of painting, when
employed for vicious purposes, is so great as to require interference. Paint-
ing and sculpture, as agents of superstition, have held extensive control
over the human mind in the systems of idolatry which have prevailed, and
the Divine prohibition of the use of them is at once an evidence of the pro-
pensity of the human mind to cultivate these arts, and of the wonderful
power which they are capable of wielding.

Having the universal approbation of all classes, the fine arts can, by
taking advantage of the times, by favouring some reigning prejudice or
passion of the age, mould and direct the popular masses at will. The foun-
ders of a certain church, having a knowledge of human nature, availed
themselves of all the powerful attractions of the arts in the construction,
decoration, and services of their magnificent cathedrals and other places of
worship, to strengthen the attachment and secure the veneration of its
members for its doctrines and usages.

The universal power which the fine arts have acquired over all men in
civilized countries is perceived in the eagerness with which specimens of them
are sought, either for the embellishment of their dwellings, or objects of fre-
quent delight. Greece and Italy are only other names for all that is beautiful
and perfect in works of art ; and it is interesting to observe the whole civil-
ised world ardently desiring to behold their charms, and to catch their inspir-
ation. The poet, the philosopher, the conqueror, the traveller, seeks to obtain
even a fragment of their architectural mementos, their marble statues, their
sculptured monuments, not only as a relic of their ancient glory, but also as
a rare and exquisite specimen of unrivalled art. The desire and practice so
prevalent of obtaining some appropriate and durable memento of love and
friendship, as a bust or a picture, is a strong testimony to our sense of the
power of the arts which produce them, as it is to the tender and touching sen-
timent of our hearts towards the loved and departed. Whatever possesses
such a command over the hearts and actions of men, whatever seems destined
to maintain its empire through all generations, is certainly a proper subject
of scrutiny and guardianship.

The persons on whom the fine arts exert an influence consist of two
classes, — artists, and admirers and observers of the arts. Though their influ-
ence is felt by both classes in common, it must be greatest on those, whether
professors or connoisseurs, who are most conversant with them. Their moral
influence is of two kinds, original, native, or inherent ; and relative or derived ;
sometimes distinctly felt, but generally felt in union or combination. The
relative influence flows from two sources, one the subject which they treat of
or exhibit, the other the faculty, passion, or emotion which they are intended
to excite ; some of them admit of only one source of relative influence, e. g.,
gardening and architecture. These cannot, perhaps, be properly said to ex-
hibit different subjects of consideration ; but they can be made to raise
various emotions, as cheerfulness or melancholy, gaiety or sobriety, tranquil-
lity confidence or terror, beauty or sublimity.

In order to have a distinct idea of these two kinds of influence, let us take
an example from one of the fine arts in which they exist. David, the founder
of the modern French school of painting, has produced a picture which repre-
sents Cain meditating the death of Abel. Cain is represented as large as life :

he appears in the foreground, facing the beholder, and is the most conspicuous
figure in the picture. He is sitting on a broken rock ; a green lawn is spread
out at his feet, before and behind him ; on his right waves a forest of luxuriant
vegetation ; in the distance is a glade, opening on his left, and stretch-
ing far far away. The pious Abel is kneeling reverently before a rude
altar of stone, from which the flame of his sacrifice is sending up a grateful
perfume to heaven. The offended Cain is the very personification of malice
and revenge : he appears agitated with rage ; every muscle is swelled in per-
fect distinctness ; his erect and inflexible neck — his closely-compressed lips —
his dilated nostrils and bloodshot eyes — his dark, wrinkled brow, are still
more striking indications of the settled fury and purpose of his mind. His
right leg is slightly bent under him, resting on the toes ; his left is in its
natural upright position, but firmly planted; his left hand, extended at the
full length of the arm, clenches and presses perpendicularly upon the ground
an implement of husbandry, while his right hand bears strongly upon his
thigh, representing him in the act of springing from his seat to perpetrate
murder. Now, who can look on that perfectly natural colouring — that accu-
rate delineation of features and expression — that admirable perspective, every
object, every part standing up from the canvas as if it were the living scene
itself, without feeling delighted ? This is the spontaneous homage which taste
pays to genius, and is the effect produced by the fine design and painting
of the picture, or by the original inherent influence of this specimen of art.
Then the subject is one of deep interest ; we think of the causes at work, the
characters displayed, and other circumstances exhibited in the scene ; and
thus this subject suggests considerations calculated to produce a good moral
effect. The picture is addressed to several emotions in the beholder — abhor-
rence of the crime, commiseration for the victim, and disgust at the indul-
gence of malignant revenge. Now, the adaptation of the picture to excite these
emotions, and the subject exhibited in it, constitute the two sources of relative
influence. It will be perceived from the example, that the latter influence
must be, or be made, far greater than the former, since into the latter can be
thrown all the incentives to vice or virtue, all the elements of moral purity or
corruption ; and in the use made of this influence lies the greatest danger.
Subjects and emotions are, indeed, the instruments which both depraved and
consecrated genius employs to effect its purposes. Let the fine arts be used
by suitable minds in a proper way, and their power to bless mankind will be
universally acknowledged ; but whatever may be their application, their inhe-
rent or native influence remains the same in character, though not always in
force.

Art. XIV.— SKETCHES IN THE LEVANT, BY A MEMBER OF
THE CLUB.

Sons of Hercules ! — I send you some outlines of my doings in the
Levant, which you may put in the fire or the magazine, as suits your
humour. You will ask if there is anything in them of cast-iron? No,
truly ; and that is why I send them to you, for engineers must not be
absorbed in cast-iron everlastingly. Let your readers, whether builders or
engineers, throw overboard the shop for half an hour, and take a seat on
my Pegasus, which outstrips in speed all your steam-conveyances ; for what
locomotive could carry them over the Levant in half an hour ? All right
then : and first let us drop in at Gibraltar.

Gibraltar. — The bay of Gibraltar is a fine deep bay, defended on the
southward by the opposite Barbary shore, distant about 10 or 11 leagues,
and no part of it exposed to the Pacific or the Mediterranean Sea. Avery
heavy sea, however, sometimes sets in and drives vessels from their anchor-
age upon the beach of the neutral ground, which is a fine sand. The
approach to this bay is very fine, the appearance of the rock imposing, and
the numerous gardens with which its south-western face is covered relieves
the monotonous appearance of the rock — the views delightful, and some of
the villas at the southern side beautiful, and the situations enchantins*. The
aloe, and prickly pear, and numerous flowering shrubs grow wild amonsst
the rocks. The main street of the town is wide and well paved, with flag-
way, and quite clean — the roads leading from the town are excellent — the
barracks and all public buildings most respectable in appearance — the
houses in the town all through clean and neat. A most commendable decree
of discipline or regulation exists throughout the entire for the preservation
of cleanliness, and which affords the best assurance of continued health.
The markets are well supplied — with fish a profusion : turbot, red mullet
and other varieties, at a very cheap rate ; excellent poultry from Barbary
at 3*. per couple ; good beef at 5d. per lb. ; but mutton is very indifferent
at Ad. ; indeed the latter is rarely used except by the lower orders. The
rural and romantic beauties of the southern district, with the neatness and
apparent comfort of the numerous villas, render Gibraltar, in my opinion,
the most beautiful place I ever met, so far as those attributes can render it
so. As a residence it takes the lead : some situations in Italy may equal it
in scenery, but none of them possesses to an equal degree that character
which stamps them in the eye of an Englishman as " elegant, neat, and
comfortable." Upon the apex of the southern part of the rid«-e which
crowns the Rock of Gibraltar stands an old tower which has been several
times struck by lightning and nearly demolished. On that of the northern
part of the ridge is a signal-tower which notifies the approach of uien-of-

182

Sketches in the Levant, by a Member of the Club.

[August,

war, and of the steamers carrying mails, &c. The eastern side, facing the
Mediterranean, is nearly precipitous; that on the western shelves down
more gradually to the bay, and upon its lower brow, elevated, however, 30
or 40 feet above the water, is built the town ; an abrupt cliff of from 30 to
40 feet high faces the sea upon all this lower part of the island ; and such
places as may not naturally reach that height have been built up so as to
render this portion of the island inaccessible to escalade. Batteries meet
the eye in all directions ; those perforated in the rock face the neutral
ground, which consists of a sandy narrow isthmus running from the main
land of Spain to the rock, which I think might be easily cut across, so as to
allow the sea to pass through, and thus render Gibraltar an island. 1 should
imagine that a breakwater, similar to that in Plymouth Sound, would ren-
der Gibraltar Bay one of the finest harbours in Europe : perhaps a floating one
would answer the purpose, as the sea running into the bay has nothing like
the same drift as that running into Plymouth Sound. The construction of a
breakwater would afford healthful employment to the garrison at diminished
expense, as the pay of the soldiers when working would of course be much
less than that of ordinary labourers ; and a further advantage might be
obtained by giving a precipitous face to that portion of the southern and
western face of the island that is now sloping, by quarrying stones from it
for the breakwater. If this work were done by England exclusively, an
impregnable fort might be erected by her on the western extremity of the
breakwater, without range of shot from Spain, and still commanding the
entrance on the Spanish side ; or, even if that should be objected to by
Spain, England would possess as much facility to the occupation of every
part of the bay as she has at present ; whereas, although Spanish ships
might enter the bay at their own side, the superior height of the guns at
Gibraltar would give them a superior command over its waters exceeding
that which could be attained from the Spanish side. English vessels would
therefore derive greater advantage from the shelter afforded to ships than
those of Spain could do.

Algiers. — At five or six leagues off shore we cannot trace particular
objects. The town is on the face of a fifth or sixth-class mountain, facing
the N.E., in which line and the S.W. the town runs, coming down to the
sea. The mass or body of the town is considerable, and its limits are de-
finable from this distance, being much wider at the bottom near the sea,
and narrowing gradually as it ascends the face of the hill ; a vast number of
detached white houses are spread over the hill facing the sea on both sides
of the town, impressing the observer with the belief that much improve-
ment has taken place, and that there is much of comfort and civilisation.
The distance off shore is too great to allow of our distinguishing whether
the improvement comprises the beauty of flowering and other shrubs. The
mountains that bound the Mediterranean on the south side are of the fifth
and sixth class in height. East of Algiers, some of the mountains behind
those bounding the shore are somewhat more elevated, and portions of their
summits capped with snow.

Malta. — Let us visit the top of the signal-station at the governor's palace,
from whence a view is obtained over the town and fortifications and much
of the island. The fortifications are the most extensive I have anywhere
seen, occupying all the heights and several miles adjoining the water's edge,
diverging iuto sundry creeks which form the harbour, in which line-of-battle
ships occasionally lie, embracing many miles. The western, or quarantine
harbour is nearly as large as the eastern one ; and Fort St. Elmo, lying upon
the promontory that divides them, covers both. Other works lie upon the
western shore of the quarantine harbour, so that it is as well protected as
the eastern harbour, which is frequented by the men-of-war out of quaran-
tine. The great extent of these works covering so large an area would, in
my opinion, require at least 10,000 men to defend it against a siege. Some
of the works command all those parts of the island within range of she'ls :
all that part facing the island is protected by bastions and other regular
works of defence ; and if any place whatever can be considered impreg-
nable, Malta, I think, must be the one. From the sea-side it is assuredly
impervious, and must be equally so from the land-side, unless the country
was occupied by a superior force, and that mining could be effected through
the soft rock which reaches to the surface almost throughout the island,
and the works protecting the town blown up. Even then, the interior de-
fences, connected by covered ways, etc., would enable the besieged to defend
themselves against ten times their number. On the whole, unless Malta be
governed by another Baron Hompeshe, or through some fatal neglect in the
supply of troops, &c, I cannot fancy the possibility of its capture by an
enemy. The streets of Malta, although not wide, are sufficiently so for two
or more carriages to pass. They run invariably at right-angles, with well-
paved and flagged foot-ways, and very clean. The houses are cleaner, and
better, and more regularly built than any I have seen on the Continent — all
of them built of white stone— some two, some three stories high, with flat
roofs and projecting balconies in front of almost all. On the whole, it is a
particularly neat, well kept town. Most of it being built on hilly ground
of various shapes, the ascents and declivities are in many places very steep,
and many of the elevations are reached by stone steps. The dock-yard is a
contracted, puny concern, and operates as a foil to the sublimity of the for-
tifications. A coffer-dam is now being constructed at the head of the creek
in which the dock-yard is situated, where it is intended to form a dry dock
for men-of-war. Many houses will have to be taken down to admit of this
improvement ; and even after the heavy expense of purchasing those houses,
which are private property, the space will be too contracted to allow of any

other than mere peddling operations. I think the quarantine harbour would
have been better adapted for the object contemplated, as affording abundant
room for the construction of extensive arsenals, and having equal protection
from the works of the garrison. Citta Vachio, the original capital of the
island, lies on an eminence about four or five miles eastward of the garri-
son. The country has a burnt-up, sterile appearance, with the rock up to
the surface, above which it frequently projects : it, however, grows barley,
which is now ripe, and thence, in some degree, the burnt-up appearance
alluded too. After the barley is pulled up by the roots, the method of har-
vesting here, a crop of cotton is produced, the quantity of which, however,
is not more than sufficient for the use of the islanders, who spin and weave
it into clothes. Manure is rarely put upon the ground. The straw pro-
duced from the barley is consumed by the horses and cattle. Some nice-
looking horses are seen, showing Arabian blood ; but all the carting-work
is performed by mules, which are large and strong. The carriages in use
on this island are a one-horse gig, or cabriolet, covered as such — very long
shafts, across the after-extremity of which the axletree runs, with the
mule between them at the other end. The body of the gig is supported by
two strong straps of leather reaching from the after-ends of Ihe shafts to
that part of them near the tail of the mule, and made fast to the shafts.
The weight of the body of the caleshe with its loading thus rests chiefly
upon the mule's back, whose burden is further increased by the great dis-
tance he is yoked from the axletree. The carts of the place are constructed
in the same manner. The labourers employed at the dry dock are those of
the country, it being thought their wages would not amount to the expense
attending the employment of convicts. The markets are well stocked with
meat, and vegetables, and fish. There is beef and mutton of first-rate appear-
ance, and the price asked is 3-jrf. per lb. for each. Goza affords consider-
able supplies to Malta. The springs of water on the island are few and
small. The tanks for preserving rain-water are extensive : a very large
one has lately been constructed by government, called the Coradino tank,
of which an account has already appeared in the Artizan. The prices at
the hotels for dinners, &c, are the same as those in England, and English
money is the usual currency here, although the Spanish dollar is in exten-
sive circulation at 4s. 4<f. each.

Athkns.— This, now, is Athens, and there is the Acropolis and king's
palace, which latter is a large, new, white building, with one front to the
sea, on the other side having the magnificent columns of Jupiter Olympus,
which are visible from the bay. There is the harbour of Piraeus, the mouth
of which is not visible in the day-time more than a mile off, and in the
night is pointed out by a light stuck upon a post at the southern side of the
entrance, but still not safe to run in, the entrance being invisible. The
entrance to the harbour lies between two piers of masonry, about 7 or 8 feet
square, surmounted each by a lanthorn, at a distance of 12 or 14 feet from
the water's edge, in which lights are exhibited at night to direct vessels
through. Between those lights and the shore the water is shoal ; the dis-
tance apart of those lights may be 100 yards, with deep water for the largest |
ship. In the harbour are lying her Majesty's brig Snake, the Inflexible,
French two-decker, 90 guns, having guns upon her gangway, and a French
steamer, having a pendant. This harbour of Piraeus is small, but very
secure and good ; the town that is built on its eastern and southern banks
is new, the former town having been burned in the war between the Turks
and Greeks. These houses are constructed of stones, and their roofs tiled —
most of them with pitched or sloped roofs. Travellers may proceed from
the Piraeus in four-wheel carriages to Athens, a distance of about five miles,
the ground a flat plain of inconsiderable extent running to the N.E., and
bounded by mountains. This plain appears to consist of good land, and
grows grain and olive-trees, which latter do not exceed 20 feet high ; also
occasional fig-trees. The corn appears to be all barley. A flock of large ,
brown birds are now on a part of the plain near the road, which have every
appearance of being eagles of a very lar^e kind. A man approaches them
with a large stick for the purpose of frightening them away, but they
seem unwilling to take flight, and have merely removed to a distance of a few
yards, and the man with the stick does not appear desirous to urge their
departure with too much pertinacity; and, alter two or three attempts to
disturb them, lie has thought it most prudeut to take his departure, which be
did in a hurried manner. Tliere must have been nearly 100 of these birds
congregated on this occasion. Soon after leaving Pirasus the Acropolis
comes in sight, and we pass into the town, leaving the Acropolis and the
Temple of Theseus on the right — that is, between the road and the sea, by
a street of tolerable width facing the palace, which is a large stone building,
without wings or other ornament than twelve or fourteen pillars supporting
a pediment over the chief entrance. As regards architectural beauty,
building has nothing to boast of ; but the situation is beautiful as regards]
prospect of the Acropolis, the Temple of Jupiter Olympus, the sea, &c. ;
but it is very near to the town, and its grounds are limited to a garch
contracted dimensions, the green trees growing in which, however, relieve
the eye from the desolate aspect of the surrounding country. The greaU r
part of the houses at Athens are new, ami of decent appearance. A small- 1
si/.ed square is in progress on the eastern front of the palace ; the T< n
of Jupiter Olympus is situated on the western front of the palace, and in (
the midst of barley-fields, the corn of which is now cut and lying in |
in the field. This temple originally occupied a huge space, and was adorned I
by some hundreds of pillars, sixteen only of which now remain. They are J
magnificent columns, great height and immense thickness, fluted marble!

18W.]

Sketches in the Levant, by a Member of the Club.

183

upon a marble square pediment, beautifully carved capitals. A portion of the
building of the old temple extends from the crown of one of the pillars to that
of another which remains, and has three passages, one over the other, running
in the same direction from one pillar to the other ; one of which, the upper-
most, is arched in masonry, the two others are roofed by flags of large size.
These remains have the appearance, externally, of a wall, but it is hollow,
as above stated, and appears to have constituted an original portion of the
temple, although it is given out that these cavities were constructed by a
hermit, who resided there many years, and were built by himself, unaided
by any one. Such could not be the case, as the flags above alluded to are
of very large dimensions, and would require machinery to raise them to
their present position. The exterior of this hollow wall is rough and un-
couth, and may be 12 feet high, and perhaps 8 feet thick. The Acropolis,
which was formerly the citadel of the town, is surrounded by the remains
of a very fine-looking temple, having many large columns. The face of
this height, which may be 200 or 300 feet above the level of the town, has
been cut away so as to make it precipitous for many feet down, and a wall
was built by the Turks to aid such cutting in forming a protection against
escalade. The rock on which the Acropolis stands is of a reddish colour,
and consists apparently of marble. The length of this rock on which the
ruins stand may be half a mile, and a quarter of a mile wide. There is a
conical hill, within range of the Acropolis, to the S.E., on which is placed
the remains of an old tower. This hill is very steep, and does not appear
to have been used for cannon ; but there is another eminence to the N.W.,
about the height of the Acropolis, and also within range, from which the
Turks, in the recent war between them and the Greeks, successfully bat-
tered the Acropolis, and did great mischief to those ruins.

Smyrna. — The western shore of the gulf is handsome ; the entire face of
the mountain, which is of moderate elevation, covered with a greenish
brushwood, interspersed with many patches of olive and fig-trees : the
shore on the harbour hand is flat near the water, and is muddy for some
miles to the foot of the mountain. On this side there are extensive manu-
factories of salt, by means of salt-pans and evaporation. The wind being
from the southward, on entering the gulf and proceeding in that direction
the fragrant perfume with which the air was impregnated is apparent to
every one coming into this luxurious atmosphere. The bank which runs
out from the N.E. side of the gulf runs far across, and it has been buoyed
off by the British government — a most liberal instance of consideration for
the welfare of mercantile intercourse. And now off Smyrna ; there are
riding here her Majesty's frigate L'Aigle, an Austrian frigate, brig-of-war,
and schooner-of-war, same nation : six or seven English merchantmen lying
hree. At noon L'Aigle and the Austrian frigate saluted with twenty-one
guns each, in commemoration of her Britannic Majesty's birth-day : the two
smaller Austrians did not salute, but they were all dressed out with their
signal-colours.

But we must proceed, though the weather is oppressively hot ; thermo-
meter in the shade, 82°. Here we have the barbarian town ; the streets appear
to be about 9 feet wide between the walls, overhung by verandahs and
stories projecting one beyond the other, which in general join those on the
opposite side ; the pavement of the streets the worst I ever saw in any
country : it looks as if large and small stones were thrown upon the ground
indiscriminately, and their surfaces had never been on an equality ; that the
smaller ones had given way from the intercourse, the pressure of which the
larger ones had been able to resist, and thence its continued elevated
position. Not a carriage of any kind is visible in the town, and it is painful
to see the wretched camels, mules, and small horses traversing its streets,
or rather alleys, with loads on their backs. The large body of the town is
built upon a flat, at the bottom of a high hill, upon which stands a castle in
ruins, called the Acropolis, the flat space between the foot of which and the
water's edge exceeds a quarter of a mile, upon which the town is built, and
afterwards it ascends the brow of the hill, which is gradual, for an equal
distance. The town may extend an English mile parallel to the water, so
that the irregularity or elevation of the surface does not offer an excuse for
the narrowness of the streets, or, what is worse, for their filth, and for the
beastly state of their houses. The bazaars consist of narrower streets than
before mentioned, in a degree shaded from the sun by a covering of battens,
or boards, which, however, exclude not merely the sun but the light, yet
not the rain. The shops are so dingy and poverty-stricken to appearance,
that no stranger would think of looking for anything in them but second-
hand shoes and boots, or old clothes, or sausages ; yet it seems they do con-
lain sundry articles of jewellery and dress, and varieties of other kinds,
which in decent shops would be sought after ; but in these bazaars the chief
feeling prevailing with a foreigner is that of anxiety to make his escape
from them as quickly as possible without contracting plague or other
disease, or breaking one's shins stumbling over the rugged pavement.
Much difficulty presents itself to a stranger in finding his way through those
lanes even to the water-side, to which point he endeavours to shape his
course with a view to his escape. The bazaars are in the lower quarter,
which is much frequented by Jews ; there is, however, another quarter
rather to the N.E., which is occupied by the consuls of the different coun-
tries and the chief merchants, the street of which runs parallel with the
water, and is wider, better paved, and cleanly, and the houses very good.
Some of these are large, and surrounded by gardens, and shrubs, and
flowers. The stench existing in this town from the shores, which are open
and glutted with filth, perfectly justifies the rigour enforced against vessels

coming from this place in regard to plague, which is so likely to be engen-
dered in it. This place is a nursery for pestilence. A very nice hill, well
sprinkled with trees, rises at the S.E. of the town ; all the hills in view
have a greenish appearance, and unlike the sterility observable in almost all
instances along the Mediterranean — on the southern coast, at least, or
amongst the Grecian islands. The Acropolis, which overlooks the town, is
said to be the site of the old town of Smyrna, and which was inclosed by
extensive fortifications.

Dardanelles. — We are now abreast of the Lower Dardanelles. These
are the second Dardanelle forts. The first we met were strong, but the second
series are infinitely more so, and present batteries which appear to defy the
intrusion of strangers. Large heaps of shot are piled up, which, from their
white colour and their enormous size, we may conclude are composed of stone.
The few soldiers that appear are dressed in tight white trowsers and blue
jackets, with red capes and white cross-belts. The country on both sides this
channel is high, approaching to mountainous in many places, but cultivated,
and exhibiting every appearance of fertility and luxuriance. Batteries show
themselves at sundry places on the shores, sometimes on the European and
sometimes on the Asiatic side. Much apprehension exists amongst the Turks
of a war with Russia, of which they say there is every prospect ; and the pre-
diction that within ten years the Turks will be expelled from the European
side is so forcibly impressed upon their minds, that they will not allow Turks
to be interred on the European side ; and they are most anxious to sell, even
at greatly reduced prices, such landed property as they possess in Europe.
There are large and numerous bodies of buffaloes on the shore, enjoying the
sea-breeze, some hundreds in each herd, and which are attended by keepers ;
sheep and goats also. Now we have passed Gallipoli, and are entering the
sea of Marmora, and see, there is a magnificent prospect 1 That is Constan-
tinople.

Constantinople. — The town rises on the slope of a hill, from the water's
edge. One of the first objects is the castle of the Seven Towers, adjoining the
sea-shore ; then the seraglio, which is a large and imposing building, adorned
by many minarets and domes ; and the gardens and grounds finely furnished
with handsome trees. Near the harem is the mosque of St. Sophia ; and not
far off is another mosque, nearly as large. The towers and minarets that
embellish the place render it, in truth, a " sublime" city, or " Porte." So far
as the exterior goes, the fancy of man could not imagine anything more truly
grand — more enchanting. The Turkish city is separated from another por-
tion of what is usually termed Constantinople, by an arm of the Bosphorus,
which portion is called Pera, Galata, and Topana. In this Pera all the Frank
population reside.

A multitude of boats, called kaiks, are constantly plying upon the river,
from one side to the other ; and the greatest bustle and noise prevails along
the shore, at both sides. In this respect no port whatever manifests a greater
pressure of business. There are a great many shipping, the large majority of
which are vessels of the country. There are fourteen or fifteen English ones,
and six or seven steamers, Turkish and Austrian.

Let us pass up the Golden Horn, at the upper end of which, about two
miles from its entrance, is situated the naval arsenal, off which are lying seven
or eight sail of the line, some of them with their guns on board, and their
yards and topmasts up, but having no crews on board. One very large ship is a
three-decker, but carries guns upon her gangways, fore and aft, and therefore
a four-decker. All the two-deckers are in like manner mounted with guns
on the gangways, and are therefore three-deckers. They are very long and
fine-looking ships, and some of them have seventeen ports on each side, on
the lower deck. There are also some very fine frigates and corvettes lying
afloat, all of which seem to be ready for sea, but no ships on the stocks. One
is in a dry dock, which is said to be able to contain two ships of the line, and
is pumped out dry by tread-mills. This dock-yard does not present a very
imposing appearance from the river. The men-of-war harbour is separated
from the merchant harbour by a floating bridge, on which are fixed two draw-
bridges, wide enough to admit the largest ships. This Golden Horn is an
uncommonly fine harbour. It has about thirty-five fathoms all over it, nearly
close to the shore. A small stream divides it from " the sweet waters of
Europe."

Proceed we now towards the Black Sea. Those are the light-houses
placed at the entrance of the Bosphorus, one on the European, and one on
the Asiatic side. The beautiful shape of the grounds on each side of the
strait, which reaches above twenty-one miles, is equal to the representation
given of them by Miss Pardoe and other authors, but they are not covered by
corresponding buildings or gardens. There are many large-sized houses,
principally belonging to the sultan, the ambassadors, and to pachas ; but the
habitations are principally on the verge of the water, and have little in the
way of architecture or embellishment to recommend them. The shore is
almost everywhere steep too, and vessels lie very near to it. All the ground
within view of the straits consists of moderately-sized hills, varying from one
to four hundred feet in height, all clothed with verdure, but little of them
cultivated. The undulations have a most pleasing, and, I may almost say, a
graceful appearance. There is no monotony, and not an object unpleasing to
the eye; but, on the contrary, the whole is a fit object of admiration. There
are several batteries, in various places, at both sides of the water ; and some
very strong forts ; which, however, the Russians avoided on a late occasion,
when they menaced Constantinople, and landed their troops in a small bay, in
the Black Sea, at the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus, near to its head ; and
marched them along amongst the windings of the hills at the back of the forts

184

Evenings of a Working Man.

[August,

and batteries. That, again, is the house of the "French ambassador, mho has fine
grounds attached to his residence. All the ambassadors have residences in the
same neighbourhood, near to the water. That of Sir Stratford Canning ap-
pears among the worst looking, and is deficient in gardens. A fine French
sloop of war is anchored near that ambassador's, very near to the shore. The
population upon the banks of the Bosphorus is very great. The houses are
almost entirely constructed of wood, and must be very cold in the winter.
The sultan has many small palaces, or country boxes, in sundry parts of the
straits of the Bosphorus ; but they are built chiefly of wood, interlaid with
bricks, and plastered over. The finest-looking building, in a regular style of
architecture, in this part, is the new palace of the Russian ambassador, at
Para, which commands fine views of the seraglio, of Constantinople, of the
Bosphorus, and a long distance into the Sea of Marmora. The situation is
magnificent, and the building itself very imposing. It is not yet entirely
finished.

And now let us visit the bazaars at Constantinople. The passage between
the shops may be ten or eleven feet wide, with a footway at each side,
and a sunk paved channel in the centre, about three feet wide, which serves
for carrying off the water in rainy weather ; and also for a passage for horses
and mules, which traverse this district laden, the same as the other streets.
This space between the walls of the bazaars is arched, supported by columns,
most of which are single stones, rounded, and slightly embellished. These
bazaars, which are said to have been erected in the time of Constantine, are of
considerable extent ; being, perhaps, two or three miles, leading all through
them. Particular districts are generally appropriated to the sale of one kind
of article, and another to another ; for instance, one bazaar sells drugs only ;
and although this rule of allocation is not strictly enforced, it is, notwith-
standing, very generally practised. The sellers usually ask double, or nearly
so, of the price they will really take for an article.

Let us next look at the underground sheet of water, mentioned by Miss
Pardoe as extending a great distance under the city. Its situation is high,
being not much less than that of St. Sophia. It appears to have been disco-
vered by a breach in the arches many years ago, since which time it has not
been explored. The descent is through a stair, and then through a sloping
causeway to a kind of platform, which was rudely put up when the breach
took place. The light showing through the passage down, will enable us to
see six of the columns, which succeed each other in regular succession, at a
distance of about ten or twelve feet from each other, supporting archwork
constructed of flat bricks, resembling tiles, thirteen inches long, nine inches
wide, and one inch and a half thick. The cement used on the occasion is of
the finest description, and as hard as granite. These columns show about
eight feet above the water's edge : they are single pieces of stone or marble ;
and some of them have well-carved capitals. The noise may be perceived of
two or three pumps at a distance, busied in pumping water from this place.
The person who owns the house where this breach appears has also a pump
leading into it, from which we shall pump some water. It is perfectly clear,
and as cold and well tasted as the finest spring water. The depth of this
cistern (which it doubtless is) varies from five to ten feet. There was a boat
upon it many years ago, but the owner of the house in question never heard
of its having been explored, or of a person having lost his life in the attempt.
On looking along the surface of the water light is discoverable in one or two
places, proceeding from other breaches in the arches. All those within our
view appear perfectly sound.

Let us now visit the place called the " European Valley of the Sweet
Waters," which lies up a river at the head of the " Golden Horn." A kind of
a palace of the sultan is built here, on the brow of the river, which is per-
fectly still water, flowing through flat, and, in winter, marshy land. Well-
shaped hills rise from near the water's edge, but they are bare, although far
from being sterile: nature has done everything for them, but the art or the
taste of man nothing. These hills are quite naked. A few trees shade the pa-
lace from the sun ; but why any person should choose such a place in which to
build a residence I cannot imagine. There are some manufactories for making
tiles a short distance off. Several horses, apparently belonging to the sultan,
are tethered by the fetlock of a fore and a hind foot, on a piece of grass, and
thus prevented running over it. They were all clothed with horse-rugs, with
a view to keep off the flies. A barrack, with soldiers, is also stationed here.
This excursion, which hardly repays the trouble of going through this valley,
is highly extolled by Miss Pardoe, many of whose finely drawn pictures prove,
on examination, to be mere daubs : the outline may be correct, but the colour-
ing is the essence of delusion.

In the streets of Constantinople you will not see a single carriage, and
scarcely a single well-dressed person, though at a distance it is the most mag-
nificent city the eye ever beheld. It is the greatest deception the world pre-
sents : its exterior appearance creates an admiration amounting to enthu-
siasm, but on entering it the delusion vanishes — the charm is dissolved.
Splendid misery would be too tame an expression to denote the conflicting
emotions inspired by such a contradiction ; the terms voluptuous wretched-
ness, or starvation, might more truly portray its character. But here we
must stop. Reader, how have you been pleased with your excursion ?

Art. XV.— ON THE EFFECT OF PARTLY CLOSING THE
THROTTLE VALVES IN STEAM ENGINES.

Every engineer knows that there is a gain to be effected by working steam
expansively, but there are perhaps not very many who are conscious that a
material gain is also accomplishable by partly closing the throttle valve, the
effect of which upon the engine is very similar to that of the ordinary expan-
sion valve, especially when there is a little lap on the steam side of the slide
valve. This is made very plain by an indicator diagram, and it will be found
by this unerring test that the action of a throttled engine with a slide valve
formed with a moderate lap is very nearly the same as that of an engine
working with a high degree of expansion. This phenomenon is referable to the
variable motion of the piston : at the beginning of the stroke, the piston moves
very slowly, and a very small aperture suffices to keep up the pressure of the
steam ; but as the piston quickens its motion, the aperture becomes too small
to keep up the pressure, and the steam within the cylinder, in consequence,
expands. The lap upon the valve shuts the steam off before the piston has
again arrived at the slow part of its motion ; for its admission at that time
would cause a large expenditure of steam without a corresponding advantage.
The attendants of engines short of steam, and unprovided with expansion
gear, should partially close the throttle valves, and work with them in tha
position.

Art. XVI.— EVENINGS OF A WORKING MAN.

n that

a

5

is

Evenings of a Working Man. By John Overs ; with a Preface, by Charles
Dickens. London : T. C. Newby. 1844.

Mr. Dickens is not more distinguished by talent than by benevolence, and
the two certainly form a most graceful combination. Wherever a useful
purpose is to be served, or a kind action to be done, there is Mr. Dickens
to be found ready and anxious to take a part in the benignant work, and
upon no class of the community so often as upon artizans has his benignity
descended. Nor are these kindnesses designed in any degree for the pur-
poses of display, for they are generally done in secret, and it is only by acci-
dent they leak out to the world. To whatever height of fame and fortune
Mr. Dickens may attain, it will not diminish his happiness to know that
there are hearts innumerable that throb with gratitude for the charities of a
sympathising spirit ; and though these charities may be done in secret,
" yet God, who seeth in secret, will reward him openly." John Overs is
or rather was, a working carpenter — for he has been for some time inca-
pacitated from work by sickness — who attracted Mr. Dickens' attention by
a few songs he wrote about six years ago, and in Mr. Dickens he has ever
since found a kind friend and monitor. We must, however, give the history
of the rise of this acquaintance and the origin of the present work in Mr.
Dickens' own words, and we do not envy the man who can read this shot'
narrative without contracting as great an affection for the author of it as
they already have admiration for his genius : —

" The indulgent reader of this little book — not. called indulgent, I may hope, by
courtesy alone, but with some reference also to its title and pretensions — may veiy
naturally inquire how it comes to have a preface to which my name is attached ; nor
is the reader's right or inclination to be satisfied on this head likely to be much
diminished when I state, in the outset, that I do not recommend it as a book of sur-
passing originality or transcendent merit. That I do not claim to have discovered,
in humble life, an extraordinary and brilliant genius. That I cannot charge man-
kind in general with having entered into a conspiracy to neglect the author of this
volume, or to leave him pining in obscurity. That 1 have not the smallest intention
of comparing him with Burns, the exciseman; or with Bloomfield, the shoemaker ;
or with Ebenezer Elliott, the worker in iron ; or with James Hogg, the shepbeid.
That I see no reason to be hot, or bitter, or lowering, or sarcastic, or indignant, or
fierce, or sour, or sharp, in his behalf. That I have nothing to rail at ; nothing to
exalt; nothing to flourish in the face of a stony-hearted world ; and have but a very
short and simple tale to tell. But, such as it is, it has interested me ; and I hope
it may interest the reader too, if I state it unaffectedly and plainly.

" John Overs, the writer of the following pages, is, as is set forth on the title-
page, a working man. A man who earns his weekly wages (or who did when he
was strong enough) by plying of the hammer, plane, and chisel. He became known
to me, to the best of my recollection, nearly six years ago, when he sent me some
songs, appropriate to the different months of the year, with a letter, stating under
what circumstances they had been composed, and in what manner he was occupied
from morning until night. I was just then relinquishing the conduct of a monthly
periodical; or I would gladly have published them. As it was, 1 returned them to
him, with a private expression of the interest I felt in such productions. They were
afterwards accepted, with much readiness and consideration, by Mr. Tait, of Edin-
burgh, and were printed in his Magazine.

" From that time to the present, I have seen him frequently. It has been a
pleasure to me to put a few books in his way ; to give him a word or two of counsel
iu his little projects and difficulties; and to read his compositions with him when
he has had an hour or so to spare. I have never altered them, otherwise than by
recommending condensation now and then ; nor have I, in looking over these sheets,
made any emendation in them, beyond the ordinary corrections of the press :
desiring them to be his genuine work, as they have been his sober and rational
amusement.
" The latter observation brings me to the origin of the present volume, and of

1844.]

Remedies for the Perils of (he Nation.

18.5

this my slight share in it. The reader will soon comprehend why I touch the
subject lightly, and with a sorrowful and faltering hand.

" In all the knowledge I have had of John Overs, and in all the many conversa-
tions I have held with him, I have invariably found him, in every essential particu-
lar but one, the same. I have found him from first to last a simple, frugal, steady,
upright, honourable man ; especially to be noted for the unobtrusive independence

I of his character, the instinctive propriety of his manner, and the perfect neatness of

i his appearauce. The extent of his information — regard being had to his opportunities
of acquiring it— is very remarkable ; and the discrimination with which he has risen
superior to the mere prejudices of the class with which he is associated, without
losing his sympathy for all their real wrongs and grievances — they have a few — im-

1 pressed me, in the beginning of our acquaintance, strongly in his favour.

The one respect in which he is not what he was, is in his hold on life. He is

: very ill ; the faintest shadow of the man who came into my lictle study for the first
time half-a-dozen years ago, after the correspondence I have mentioned. He has
been very ill for a long, long period; his disease is a severe and wasting affection of
the lungs, which has incapacitated him, these many months, for every kind of occu-
pation. ' If I could only do a hard day's work,' he said to me the other day, ' how
happy I should be !'

"Having these papers by him, amongst others, he bethought himself that if he
could get a bookseller to purchase them for publication in a volume, they would
enable him to make some temporary provision for his sick wife and very young
family. We talked the matter over together ; and that it might be easier of accom-
plishment, I promised him that I would write an introduction to his book."

We fear, after this long extract, we can only give a very slender specimen
of John Overs' part of the volume. His productions consist of tales and
sketches in prose, and a few pieces of poetry.

" Jocelyn had but just married when the bull was issued which commanded all
ecclesiastics to be separated from their wives, and enjoined celibacy and continence,
under pain of excommunication. He and yElgiva were two victims among ten
thousand others, whose hopes, whose happiness, and whose lives, were thus em-
bittered by an impious and unnatural decree. But the great end was attained ; the
cruel, hard, unfeeling, desolating, hideous end.

" Some such thoughts as these, though failing in that strength of indignation and
abhorrence with which succeeding time has invested them, occurred to Geraldine, as
she stood watching the prostrate body of her fattier in its pitiable distortions, and
in his graspings at a phantom. They were wholesome thoughts ; and she thanked
Heaven that she was unfettered by vows and monastic obligations. Then they
recurred to Geoffrey ; and she sighed that he was bound up in the system.

" Meantime the reason of Jocelyn had returned ; and he arose, oblivious of all
that had latterly occurred. ' You say you are my daughter? That is impossible.
I am a priest,' he said. ' Priests have no daughters. The evil one comes tempting
me sometimes, and prompting me ; and sets a vision before my eyes of a fair form
like thine, which he informs me is my wife. I have no wife. I am a priest. The
- Church forbids a priest to have a wife.'

" This chaos of his brain was suddenly enlightened; for, starting, as if his ears
caught some sound, and catching her by the arm, he darted with her further into
the cavern, crying in an impetuous whisper, 'They come! they come! the savage
horde of Saracens. I hear their feet ; hark you ! Here, Mary of the Desert, here !
Hide you in my cell till they have passed. Do you hear them? '"

To this we are only able to add the following : —

{WOMAN'S FAITHFULNESS.
" Sigh not for me, my heart is brave ;
Like thine, 't will never yield,
But risk with thee the foaming wave,

Or dare the battle-field ;
Will shrink not in the jungle drear,

Nor in the desert wide :
Her heart must neither fail nor fear
Who once becomes a bride.

" Content were I in dungeon deep,

If captive thou shouldst be,
So on my bosom thou couldst sleep,

And dream of liberty.
In pain and fever, weal and woe,

Whatever may betide,
My heart will cling to thine, and glow

As best becomes a bride."

We here close this very interesting volume, and can only add the remark,
that our readers will best shew their sympathy for John Overs, and their
appreciation of Mr. Dickens' kind assistance, by each buying a copy
of the work for himself.

Art. XVII.— REMEDIES FOR THE PERILS OF THE NATION.

Remedies suggested for some of the Evils which constitute the Perils of the
Nation. Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley. 1844.

This is not a work of any great ability, but it is one of honest intentions •
and the recommendations it offers are at least in the right direction. Its
^ol. n.

design is, to trace out the sources of misery and disaffection which have
spread over the nation like a deadly epidemic, and to suggest such remedies
for the most pressing evils as will relieve so dangerous an elasticity. One
great cause of the misery of the productive classes is set down, and justly,
as we think, to the blind worship of the principles of political economy by
the powers that be, and the consequent tendency to treat the working
classes merely as so many instruments of production. The whole aim is
how to get a certain quantity of iron or cloth at the least possible expense;
and, for the sake of carrying out this exacting principle, the better nature
of all classes is seared into insensibility. Wealth is the idol worshipped by
these commercinlists ; and to this Juggernaut myriads of hearts have fallen
victims ; and the wail of penury, and the deadly designs of despair, alike
attest the iniquities performed at its shrine. People make such haste to get
rich, that they do not take even time to live ; and the kindly emotions of
the heart, and the finest intellect and fancy, are all sacrificed to this deadly-
ambition. Selfishness, under such a system, necessarily reigns supreme ; the
poor are treated merely as the bees of production ; are ground down to the
limits of human endurance while useful, and meet only with a prison in the
season of sickness and affliction. Such things, indeed, are not to be borne,
and, if not redressed, thev must inevitably redress themselves. And it
appears very clear, that it is by the political economists that much of these
miseries have been brought upon the country. Free trade is an excellent
thing, no doubt ; but man does not live by free trade alone ; nor would
our labouring population be necessarily happy, though we had free markets
for our calico and fustian. The truth is, we must return to purer prin-
ciples than for a long time have been prevalent. Legislators must not seek
to play upon the ignorance of working men, for working men are far ,
shrewder than those above them give them credit for ; and, however para-
doxical the assertion may be, it is, nevertheless, we are confident, a just
one, that, out of the working classes alone, as much sagacity, energy, and
capacity in the management of great affairs, is obtainable, as is to be found
within the walls of St. Stephen's. We must, however, give^ the author of
this work an opportunity of speaking for himself. The chief remedies he
suggests for the existing evils among the poor, are the improvement of the
public morality, the extension of the cottage allotment system, the im-
provement of the dwellings of the poor, and the amelioration of the New
Poor-law. We shall make a selection from each of these heads.

Improvement of Morals. — " Is it not a disgrace to the country, that for breaches
of the marriage-vow in England, among the poorer classes, there should be no legal
provision whatever, either as to punishment or remedy ? The rich man, if his wife
proves unfaithful, has his immediate remedy. He can, within a few short months,
entirely terminate his relation to her, and become wholly free to enter into another
engagement ; and if the seducer should be a man of property like himself, he can
cast upon him, most righteously, all the legal expenses attending hisdivorce, by the
recovery of damages. But to the man of smaller means, whether labourer, artizan,
or little tradesman, there is no such course open ; — to such there is, in fact, no re-
medy at all. A decent and worthy man, of small property or narrow income,
having his wife seduced from him, is left in a position which is disgraceful to a Chris-
tian or civilized country. She remains still his wife, however vicious she may be-
come. The expenses of a divorce place that remedy quite out of his reach. Nay,
even debts of her contracting may often be demanded of him, and in some cases he
may scarcely be able to resist the demand. But further, he remains a married man,
and unable to take to himself another wife; however young he may be, and how-
ever needful to his deserted children such a help-meet may appear. The result of
all this is too obvious. The law, by its deficiency, by its practical denial of relief
does induce and cause a vast amount of concubinage, in such cases as these. The
poor man, — perhaps a little tradesman, or a clerk, gains, among his own class, a
blooming and comely partner. His engagements take him much from home. In
his absence the beauty of his wife attracts the eye of some wealthier man, 'who uses
his gold, in various ways, to seduce the affections of the young, and probably vain
and giddy woman. The poor man's domestic happiness is destroyed at a blow.
But this is not all. He is either doomed to cheerless celibacy for the rest of his
days, perhaps with an infant or two, of whom he is unable to take any personal
care ; or he must, in his turn, induce some other young person to degrade herself,
for bread, to the condition of a concubine. Those who have gone much among the
abodes of the poor, will be aware that we are describing a case of no unfrequent oc-
currence. But is it not shameful that the law should thus afford impunity to vice
on the one hand, and, where religious principle is not present to supply its defi-
ciency, should almost lead and impel to unwonted crime on the other."

Cottage Allotment System. — " The discussion of the Cottage-allotment, or Field-
garden system, opens so wide a field as to be quite perplexing. It seems difficult
to know where to begin, or how to divide the subject. Perhaps we may in the
first place adduce some clear and full and weighty testimony in favour of the system
generally. And the most recent and most authoritative evidence of this kind is
found in the Report of the Committee of the House of Commons, appointed in
1843 to investigate this very subject. Most of the evidence collected by that
Committee was given by parties of the highest character for judgment as well as
for benevolence, as will be seen by the following extracts.

" Captain G. T. Scobell, R.N., had had twelve or thirteen years' experience
of the system, in High Littleton, in Midsomer Norton, and in North Bruham,
three parishes in Somerset, in which he possessed property. Here is a portion of
his examination : —

" ' Q. You consider that the labour employed by a man at convenient seasons
upon his own land is no loss to him ?

" ' A. I consider it a gain ; it keeps him from idleness, or worse than idleness :

186

How is the Screw Propeller to be driven ?

' [August,

in the summer evenings I have seen three generations at work together ■within a
stone's throw.

" ' Q. You would say that his labour is profit to him, as well as the produce ?
" ' A. Certainly; it ahsorbs that time which would he worse than loss to him,
particularly the children's work; the man is employed only in the digging and
heavy hoeing, and when he has not other work to do.

" ' Q. Do you consider the employment beneficial to the children as to their
education ?

" ' A. Exceedingly, as to their employment in gardening, and their looking up
to the individuals on whom their father is dependent for the land, and inculcating
a good moral feeling and a kindly regard to those around them ; I would add, that
it is scarcely to be calculated the good it does in its operation on the minds of the
whole family, and that good I find increases instead of diminishes as the years
pass on.

" ' Q. You consider that the allotments produce an improved good feeling be-
tween the labourers and the classes with whom they are brought into contact ?
" ' A. Especially towards the landholder who lets the land.
" ' Q. Can you state any instances of the display of that feeling?
" ' A. I can state numerous expressions of over- thankfulness, over-value, grate-
ful expressions, when they pay the rent ; looking at the occupation as a novelty,
in comparison to times past, it is anything but worn out ; the good feeling is dura-
ble, and appears to increase ; the value of it is more and more felt ; one rule is,
that they shall retain the land, except in case of crime ; and I took in all labourers,
good, bad, and indifferent.

" ' Q. Have you received testimonials of the thankfulness of the poor ?
" ' A. Very strong ; presents of vegetables, and expressions that they ought to
thank God it was put into the gentleman's heart, and presents so numerous.and so
constant, and going on from time to time, and at the rent-days the manner in which
observations are made, which I attend personally, in order to get hold of their
minds, taking the opportunity of addressing them.

" ' Q. Will you explain what you consider the moral effect on the general cha-
racter of those labourers produced by this allotment system ?

" ' A. I consider that the moral effect is, that if any body were going to injure
the property of their landlord particularly, (but I believe it extends to those who
have nothing to do with them,) they would protect it; it gives them a general
feeling of kindness towards the class above them, and improves that feeling if they
had it before ; and I consider that they would be very much inclined, in case of
any disturbance or riot, to protect the property of those above them, instead of
joining in any mischief; that it is a tie, a permanent tie, upon their minds, the
positive proofs of which are to be seen, and which never deserts them, for they are
always ready to express their thankfulness on all proper occasions : character is
invariably improved, and the worst often reclaimed.

" ' Q. Is it within your knowledge that instances have occurred of those who
had allotments combining to suppress outrages?

" ' A. The neighbourhood Hive in has been in a state of agitation, but not dis-
turbance ; but I felt myself personal confidence ; I am a magistrate, and had
occasion to be among bodies of people; and I have reason to believe that the class
who had these gardens might be depended upon. I omitted to say, as a testimony
of their thankfulness, that unknown to me, about five years ago, they subscribed
a few pounds among themselves, and presented me with a silver cup, to my astonish-
ment, and with an engraving on it; and to show how wholly it was done without
the knowledge of any one who could lead them, my Christian name was mis-
spelt.' "

Improvement of the Dwellings of the Poor. — " This is a topic of great extent and
importance ; but it has already been so far discussed in the " Perils of the Nation,"
as to render it unnecessary and inadvisable for us to retrace the same ground. In
general it may be stated, that for want of a due attention to this subject, the
labouring classes suffer the deepest injury in their health, their comfort, and
their morals.

"]. The loss of health is exhibited in the following results, detailed in the
' Sanitary Report' of the Poor-law Commissioners, 1842.

'" Of the deaths caused during one year in England and Wales by epidemic,
endemic, and contagious diseases, including fever, typhus, and scarlatina, amounting
to 56,46J,the great proportion of which are proved to be preventable, it may'_be
said that the effect is as if the whole county of Westmoreland, now containing
56,469 souls, or the whole county of Huntingdonshire, or any other equivalent
district, were entirely depopulated annually, and were only occupied again by the
growth of a new and feeble population, living under the fears of a similar visitation.
The annual slaughter in England and Wales, from preventable causes of typhus,
which attacks persons in the vigour of life, appears to he double the amount of what
was suffered by the allied armies in the battle of Waterloo.' "

Amelioration of the New Poor-law. — " We not only acquit from all censure,
hut wo award the most willing thanks to the Government of 1832-1833, for
having undertaken this duty. And we also add our sense of the kindness and ear-
nestness which distinguished Lord Althorp's introduction of the measure. But here
our praise must cease. The measure itself was framed in a bad spirit; it was the
production of the worst possible school ; and its noble propounder was placed in the
singular position of being obliged to assert principles which he dared not carry out;
and of attempting to venture to a certain length in a path, the end of which he knew
to be utter destruction. His lordship was thus forced, in his opening speech, to
a.pologi/.c for adhering to the principle of giving relief to the ablebodied poor under
starving circumstances. ' He knew it might be said that this was contrary to the
principles of political economy ; but the fact was, that the principles of political
economy were opposed to all relief whatever.' His lordship was thus far clear-
sighted, in discerning the impossibility of carrying out what he was pleased to call
* the principles of political economy ;' and yet he could adopt, and carryforward
through Parliament, a measure wholly framed by political economists !

" ' The real authors of the New Poor-law were thus pungently, but not unjustly,
described in a periodical of that day, speaking of the Commissioners of Inquiry sent
forth to collect the evidence on which the bill was founded : — ' These men have
gone off, bearing with them a fund of philosophical prejudice against poor-laws,
' population,' ' improvident marriages,' and all the whole system and routine of
nature; and their object has been to furnish the grounds for imputing all sorts of
crimes to the labouring people; grounds for calling them idle, malicious, impro-
vident, riotous, fraudulent, and prolific ; for calling the old-fashioned overseer,
unskilful, incautious, and unworthy of trust ; for charging the magistrates with
unnecessary profuscness ; and for the other purpose of connecting all these bad re-
sults with the unavoidable practice of the poor-laws.' "

These laws, we need hardly add, have proved themselves to be a miser-
able mistake, and, we think, ought really to inspire some distrust of the
principles from which they sprung. The fact is, the laissez faire system in
many things will not do. In railways it has already established an odious
monopoly; and, in the case of the Poor Laws, has been productive of
cruelties its authors, we believe, could not have foreseen, and of discontent
and disaffection it would have been madness knowingly to provoke.

Art. XVIIL— TUBULAR BOILERS.

Tubular boilers in steam vessels are fast coming into universal use,
and, as we think, deservedly ; but many of those that have been constructed
hitherto have been defective, from a want of steam room and tube surface.
"We gave in our last Number engravings of two that have more nearly come
up to our ideas of what such boilers ought to be than any that have come
under our observation. The Sydenham is a vessel with American engines,
but the boilers were made in Woolwich dockyards, and are of the usual kind
of tubular boiler fabricated there. The tubes and end plates are of brass.
Fire grate surface 42-5 square feet 4-78 H. P. = "540 square feet, per H.P.
Heating surface of tubes, 794 square feet ; heating surfaces of furnaces and
fire-box, 134 square feet. Total, 920 square feet 4- 78 H.P.= 1T9 square
feet per horse power. These boilers have been found to give a good supply
of steam, and even with smoky coal on a long voyage there is but little col-
lection of soot in the pipes. The boilers of the Braganza have a large tube
surface, and also good steam room. They are capable, moreover, of working
at a high pressure, and yet the water-level is not injuriously contracted by the
form of the boiler-top.

While speaking of boilers, we may as well say a word or two on the sub-
ject of long furnaces, a peculiarity we have often taken occasion to repre-
hend, yet we find that they are still retained in some places. The " Royal
Adelaide," for example, with boilers by Mr. Maxton, of Leith, lias furnaces
of 10 feet long, and the consequence is, the vessel is but poorly off for
steam, and the consumption of fuel is serious ; whereas, if the bars were
only 5 feet long, the consumption of fuel would be less, and there would be
a better supply of steam. Abundant grate-surface, indeed, is a good thing,
but it must not be reached by extending the length of the furnace beyond
4-J, or, at most, 5 feet, for the after end of a very long furnace cannot be
fired properly on a long voyage at sea, and its only effect is to weaken the
efficacy of the other portion. We wish Mr. Maxton would try the effect of
shortening the bars and giving them a greater inclination ; we are convinced
he would find his advantage in the change.

Art. XIX.— HOW IS THE SCREW PROPELLER TO BE
DRIVEN ?

This has become an inquiry of much interest, as the superiority of the screw7
over the paddle-wheel is now, as we conceive, established. The ordinary
speed of a marine engine is, as most of our readers are aware, insufficient for
the demands of the screw ; and the use of cog-wheels to bring up the speed,
is certainly to be avoided if possible. Their employment, indeed, in the case
of the screw, is much less objectionable than in the case of paddle-wheels, for
the resistance opposed to the screw is nearly uniform, whatever be the cir-
cumstances of wind and water ; and there is, therefore, no back lash, as in
the case of cog-wheels being applied to paddle-wheel steamers. Nevertheless,
there is a strong objection entertained against the introduction of cog-wheels
into steam vessels, on the part of most mechanists ; and we are not sure that
the antipathy is without reason. To supersede the necessity for them, some
engineers have made the engines with a short stroke, and coupled them at i
once to the screw shaft, so that the piston moves with a very great velocity.
There are only two objections to this plan which appear to us to be of any J
weight. The first is, that the air-pump bucket necessarily moves at a great
velocity, which, we fear, must make the valves strike hard, and wear them-
selves out very quickly; and the second, that the forward thrust of the screw!
shaft is thrown upon its collars instead of upon a pivot on the end. A rotatory j
engine, we believe, is the thing that is required for perfect success ; and we
think it should also have a rotatory air-pump. We should thus obviate the
necessity of a crank on the screw shaft, and be enabled to so form the pivot j
which thrusts the vessel forward as to satisfy the principles experience has'
prescribed for its success.

1844.]

The Mechanical Arts in Morocco.

187

Art. XX.— ONE CAUSE OF THE HEATING OF BRASSES.

A case has come under our notice in which the brasses of an engine heated
and cut away very rapidly in consequence of channels, in the form of a
cross, having been made in the upper brass for the distribution of the oil over
the bearing, no doubt under the idea that the lubrication would be thus
made more effectual. The result, however, was, that the oil was conducted
from the upper part of the bearing to the under part at once, without dif-
fusing itself over the upper surface ; and the upper part of the brass being
thus left dry, a most injurious abrasion immediately ensued. In the case of
revolving journals this plan of cutting a cruciform channel for the distribu-
tion of the oil does not do much damage, but in other cases, as in beam-
journals, for instance, it is most injurious, and the brasses cannot wear well
wherever the plan is pursued. The right way is to make a horizontal grove
along the brass where it meets the upper surface of the bearing, so that the
oil may be all deposited on the highest point of the journal, leaving the force
of gravity to send it downwards. This channel should of course stop short
a short distance from each flange of the brass, othenvise the oil would run
out at the ends.

Art. XXI.— THE MECHANICAL ARTS IN MOROCCO.

As Morocco is just now occupying much of the public attention, an account
of the mechanical arts there carried on may be of some interest to our
readers ; and we have the less hesitation in giving this slight sketch as we
can answer for its fidelity, for it has been executed on the spot,, after a con-
siderable length of residence, by one of the members of our own fraternity.
Manufacture of Muskets. — The highest branch of mechanical art in
Morocco is the manufacture of muskets. These instruments have very long
barrels, and are of the rudest workmanship ; nevertheless, they are more
prized by the Moors than muskets of English manufacture. There are no
muskets made at Tangier, but a great number are made at Tetuan. A bar
of iron is wound spirally round a mandrel, and welded, and as the welding
operation proceeds it is gradually drawn out to the right dimensions. The
locks of these muskets are rare specimens of workmanship, especially the
screws, and an English gunsmith would probably be incredulous of their
going off at all ; nevertheless, they answer the purpose tolerably well,
although the home-made powder used with them is of the worst quality.

Coinage. — There is a gold, a silver, and a copper, or rather a brass, coin-
age. The first is conducted entirely at Fez, but the less precious metals are
also coined at other places. The metal is first beat out, and then clipped
into pieces of something near the weight, and of a roundish form, after
which it is impressed with some Arabic characters by a punch. The silver
used is very impure, being much adulterated by the Jews, who are forced to
perform the labours of coining without being paid anything. The brass for
the lowest coinage is melted by a charcoal-fire, blown up with a bellows of
very primitive construction, being something like a leathern carpet-bag — to
use an Hibernicism — which the operator opens at each stroke to catch a
gulp of air, and shuts it again before he begins to compress it. There are
other kinds of bellows used, however, than this, but this is a very common
variety. The brass, being melted, is poured into iron moulds, and the result-
ing pieces are about the size of a farthing, of the rudest appearance, and the
most various composition.

Jewellery. — There is a good deal of jewellery manufactured in Morocco,
of a very rude workmanship, but the material used is, for the most part, un-
adulterated. The ladies' ear-rings are about the size and shape of rams'
horns, composed, of course, of gold, and ornamented with precious stones.
The goodness of gold is judged of merely by the appearance it presents
when rubbed upon a stone, and the use of aqua-fortis in testing gold is
unknown. The artificial gold, the composition of which is given in the 31st
Number of the Apprentice, has in one or two instances been passed off upon
•/ the jewellers of Morocco, and they have been unable to tell the difference.
Soap Manufacture. — The soap is of very inferior quality, there being a
great dearth of alkali in it, so that it has very little power. All the soap is
soft soap, and is made by boiling olive-oil with a ley of wood-ashes and
quicklime. The manufacturers are ignorant of the way of making hard
soap ; but, indeed, the soap manufacture of Morocco is an insignificant
branch of industry, as there is very little soap used in the country at all.

Manufacture of Leather. — The preparation of ornamental leathers is one
of the few things in which the people of this country excel, and Morocco
leather is celebrated, indeed, in every country, though we believe it can
now be made better in England than in Morocco. There is nothing peculiar
in the method of tanning except its rudeness. The yellow colour so pre-
valent in this species of leather is given by the shell of the pomegranate.

Flour Mills. — The grain in this country is threshed out by hand on the
ground with a short thick stick, and in the state in which it is exposed for
sale it is mixed up with small stones and other impurities, which every
family has to separate for itself by hand before sending the grain to the
mill. The mill consists of a pair of stones of the usual description, to which
motion is given in some cases by a horse, and in other cases by water. The
horse walks in a circular path, as in this country, and turns a rude wooden
wheel fixed on an upright axis and stuck round with pegs on its periphery,

which pegs operate on staves upon the spindle of the mill-stone. When
water is used as the impelling power, the wheel, which is only a few feet in
diameter, and lying in a horizontal position , communicates its motion direct to
the mill-stone, being fixed upon the same spindle, and the wheel is turned by
the water spouting against its arms under the pressure of a head of water.
One of these wheels resembles a small cart-wheel deprived of its rim and
laid upon its flat, only the spokes widen at the end where the water im-
pinges, and are scooped out into a spoon-form at the same place. The
spokes, moreover, are not straight, but curved somewhat against the jet.

Weaving. — Most of the fabrics worn in the country are imported from
England, but some articles are made upon the spot, and of these the manu-
facture of hayks, a species of white woollen plaid, which forms a part of the
Moorish dress, is the most considerable. These articles are made in a very
rude loom, in which the shuttle is passed through by hand in a most tedious
manner. Rich Damascus fabrics, with gold and silver interwoven, are,
however, also made, but not in any considerable quantity, and the manu-
facture of these is chiefly carried on by refugees from the more civilized
state of Algiers. Red woollen caps are made in large quantities in Fez, and
are much esteemed ; and rich striped silks are also manufactured at the
same place, the dyes of some of which are very beautiful.

Miscellaneous Manufactures. — Salt is produced by the evaporation of sea-
water in a shallow pond on the sea-shore by the heat of the sun. Snuff is
made by triturating dried tobacco with a wooden pestle in an earthenware
bowl, which has been scotched with a knife in the inside while the clay was
soft, so as to leave small ridges on its surface. Works in turnery are exe-
cuted by means of a very primitive species of lathe, in which the article is
turned round by hand, first in one direction and then in another, after the
same manner as a bow-drill. The lathe, if it may be so called, is placed
upon the ground, and upon the ground the operator also sits, turning the
article by means of a bow and string with one hand, and holding the chisel
with the other. The chisel is held and guided upon the rest by the work-
man's foot !

Public Works. — These are few and insignificant, and relate chiefly to the
supplying of towns with water, which is accomplished by means of aque-
ducts. Mogadore, Tangier, Tetuan, and all the towns of any consideration,
are thus supplied. The Tangier aqueduct is covered over, and the water is
of good quality, but deficient in quantity. It is not distributed to the several
houses, but merely supplies some public fountains and the mosques. In
Tetuan, however, the water is distributed to the several houses by means of
earthenware pipes. The aqueduct, however, is open — in fact, a mere ditch,
and the water is consequently very impure, and lukewarm in hot weather.
The drinking water of Tetuan is supplied from a small river that runs near
the town, being carried in pitchers to the town on asses' backs. In some
of the gardens around Tangier there are wells from which the water is raised
by means of an endless rope passing over a wheel, with earthen vessels
attached to the rope at suitable distances.

The roads of Morocco are mere horse-tracks, and there is not a wheeled
vehicle of any kind in the length and breadth of the land. There are no
bridges, and in the rainy season, when the rivers are swollen, travelling is
impossible. The towns have to lay in a stock of provisions against the wet
season just as if they had to undergo a siege. Meat is preserved for these
seasons, not by salting, but by boiling it in oil and hanging it up to dry in
the sun.

Structure of the Houses. — The houses are built of stone or bricks and
lime, and have generally an open court in the centre, around which the
rooms are disposed. They are invariably constructed with flat roofs, which
are made tight by depositing, upon a flooring of boards, clay beat down to
a hard consistency, and then covering it with mortar, which is kept white-
washed. There are no chimneys in ihe houses, the climate not being such
as to require artificial warmth, and the cookery is accomplished upon an
earthen vessel of ignited charcoal. The floors of the houses are for the
most part covered with glazed tiles of various colours disposed in various
devices. The rooms are generally lofty, but narrow, as there is a great
scarcity of timber in the country, and it would not in general be convenient
to procure beams of sufficient dimensions for wide rooms. There are very
few glazed windows to be found in the country. Some houses are fitted
with wooden shutters, but in general there is no perforation in the walls
except the door.

Agriculture and Horticulture. — The whole land in the empire is sup-
posed to belong to the sultan, who makes grants of land to whoever he
thinks fit ; but, with the exception of the gardens near the towns, there is
very little of the land inclosed, and not much of it cultivated. The manur-
ing of the fields is a thing unheard of, but at Tetuan the contents of the
sewers are conducted to the gardens around the town, and stimulate to a
wonderful degree the fertility of the soil. The best oranges in the world
are grown in these gardens, but the Moors have not the art of packing them
so as to render them available in the European markets. On the coast of
Reif, between Tangier and Tetuan, orchilla weed is produced in much
abundance, but it is inferior in quality to that brought from Angola and
other places.

188

Kane on the Industrial Resources of Ireland.

[August,

Art. XXII.— KANE ON THE INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES OF

IRELAND.

The Industrial Resources of Ireland. By Robert Kane, M.D. Dublin :

Hodges and Smith.
Dr. Kane is a very assiduous writer, and devotes his industry to very use-
ful objects. The present work is intended to show that Ireland is as rich
in the elements of wealth as the sister country, and only requires skill and
enterprize to bring these germs to a rich maturity. She has coal and iron,
and lead and silver, and many other materials ; her soil is richer than that
of Great Britain, and she has water-power enough to turn all the factories
of Europe. This may be all very true, but the same things might be
predicated of other countries, which, nevertheless, pine in wretchedness, and
the whole experience of the human family goes to show that countries on
•which nature has showered every blessing are, nevertheless, often the most
miserable and benighted. It is not in these things that the wealth of a
country lies, but in an ardent, persevering, and industrious people ; and the
•wealth of Potosi is but worthless dross when compared with the wealth
which liberty engenders. The fact is, Ireland has been a misgoverned coun-
try, and therefore is she a disaffected and a poor one, and it is only by
righting her wrongs that she can be made prosperous and contented.

Dr. Kane's work is, in our opinion, too enthusiastic; but yet we think
such works likely to lead to beneficial results. It by no means follows, in
our apprehension, that a country is peculiarly adapted for manufacturing
purposes because it has abundant water-power, for, after all, the cost of
turning the spindles is but an inconsiderable part of the expense of a factory.
If water-power is to be the great attraction, all our manufacturers should
emigrate to Canada, for the Niagara has power enough to turn the spindles
of the world ; yet we believe some time will elapse before that great cata-
ract is directed to such a purpose. Every man, however, has his nostrum
for Ireland's welfare, and Dr. Kane's is coal and iron working, while
O'Connell's is repeal. The following are some of Dr. Kane's remarks upon
one of the best known coal and iron districts of Ireland ; but the mines
lave not been worked with any profitable results.

" On the eastern shore of Lough Allen rises the Iron Mountain (Slieve Neeran),
a hill cf considerable elevation. It consists of alternate beds of sandstone and
slate-clay resting upon the basis of the upper limestone. The great bed of slate-
clay varies from 300 to 500 feet in thickness ; others are of different but lesser
magnitude. In this clay the nodules of ironstone are disseminated in abundance ;
and the rains, washing away the softened and decomposing clay, the balls of ore are
carried down to the shore of the lake, whence, and from the beds of the rivulets,
they arc collected by the peasantry and brought to the works for use. At the base
of this mountain, on the eastern side of the outlet of the lake, lies Drumshambo,
where this ore was formerly smelted. I shall hence designate this ore from the
eastern side of the basin as Drumshambo ore. In purity it is somewhat superior to
that which is found on the western side.

" The southern and western division of this coal field is popularly known from
the River Arigna, which is its northern boundary, and whose name becomes notorious
by the iron works established on its banks, the bistory of which has so fatally influ-
enced industrial enterprise in Ireland. The stratification of the mountain is similar
to that of the opposite side ; resting on the limestone of the surrounding country,
occurs the great bed of slate-clay, 600 feet in thickness, and containing numerous
beds of ironstone, from half an inch to two feet in thickness. Their number is, as
Mr. Griffith mentions, almost incredible; but the most important occur from 200
to SOO feet above the limestone. The same eminent geologist describes the thin
beds as being in most cases the best; but that of Altagowlan, which is a foot thick,
was amongst the richest ironstone Mr. Griffith ever saw. The usual form is that
of nodules, in size from an egg to that of a bull's head; but it forms also strata, or
sheets of considerable extent. In many places the bed of the river Arigna in its
whole breadth is formed of a flag of ironstone, which is often many perches in
length. On this side of the lake also, owing to the weathering of the slate-clay, the
nodules of ironstone are deposited in vast quantities in the beds of the mountain
streams. Were this ore employed this source would soon become exhausted, and
of course the beds of ironstone should then be worked in situ, as they are elsewhere.

" Mr. Twigg, whose observations on the Arigna district are the most recent, thus
speaks in his report made to the Directors of the Arigna Company in 1830 : ' The
ironstone mines have been examined, and the result fouud extremely favourable.
A greater variety of ironstones I never met with, from which, by a proper admixture
and proper management, I have no hesitation in saying that pig-iron of best marks,
and fit for foundry work of every kind, may be obtained. The iron mines begin in
Rover, and continue for two miles and a half. I measured several of the beds to
more than two feet thick, in some places laid bare in the ravines, and in the bed of
the Arigna river we can get any quantity at the shortest notice. There is enough
to last two furnaces for 250 years.'

" In quantity there is no doubt but that the ironstone of this district is practically
inexhaustible. In order to ascertain its quality, I have effected accurate analyses of
numerous specimens of it, obtained from different portions of the district. Their
detailed characters and composition follow :

CLAY IRONSTONE NODULES FROM ARIGNA.

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3.

Protoxide of iron

. 53-65

54-42

51-52

Lime . . .

2-23

0-69

Magnesia .

• »

2-02

1-55

Alumina

1-00

1-43

n

Insoluble clay .

. 12 43

8-65

15-50

Carbonic acid.

32-92

31-25

30-74

£ s.

d.

2 0

0

2 3

6

1 13

0

1 2

0

0 13

0

On the subject of lead-mines, we have the following : —

" Ballyhickey Lead Mine, in the parish of Clooney and Barony of Bunratty. —
This is the richest lead mine which has been discovered in the county of Clare, and
is upon the estate of Hugh Singleton, Esq., of Hazelwood ; in a direct line of distance
it is about a mile and a half east from Kilbricken, and here lead ore was discovered
nearly at the surface. Operations were commenced by Mr. Taylor's agents in the
autumn of 1834, and with decisive success; so much so, that an export of 125 tons
took place the following spring, and from that period to the present not less than
2500 tons have been shipped from the port of Clare to the river Dee, averaging by
assay 77 per cent, for lead, and 1 5 ounces for silver in the ton of lead ; and a con-
siderable quantity of ore is still raised and shipped monthly.

" The three deposits of ore above-mentioned occur in large veins of calcareous
spar which traverse the limestone rock of this country; they differ from any
hitherto observed in the mining districts of England and Wales, and indeed upon the
Continent of Europe. The veins of spar are of immense width ; in places from
twenty to thirty feet, and they run generally a little to the north of east and south
of west."

Many of the agricultural products of Ireland might, we think, be raised
to a higher commercial importance than they have hitherto reached. Dr.
Kane enumerates several articles which might thus be produced with ad-
vantage ; but we have only room for what he says respecting the manu-
facture of sugar from beet-root. v

" The crop of beet-roots which is usually obtained in France varies from ten to
sixteen tons per statute acre. The mean produce may be taken at twelve tons.
For the cultivation of the acre, it appears that the labour required is, forty-six days
of a man's work, and fourteen days of a horse's. The total cost of the crop to the
farmer appears to be, in average, 11. lis. 6rf., made up of

Rent and Taxes ....
Manure .....
Labour .....

Seed, &c

Pulling and carriage . . .

7 11 6

" The average crop, of twelve tons per acre, stands the farmer, therefore, in
12ft 6d. per ton.

" A disadvantage of the crop is usually considered to be, that it occupies the
ground so long, as often to interfere with the wheat-sowing in autumn. The seed
of the beet is placed in the ground as early as it can be considered at all safe from
frost, and it continues growing very decidedly to September, and hence the pulling
of it is retarded to the latest moment. Now it is at that season peculiarly liable
to injury from frost, or from wet. A fact discovered by Peligot will, however,
borne out by practical experience, remarkably simplify the cultivation. He found
that the juice of the young beet-root is so much richer in sugar than that of the
mature plant, that the total quantity of sugar in the plant may be considered to be
the same at all ages, and hence, if the roots be pulled up in summer, although the
weight of the crop is much less, yet, as the quantity of sugar is not smaller, the
market value of the crop is the same. Thus the ground becomes available much
earlier for other agricultural operations, and the plants being pulled in a drier and'
steadier season, are much less liable to injury from exposure to the weather.

" The mode of treatment of the roots, in order to prepare the sugar, is not com-
plex. The roots are broken up by suitable machines into a soft pulp, and this is
submitted to excessive pressure, between folds of cloth in hydrostatic presses.
The juice which flows out is clarified by lime, and evaporated down, first in
ordinary boilers, but subsequently in pans heated by steam, sometimes by evapora-
tion in vacuo, precisely as is adopted for clarifying and refining of ordinary cane
sugar, with which the product, when obtained pure, is identical in properties and
composition.

" The following estimate of the cost of production of the beet-root sugar, in a
factory working up thirty-six tons of roots daily, is taken from the summary of the
official results given by M. Dumas. The numbers are reduced to the British
standards, and the price of coal in Ireland substituted for the French value. The
daily expenses of the factory are —

36 tons of beet-root at 16s. Sd. ....
5v tons cf coals, at 12s. .....

Bone-black

Lime . . . . . . .

Labour, 52 persons ......

Cloths for pressing ......

Repairs, lighting, insurance, rent, taxes, and sundries
Interest on the capital invested, which is shown to be
by other estimates 12,500/. ....

Total daily expense . . . .54110

" The quantity of sugar actually contained in the beet-root varies from 7 to 10"
per cent, in its weight, and, from good materials, and the employment of the best
methods, 7 per cent, is available as pure product, after all waste of manufacture ;:
but the ordinary produce to be calculated on is 5 per cent, which, from the thirty-
six tons of beet-root amounts to thirty-six cwt. of refined sugar, delivered daily
from such a factory, which, on the above outlay, would cost the manufacturer
30s. Ad. per cwt. : but there are some important deductions to be made from
this."

£ s.

</.

30 0

0

3 6

0

3 6

0

0 8

.0.

5 19

o.

0 16

0

6 13

0

4 3

0

100-00 100-00 100-D0"

Marvels of the Day.

189

ART. XXII [.—THE CITY OF LONDON STEAMER.

We give, in the present Number, a plate representative of the manner of
putting together this vessel. Fig. 1 is a cross- section of one of the paddle-
beams. Fig. 2, deck-beams. Fig. 3 shows the manner in which the keel is
attached. The heads of the countersunk rivets are made very large, so as to
obviate any inconvenience from corrosion. Fig. 4 represents the stem in
which groves are planed out for the reception of the plating. Fig. 5 is a
cross-section of the vessel ; and fig. G shows, on a larger scale, the angular
plates which serve the place of knees, the iron water-way which runs round
the ship beneath the deck, and above the beams ; and the method by which
this plate is attached to the beams. Fig. 7 represents the floors, also on an
enlarged scale.

Art. XXIV.— MARVELS OF THE DAY.

Victoria and Albert Steam-yacht. — This vessel has just been tried, after having
been furnished with tubular boilers, and her performance has been highly satis-
factory. The speed attained was 14 knots ; the engines, which are of 6 feet stroke,
making 18 revolutions per minute. The diameter of the paddle-wheel is 31 feet
6 inches ; and, as we believe we have stated on a former occasion, it is on the fea-
thering plan. Messrs. Maudslay, the makers of the machinery of this vessel, ap-
pear to have done their work well : we wish we could say as much for this other
departments ; but,' as a specimen of naval architecture, this vessel, though elegantly
finished and handsome to the eye, is a botch. She swims too much by the head ;
and unless there he plenty of ballast kept in her, she will, under inauspicious cir-
cumstances, we fear be liable to capsize. This really should be looked to. Such
a vessel should not be trusted with the transport of the Queen until she has been
thoroughly proved.
^ Growing Potatoes by Electricity. — At a late meeting of the Farmers' Club at New
loik, some potatoes were exhibited, one of which was seven inches in circumfer-
ence, and the others no larger than peas, though the whole had been planted at the
same time, in the same soil. The large one, however, had been put in connexion
with a voltaic battery, consisting of a plate of copper, sunk in the eaith, about 100
feet distant from where the potatoes were planted, and a plate of zinc, also distant
100 feet from the potatoes, in the opposite direction. These plates, in which gal-
vanic activity was excited by the earth's moisture, were connected by a wire which
passed through the soil surrounding the large potato, and its superior size was the
effect of the electricity thus communieated.

Westminster Hall Exhibition. — This exhibition of sculptures, etc., which is open
to the public, continues to attract large numbers of visitors ; and we have taken
occasion several times to inspect the works of art thus brought together. We are
not going to pass sentence dogmatically upon each of the objects submitted, for this
among other reasons, that, in works of taste we do not believe any one has a right
to do so ; and we think it would be as much a mark of ignorance as of presumption
to set down in a few words, dictatorially spoken, the character of each work of art,
as if things must charm or disgust e'very beholder which happen to exert such an
influence upon a critic's imagination. We shall, therefore, content ourselves with
the remark, that this exhibition of sculpture has astonished us by its excellence ;
and although there are many works which indicate only a moderate proficiency,
there are also many which are, in our eyes, exquisite performances. It would be
invidious to hold up any particular examples to admiration, where there are so
many others that equally challenge applause ; and different minds will, of course,
differently appreciate the merits of the same objects. To most beholders, however,
we believe, the statue of Mercury, the Eagle-Slayer, some of the equestrian groups,
and a few of the smaller figures, will offer the most attractions ; though, indeed,
there are many others nearly as captivating as these. We are greatly gratified at
this outburst of talent among our native artists ; for it shows that the soil is rich,
though it has hitherto been uncultivated; and that we require no transplantations
of exotic art, but may, under skilful culture, rival the most precious examples of
other nations by our own indigenous productions.

A new melJuid of copying Oil Paintings. — Mr. Jacob Liepmann has invented a
new method of copying oil paintings. He has just completed one from an original
in the Berlin Museum. The body of colour from which the copies are taken is six
inches in thickness, and will furnish about 1,500 copies. Eight months have
been expended in the preparation of this body. By the perseverance of the artist
he has succeeded in showing that by the method pursued by him impressions can
be produced at once harmonious and correct, rich in the email of colours, and, in
fact, excellent specimens of art.

Progress of the Mccluxnical Arts in France. — The Palace of Industry, in the
Champs Elysees, Paris, lately constructed, is of an oblong shape, 100 fathoms
in breadth, by 80 fathoms in depth, and consequently covers a space of 5,000
square fathoms. A four-fold gallery encompasses a central area, which is divided
into three parallel covered galleries, employed for the exhibition of steam-engines,
and the largest apparatus. The whole building is roofed with zinc, and gets the
light by high windows ; the floor is inlaid and the different galleries are separated
by colonnades. The cost of the whole building has amounted to 600,000 francs.
It is still only of a temporary natuie; for a permanent building adapted to the
purpose would cost five million francs, and would be made use of only every five
years. The interest of the capital of five millions spent on its erection, taken at
5 per cent., would in five years amount to 1,250,000 francs; while, on the other
hand, by raising merely a temporary structure, only 600,000 francs are spent ; the
principal remains still at disposal, and from the sale of the materials a considerable
sum too is realized. The first exhibition df industry took place in the Champs de

Mars, after the end of the Italian campaign in 1798 : the number of the exhibitors
was 110, the duration of the exhibition three days. The second and third ex-
hibitions occurred under Chaptal's ministry, in 1801 and 1802, in the court of the
Louvre ; the number of the exhibitors in 1801 was 220 ; in 1802, 540. On the
latter occasion, Jacquard obtained only a medal of bronze for his memorable loom
invention. The best exhibition was the ninth, in the year 1839, held in the
Champs Elysees, when the number of exhibitors amounted to 3,381. Eight
hundred and five medals were distributed on this occasion. Steam-engines were
sent by fifty manufacturers ; paper without end, the improved Jacquard-loom,
looking-glasses and crystals, chronometers, galvanized iron, &c, attracted the
attention of the spectators. Of the total number of exhibitors in the present ex-
hibition we cannot speak with certainty, still the Department of the Seine, the list
of which has been closed, enumerates upwards of 3,000.

FROM OUR OWN CORRESPONDENT.

Calcutta. — Her Majesty's Birth-day. — The last mail which arrived from
England brought us a most scanty supply of news, and our return mail will be
found equally meagre. The " Bentinck " arrived on the 17th ult., with the Eng-
lish newspapers, but as she is not permitted to carry the letters, we had the plea-
sure of waiting until the 21st before the first delivery of the general overland (via
Bombav) took place. I have but little to tell you, and Calcutta folks in general
have nothing to relate to friends at home, with the exception of the story of a
battle having occurred among the Sikh Chieftains, and of a display of fire-works
costing 4000/. having been "let off" here in commemoration of the anuiversary of
our Sovereign's birth-day, but which, unfortunately, could not be got ready until
five days alter the proper time. The Governor-General— our Governor-General —
does not appear to think much about expending public money on an exhibition of
fireworks, (and the one in question unfortunately turned out a failure,) but he does
not appear favourably inclined to disburse the same on works of public utility, as
you may learn from my observations touching the Rajmahal Canal in my last ; and
he would probably rather expend, of his own free will, a few thousand pounds in
pyrotechnics, or in sweetmeats for the Sepoys, than in the construction of 20 or 30
miles of good road, that would result not in transitory amusement, but in lasting
benefit. His lordship refused the other day to see a deputation from the Lyceum,
(the aristocratic Mechanics' Institution,) who had waited upon him to solicit his
patronage to the institution, and his refusal was based upon the ground, that
although he thought very highly of the project, still he doubted its ultimate success!'
It has been a maxim of Lord Ellenborough to " beat down all opposition," but in
this case despair seems to have overturned his vigorous faculties. His refusal, in-
deed, to allow his name to appear as patron of the Lyceum ought to spur the com-
munity on to show that they can at least carry through one project without his-
lordship's aid ; hut I am afraid that it will have au opposite tendency, and will
rather diminish the number of subscribers, and also the confidence of those who
have endeavoured to establish such an institution. This conduct of Lord Ellen-
borough does not, indeed, redound greatly to his credit.

Steam Tug Compatiies. — Two steam tug companies have been proposed to be
formed : the one the Hooghly Steam Tug Company, to work with Green and Com-
pany's two vessels, the "Lion and the Unicorn," expected out here in November
next — the capital to consist of 1000 shares of 25/. each. The other, to be
called the "Union," is also to be provided with two tugs, available towards the
end of the year, and to be built of wood. No further particulars are publicly
given respecting these companies, as to what are to be their charges, &c, &c, but
it is not probable that the rates of hire will continue as high as they are at present,
or that the old steam tug company will long continue to declare dividends of 10 per
cent., as they did at their half-yearly meeting held the other day.

Steam Navigation. — The " Windsor Castle," a small steamer to which I referred
some time ago, and which has latterly been plying as a tug upon the river, has been
sold to the King of Ava, as has also another small steamer, the "Express," which'
arrived some time back from the Straits, where she had been in use. A steamer,
the " Royal Sovereign," has been running for a considerable period between Penang
and Singapore, but finding, I suppose, that her trips did not result profitably, she is
now to ply between the former island and Calcutta, on which line there is probably
more chance of her paying than by continuing on the former.

Transports for the Indus. — I understand that orders have been issued to build
at the dock-yard, Bombay, 60 boats, which are to be used not only as transports
on the Indus, but which, by being connected together, may be used as bridges. The
cost of these is stated to be estimated at 30,000/.

Hooghly spinning Mills — There is an advertisementnow before mchaving reference
to certain spinning mills built upon the banks of the Hooghly, called Fort Gloster
Mills, which, including machinery and buildings, the proprietors are anxious to dis-
pose of. From some cause or other these mills have not succeeded, but I suspect
the failure is in a great part to be attributed to want of proper management. The
late manager (a Scotchman too — tell Sandy Gray) had a salary of nearly 100/. a
month, but thisdid not even satisfy his cravings, as he endeavoured to live at the rate
of nearly 1,500/. a-year, or perhaps more ; and the consequence is, that he is, or was
very lately, in jail for debt, all his property having been seized by his creditors. I
went over these mills a short time ago; no one asked me a siugle question as to
what I was about ; and, indeed, I saw not a single European. They are not very
large ; a great number of natives are employed, who, however, appear to be but
little superintended. The machinery is not kept at all clean, and it is a pity to see
such well-finished machinery kept in such bad order. The spinnings made here are
far from good, and are all of low numbers, from No. 20 to No. 34, (this your
Lancashire friends will understand) ; and I may tell them at the same time, that
they have very little to fear from the competition of the Gloster Mills in the twist

190

Miscellanea.

[August,

market. The natives employed at these mills do not appear to be good workmen,
although, I should imagine they may turn out so in time ; and with proper manage-
ment, I do not see why spinning mills should not succeed here. I do not indeed
think, that in the present state of affairs great competition could he expected from
factories in Bengal, seeing that we have as yet produced no good cotton, and the
carriage of the Surat cotton from Bombay, amounting to nearly, if not fully, as
much as the expense of freight from Bombay to England. Spinning mills would
be more likely to turn out well at Bombay than here.

Bonded Warehouse Association. — There is another advertisement, from the
Secretary of the Bonded Warehouse Association, stating how happy he will be to
dispose of sundry cast-iron beams — if he can. These beams are some left over
(and which have been advertised for the last twelvemonth) from the quantity they
received from England to construct their warehouses. These warehouses are chiefly
used by people who have pledged their goods for loans of money, as the two banks
in Calcutta will not advance money unless the goods have been there deposited.
A half-yearly meeting of the association was held a few days ago, when a dividend
was declared of 10s. per share on the past half-year. This is smaller than usual,
but the diminution is attributed to the quick sales of stocks which have been
effected in our markets. The company hopes soon to reduce the charges for ware-
house accommodation, which are at present at the rates of—

3d. per month for a chest of S dozen size.

H*t- » » „ 6 „

Is. „ „ above 12 „

6d. „ „ sugar, &c, in hhds.

A little less than ^d. „ „ iron, per Indian maund.

\d. „ „ all other unwrought metals.

Sd. „ „ all wrought metals per cwt.

There used to be an abatement upon these rates when goods had been long in the
warehouse, but there is none now.

Iron Mines in the Concern. — Some specimens of iron have been lately brought
from the Concan, on the other side of Hindostan, and the party who has procured
them maintains, that with suitable machinery he could supply Bombay with the
finest malleable iron, and to any extent, at 3L per ton ! ! It is well known that
the Carnatic, Mahratta, and Concan ores are of first-rate quality, and they are said
to yield, if properly treated, 50 per cent, of pure iron ; and, being of so superior a
description, would, if sent home, be at once bought up, for conversion into steel.

Salt Lake in Scinde. — I have also to tell you of another mine of good luck
which the Bombay people have fallen upon, although this is not a metallic one. I
allude to the discovery of an extensive salt lake near Damera, on the road to Islam-
cote in Scinde. Tho waters of the lake, 3 or 4 miles long, and 2 or 3 wide, have
evaporated and left a stratum of salt some 4 or 5 inches thick, and so hard that
the person who discovered the spot galloped over it on horseback, the hoofs of his
horse making almost no impression. This salt must have been slowly evaporated,
hence some people inferred that it would be of a pure quality, but it is not found to
be purer than the ordinary salt of commerce.

Free Kirk in Calcutta. — Towards the conclusion of my last letter I referred to
the Church about to be built for the members of the Free Scotch Kirk here. I
have lately seen the design ; it is in the Gothic style, simple, devoid of ornament,
but not inelegant. There is nothing indeed original in the general disposition, it
being just a simplified copy from many similar structures existing at home. The
following are some of the dimensions, including the buttresses, &c. : —

Feet.

Total length

Total breadth ......

Height to pinnicle of spire .

„ top of crotchets surrounding base of spire
„ top of coping above gallery roof

142£

63£

134^

101*

46^

Mac,

Constantinople. — Light-house at Corigo in the Mediterranean. — The utility
of a light-house on the northern extremity of Corigo is most manifest. There is
no passage from the Constantinople and Smyrna side to the westward, without pass-
ing either through that we came, or otherwise between the Islands of Corigetto
and Candia, unless at a great increase of distance and of danger in going to the
southern side of Candia. The passage between the southern sides of Corigo and
Corigetto is rocky, and at night unsafe, and therefore, vessels pass between the
latter and Candia, as being more clear of rocks, although a longer route than
that between Cape St. Angelo and Corrigo, because of the difficulty of entering the
passage in dark and thick weather ; insomuch as Cape St. Angelo and Cape Matapan
on the Morea, rather overlap the northern point of land of the island of Corigo
and interrupt the view of a free passage through. If a light-house was erected upon
the northern point of Corigo, vessels entering from the Smyrna side would run
along the coast by Hydra, &c., for until they made this light-house, when they
would haul in, and when abreast of it shape a course to the westward, to avoid
Cape Matapan, a similar facility would be afforded to ships coming further from
the southward, while those coming from the westward would keep sufficiently to
the southward to clear Cape Matapan, standing on until they made the light-house,
which would guide them accurately through the passage. The point in question is
one particularly suitable to such a use, being sufficiently, and not too much elevated,
and not hid in by any adjoining land. As the island of Corigo is one of the Ionian
Islands, and subject to the British crown, by which power a party of soldiers are
kept upon it to guard persons banished from the Ionian Islands, the possibility of
affording such a protection to commerce is entirely within its power. The first ques-
tion is, would a light-house be useful, and to any material extent, in guiding mer-
chantmen and men-of-war passing between Smyrna, Malta, and Constantinople ?
If its utility be admitted, which, I think, cannot be questioned, the next point is,
what would be tho most advantageous point to place it upon, in order to render it

generally useful ? A doubt upon that head may exist in the comparison of the
passage being lighted between Corigetto and Candia, as affording the widest and
best for navigation ; indeed, if these islands were in the possession of the British
crown, it must be admitted the last-mentioned passage would be the most eligible
for merchant vessels in particular; but they belong to another power — the Turkish,!!
believe, and no reliance could be placed in the light being attended to by that coun-
try, even if no difficulty presented itself in the providing of oil. It is therefore
idle to expect any exertions being made by that power in forwarding the object
contemplated, and the only resource seems to be for England to build the light-house.
Let the Club give its attention to this, and thus show its anxiety to promote the
success of English commerce.

R. N.

Alexandria. — New Dock. — The new dock, which is in process of formation
here, by His Highness the Pacha, under the direction of a French engineer, Mons.
Monjelle, is only just now beginning to assume a practical appearance. It may
not be known to the readers of the Artizan, that this dock has been formed on
piles driven into beds of mud and clay to a depth of 40 to SO feet ; that on these
piles has been raised an artificial rock, the constituents of which are, puzxolana,
and the native gipps, or alabaster peculiar to Egypt. These being well pulverized,
are thrown in heaps, and well rammed, quickly forming a bond, and assuming an
appearance pretty closely resembling Roman cement. This artificial rock is of
sufficient dimensions to admit being hewn into a dock of 250 feet by 60 feet, with
a depth of 21 feet water. The chief difficulty in the execution of this work lay in
constructing a flooring of sufficient strength to resist the enormous pressure of water
below ; and several attempts at shutting out the water were attended with a disrup-
tion of the bottom. Indeed, so hopeless did the attempt at one" time appear, that
it was universally cried down, and the project well nigh abandoned as hopeless. By
the use of the diving-bell, and with a measure of perseverance that could only have
been the result of great confidence, the scheme was persisted in ; the fractures were
repaired; the bottom was strengthened by the addition of courses of large stone
ribs ; the flagging was put down, and the sides faced up with alternate tiers of
stone and brick-work. When the building had been halfway advanced, the bottom
was loaded down with 4000 tons of pig-iron ballast, and a ten-horse pumping-
engine set to work to clear it. Before this was accomplished, it was discovered
that a fissure had been formed at the extreme end, where a groove had been cut to
admit the feed-pipe of a 100-horse pumping-engine that has been newly erected,
and the attempt of g«tting out the water had again to be abandoned. The defect,
however, was soon remedied, and the buildings were gone on with. It has at last
been got clear, and is kept so by means of the small engine, which is required, for
this purpose, to work night and day; and public opinion is now beginning to look
to the completion of this splendid effort as an event of less doubt. One apprehen-
sion still keeps hold of the minds of men who pretend to a scientific knowledge of
such works, that the enormous weight of a line-of-battle ship will set the bottom
down. This has to be still tried and proved ; but every man who looks upon this
great enterprize— carried on, through the most discouraging circumstances, by
Mehemet Ali, and at a cost of at least one million sterling — must rejoice at seeing
it brought to a successful issue.

There are seven or eight line-of-battle ships here in almost a sinking state, wait-
ing admission to the dock. One large frigate has been hauled up by the sheer power
of men and ropes, overhauled, refitted, and launched; and a second, of 42 guns, is
now on the slip in the arsenal.

Miscellanea. — Nasmyth's Patent Lift Hammer, which has been for some time
fitted in the North Smithey, has been tried at the Plymouth Dockyard, in the
presence of the Admiral Superintendent, Sir Samuel Pym, Admiral Sir David
Milne and friends, Captain Burgman, and the officers of the yard. It is two and a
half tons in weight, and descends with a force equal to 12 tons. The ease with
which it was worked gave great satisfaction. The invention, we must remark, is
not a new one, but is described in one of Mr. Watt's specifications of the last

century. The fountains in Trafalgar-square are in a state of forwardness, and the

engine-house in Hemmings-row, at the rear of the National Gallery, has been sur-
mounted by an iron tank, capable of holding about 30,000 gallons of water. To
this building there is attached a tower, at the top of which another iron reservoir

will be erected. Mr. Stevenson is now busily engaged surveying the line of an

intended railway between Whitehaven and Milnthorpe, to join the Lancaster and

Carlisle Railway, via Ulverstone. A violent conflagration has lately taken place

in the town of Racheoka, in the district of Gadiatz (Russia), by which 400 houses

were burnt down, and a loss caused of 66,000 roubles. The Artesian Well at

Southampton has been completely successful. The water rises to within forty feet
of the surface, and, by the aid of powerful steam-engines, no less than 55,000
gallons a day are poured into the town. The next meeting of the British Asso-
ciation will be held at York, and commence on the 26th of September. Thirty-
two editors of newspapers in the British West India Colonies are, it is said, negroes

and mulattoes. A Catholic " cathedral," on a larger and more magnificent scale

than any built in England since the Reformation, has been recently erected in

Nottingham, and was " opened" on Wednesday, the 28th instant. Queen

Christina contemplates employing a portion of her immense wealth in establishing

a railroad from Madrid to Alicante. Two diamonds, one of them worth about

twenty-five dollars, were recently found in the gold mines of Habersham county,

Georgia, United States. Mr. Kennedy, in his late work on Texas, says one of the

most remarkable natural curiosities in Texas is a petrified forest, near the head of
Passigono River. It consists of several hundred trees, in an erect position, turned

to stone. Trees now growing are partially petrified. A son of the celebrated

Mozart has just died at Vienna, of cancer in the stomach.

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THE ARTIZAN

No. XXI.— SEPTEMBER 30th, 1844.

Art. I.— THE HEALTH OF TOWNS.

First Report of the Commissioners for inquiring into the State of Large
Towns and Populous Districts. London. 1844.

This is a very valuable report, and the subject is one of the most momentous
that can occupy the attention of mankind. It is in ameliorating the social
condition of the industrial population that national improvement must begin ;
and all causes of disease and mortality are causes, at the same time, of depra-
vity, sedition, and degradation. It is not, therefore, the mere question of
health that is to be considered in this inquiry, though that of itself is of suf-
ficient importance to justify the solicitude of the legislature ; but the moral
and intellectual condition of the bulk of the people also hinges upon it ; and,
indeed, every other great question comes back upon this as the common centre
from which all legislation must originate. Nor is it the health of the hum-
bler classes merely that suffers from defective sanitary arrangements ; for
impure air and deadly miasmata will not confine themselves to the places
where they are generated, nor will contagious epidemics pay any regard to
topographical limits, but will enter the cottage and the palace with the same
deadly aim. To no class of society, therefore, can the present inquiry be in-
different, even if they only regard their own immediate interests ; while, in a
larger view, the question rises superior to all others, and becomes the key to
the" soothing of those political discontents which other expedients have failed
to compose. The truth is, the sanitary condition of the people is inseparably
connected with their condition in many other respects; and turbulence, de-
pravity, and ignorance, are the never-failing concomitants of excessive mor-
tality. Where the average duration of human life is small, the young and
inexperienced must necessarily be most numerous ; and in such a community
there must be a larger proportion of the evils which spring from the vehe-
mence of unbridled passions, and a penury of that skill which it takes time
and assiduity to acquire. .

It is needless, however, to enlarge upon these considerations, as the Go-
vernment appears to be perfectly sensible of their importance, and is taking
the necessary steps to obviate the evils which the rapid growth of towns, espe-
cially in the manufacturing districts, have brought upon the country. The
commission, of which we have here the first report, has brought together a
mass of most important information ; from which it appears, that the causes
of the great mortality of certain districts are not merely removable, but may
he removed without any expense. This conclusion at first sight appears para-
doxical ; for the health of populous districts is only to be amended by a more
plentiful supply of water, an improved sewerage, and other works, which can
only be accomplished by a large outlay : but then the expense of removing
refuse by the present methods will be saved, and the application of sewer
water to agricultural purposes will yield a revenue that will be in most cases
sufficient, in a term of years, to reimburse the capital invested.

Before entering upon any of the details of the plans of improvement men-
tioned in this report, we may remark, that whatever steps may be taken by
the Government in furtherance of the proposed objects ought to be effectual
ones. Anv half measures would displease all parties ; for there are persons
interested in the maintenance of the present defective systems, and they would
be displeased by any innovation ; whereas the public, we are assured, now
that its eyes are opened to the magnitude of the evil, will not be content with
any amelioration that is not comprehensive and effectual. An extension of the
sewerage of towns without a corresponding extension of its water supply would
be an evil rather than a benefit ; for a sewer, in which there is not a current
of water, is only a receptacle for refuse, instead of a channel for carrying it
off, and may spread pestilence through the neighbourhood by its insalubrious
exhalations. It would be idle, therefore, to seek a remedy for the present
imnerfect cleanliness of towns by adding to the powers or quickening the
energies of the present sewer commissioners, for they cannot have any power
over the water companies ; and however effectually they might do their work,
their improvements would be valueless unless accompanied by a more abun-
dant supply of water. The fact is, the drainage and irrigation of a city are
branches only of the same thing, and ought in no case to be dissevered : and
the best plan of securing these advantages to the people would, in our opinion,
be, for the government to place the water supply and sewerage of all the
towns in the kingdom under the management of a central board, to the end

VOL. II.

that complete and uniform systems might be adopted. We should not pro-
pose, however, that this board should be the executive body in carrying out
these improvements ; for no assemblage of persons is, in our judgment, suited
to such a function ; but three or four able and active managers should be
appointed, in whom the executive power should be vested ; and it would then
only be the duty of the board to determine all great or general questions, and
to see that the managers effectually carried out the details.

There is a great deal of evidence appended to this report respecting the
supply of towns with water, and a good deal of this has special reference to
the supply of the metropolis. We do not, however, find any plan propounded
for supplying London with good water, although there is scarce any improve-
ment that would contribute so powerfully to the establishment of temperate
and orderly habits among its poorer inhabitants. The badness of the water
with which houses are at present supplied, and the trouble and expense at-
tendant upon the use of filters or other machinery for its purification, compels
the poor to drink beer in self-defence ; and habits of intemperance are thus
begun which cannot be afterwards eradicated. It is plain these evils cannot
be cured by a more abundant supply of water of the same quality; and we
hold it to be an essential part of the improvements it is proposed to introduce,
that the poor shall be supplied with enough pure and palatable water, to do
away the temptation of resorting to the tavern to assuage their thirst. In
London, however, a supply of such water is not to be procured in any large
quantities, except at a great expense ; and we therefore look upon it as indis-
pensable that London shall be supplied with two qualities of water — the one
drawn from the Thames, and supplied at a moderate head, in unlimited abun-
dance, and the other pure spring-water, drawn by engine power from the
reservoir beneath the chalk, which, on a former occasion, we showed was
capable of yielding a plentiful supply.* The Thames water, which might be
carried in large earthenware pipes, would serve for such purposes as watering
streets, supplying public fountains, feeding baths, extinguishing fires, and for
all such household purposes as did not require pure water for their accom-
plishment, while the spring- water might be supplied by iron pipes at a higher
head, and should be charged by meter. It would neither be necessary nor
expedient to have these different qualities of water, provided an abundance
of pure water could be got without expense ; but the depth from which the
water fit for drinking would have to be raised, and the cost consequent on
the large engine-power necessary for the elevation of any considerable quan-
tity, would limit the supply of this kind of water ; while, on the other hand,
the water of the Thames — and there is no other source near London from
which an abundant supply of water is obtainable — is not of the kind to tempt
people to become water-drinkers, neither is it of the quality with which the
inhabitants of the first city in the world ought to rest content. Nor are its
defects to be corrected by filtration, for it is intrinsically vapid and impure ;
and even if the plan of filtration were adopted, it would still be necessary to
have two systems of pipes, as it would be an absurd expense to supply fil-
tered water for washing the streets or sweeping through the sewers. As,
therefore, it is indispensable that a duplicate system of pipes should exist,_ it
certainly appears preferable that the pure water pipes should be filled with
sparkling water from a deep spring — and enough may be obtained from a
single well to supply the whole of London — than with strained water from
the Thames, which is dead and unpalatable, and which, however limpid it
may be, is, nevertheless, defiled by organic matters held in solution.

It is quite obvious, from what we have said, that the water supply and
drainage of towns must go on together, and that there must be good water as
well as an abundance of water ; but where good water is scarce, a moderate
supply will suffice, provided there be an abundant supply of water of an in-
ferior description. It is also essential to any just and economical system,
that the refuse of the towns shall be carried by the drains to increase the fer-
tility of the surrounding country ; and in this' application there is a mine of
wealth that will not only repay the expense of effectual sanitary arrangements,
but will benefit greatly the proprietors of the soil, and leave a considerable
surplus for municipal improvements. It is proposed that a fund should be
created, out of which the expense of all these improvements should be de-
frayed ; and the revenue realized by the application of the liquid manure

* Artizan, Vol. I , p. 217.

B B

192

The Health of Towns.

[September,

of the sewers to the fields, would, it is computed, reinstate, •within a term of
years, the original outlay with interest. The benefit received by the landed
proprietors would at the same time be more than correspondent to the amount
they would have to pay, while, after a certain number of years, the whole of
the revenue thus derived would be available for the purposes of lighting, pav-
ing, and other similar operations. The increased demands of agriculture make
manure in the present day of much value, and every town has a guano island
within its own precincts, which may be turned to most profitable account by
suitable arrangements for that purpose.

There is one doubt, however, that has to be considered before disposing
of this part of the subject, and that is, whether the public health would not
suffer by covering the fields in the neighbourhood of towns with the contents
of the sewers, which might with some plausibility be described as a conversion
of districts, at present salubrious, into a vast marsh or cesspool. This, how-
ever, a moment's consideration will show is a mere question of dilution, for
the Thames is not a cesspool, though it receives all the sewers of the metro-
polis ; nor the ocean, though it receives the sewers of the world. And at
Milan, where the contents of the canals which surround the city, and into
which the sewers empty themselves, have been applied for ages to increase
the fertility of the surrounding country, no evil consequence has been found
to arise, while the effect of these waters upon the land is almost miraculous.
At Tetuan, in Barbary, again, as we stated last month, the contents of the
sewers are conducted to the gardens at the outside of the town, without any
deleterious effects upon the health of the people : but here, as in other cases
where this can be done with impunity, the contents of the sewers are much
diluted by the water flowing from the mosques and the public fountains. It
is, in our eyes, indispensable, therefore, to the profitable application of the
refuse of towns to agricultural purposes, that the sewers shall be swept by a
large stream of water ; and it is further indispensable that the ground to
which this refuse is applied shall be effectually drained, so that the land will,
in fact, operate as a filter to the fertilizing fluid. When manure is thus mi-
nutely divided, the slender roots of the grass, or other plants to which it may
be applied, seize its minute portions with great avidity ; and there is thus no
tendency for the fluid to stagnate and decompose, for the only parts which
could undergo decomposition are seized upon and appropriated by the living
vegetables before the time has been afforded for such a change.

We may here indicate, in a loose and general way, the plan we should pro-
pose for carrying these improvements into effect in the case of the metropolis,
and which is applicable, under variations in the minor circumstances, in other
cases. The existing waterworks we would abolish in toto, and we would lay
down two systems of pipes, the one for pure and the other for impure water,
in the manner we have indicated. The water of the New River, with an ad-
dition of water brought into it from the Thames, either by an aqueduct or by
appropriate machinery, would serve very well for all the commoner uses of the
people, while the spring-water distributed through the smaller pipes would
be only used for drinking and in the preparation of food. We would have in
a number of places public fountains constantly flowing ; and it would be very
desirable that these fountains should be supplied either by gravitation or by
some hydraulic machinery which would require no consumption of fuel, and
no heavy expense of any kind, to keep them in continual operation. The
water thus allowed to run to waste, conjoined with the more abundant use
of water in all the houses, would probably be sufficient to scour the sewers
effectually, and adequately to dilute their contents ; and should this not be
the case, an additional quantity of Thames water should be let in to accom-
plish this purpose. We would next make a great receiving sewer on each
bank of the Thames, and running parallel with the river as nearly as possible,
though diverging, of course, to avoid the mouths of the docks and other
similar interruptions. These great sewers should, we conceive, be combined
with the plan of a Thames embankment, beneath which they might run ; and
it should be their function to conduct the contents of all the sewers to the
vacant ground below Woolwich on the one side of the river, and Blackwall
upon the other. We would not, however, restrict the distribution of the
sewer water to the districts indicated by the fall of the ground, but would also
raise it by artificial means, and distribute it over the whole region around the
metropolis; which might be done by tide-mills, wind-mills, and other self-
acting mechanisms, at a very inconsiderable expense. Indeed, the difference
of expense would be very little, whether the sewage was pumped up for
distribution over the higher ground, or flowed over the lower ground of its
own accord ; for the lower ground would, in most cases, have to be drained
by some species of machinery, as the water would not spontaneously run off;
and this expense would very nearly balance that of the distribution, by me-
chanical power, of the sewage over grounds from which the superfluous
water would run off by gravity.

The first step in carrying these improvements into practice throughout the
country, should of course be to procure accurate surveys ; and, in the forma-
tion of the plans, the method of contour lines, or lines running on the same
level, should be adopted, as from them the cross section of any particular
tract, and in any direction, may be readily obtained. For the sake of those
unacquainted with this method of laying down the levels, we may explain, that
the contour lines of a map represent the horizontal section of a country at
different elevations ; or, to give a more familiar explanation, each contour
line may be supposed to represent the edge of a sheet of water let in upon the
face of the country represented, to a depth previously fixed upon, and which
is usually four feet for each gradation. The lowest or most ' external
contour line then represents the edge of the water; the next, the edge of the

water, supposing that it had risen four feet higher, and so on, so that every
part of each contour line, throughout all its winding, is upon the same level.
The surveys thus delineated would greatly facilitate the execution of all sub-
sequent public works ; and such a system is quite indispensable to the bene-
ficial irrigation and drainage of the country. Nor should the formation of
either the feeders or the drains be intrusted to farmers or other unskilful per-
sons, for much of the benefit of draining depends upon the nicety with which
the drains have been made ; and a drain-tube will often lose the greater part
of its efficacy by a trifling deviation from its proper declination. Drain-pipes
should in all cases be laid by the aid of boning-rods, or by means of the
system of sights ; for by irregularities of level, invisible to an ordinary spec-
tator, the greater part of the expense of such improvements is often thrown
away.

The provision of suitable dwellings for the poor, is a question of as much
difficulty as importance. To demolish the present crop of poor habitations
and force up finer ones in their stead, would only increase the evil, for those
superior dwellings would of necessity be dearer ones, and a greater number
of persons would then have to live together than is even the case at present
It will benefit the poor nothing, therefore, to build better dwellings for their
accommodation, unless those dwellings be also yielded at as cheap a rate
and houses provided for the poorest class, with which all attempts at ame-
lioration should begin, ought to be so made, that a room might be let for a
shilling a week. It is not impossible, we think, to erect houses of a whole-
some character, even in the denser localities, which may be let out at this low
rate, and yet return a good profit on the capital invested ; and a metropolitai
association has lately been organized with the view of carrying out thi:
beneficial object. It is obviously indispensable, however, that such houses
be of a large size, and be let in flats, upon the plan pursued in Scotland ; anc
we do not see that there can be any objection to this plan, when each flat is
adequately provided with conveniences, such as an abundant supply of water
would make it possible to afford. Certain rules, moreover, should be pro
mulgated and strictly adhered to, respecting the order in which the stairs anc
passages were required to be washed by the several occupants ; and habits o
cleanliness might thus be engrafted upon the worst portions of society, which
would lead to other virtues. The construction of houses of this description
where low rents and good accommodation may reconcile the tenants to a more
stringent discipline, as regards order and cleanliness, than any to which they
have hitherto been subjected, must precede the demolition of the existing
humble tenements ; for the poor must live somewhere, and the effect o
knocking down the houses in which they are at present resident, withou
providing others for their reception, is only to overcrowd the cheaper class o
dwellings that are left, or to turn respectable streets into a habitation o
paupers, with all the aggravations of unfitness for the purpose, and of over-
crowding to realize the rent.

Jt is impossible that we can go at present into any details respecting th<
construction of the abodes of the most miserably poor. Every room, how.
ever, should, we think, be provided with a ventilating flue running up by the
side of the chimney, and the floors ought not, in our opinion, to be of boards
but of tiles, which a little water and a broom will easily make clean. Thi
walls, again, should be made without any lath and plaster, but should be
composed of brick covered with plaster and whitewashed, and should be
without skirting boards or anything else of that kind that would serve as a
harbour for vermin. The rooms should be whitewashed at stated intervals, and
should be so made that the walls and every other part might be washed over
with water, and be easily kept clean ; and this ablution might very readily be
performed by means of a hose attached to the water-pipe of the dwelling.
With these and other such precautions in the construction of houses for the
poor, and with the supervision of a sort of domestic police, for seeing that
the stipulated measures of cleanliness were effectually carried out, the sanitary
condition of the country would not only be improved, but better habits would
be acquired, and higher aspirations formed both by the most worthless and
the most miserable parts of the community, of which it would be difficult to
foretell all the benefits.

There are. two influential causes of sickness and mortality to which we
have not yet adverted, — interments in towns, and the production of smoke
and other unwholesome effluvia by manufactories. These questions need not
detain us long, as the reasons for the abolition of these nuisances are so
numerous and obvious, that the measure is inevitable. In London, and we
have no doubt in other places, many of the wells are poisoned by exudations
from the churchyards, and the air of the sewers even is contaminated by
exhalations from the same source. There can be no good reason for inter-
ments in town now that there are so many cemeteries around London ; and
we trust the practice will be altogether prohibited in every town. And as
regards smoke, — if people are sceptical of the various plans for consuming
smoke that have been brought forward, it is an easy thing to use a mixture
of coke and anthracite, which produces no smoke, and is very little more
expensive than coal of the common description. There is nothing clearer to
us than that the smoke of factories will very soon be prevented if its pro-
duction be made penal, and be followed by a few uncompromising convictions;
but in order to insure these convictions, the matter must be followed up by
a public prosecutor, and must not be tried before mayors and corporations,
who, for the most part, are interested in the perpetuation of the nuisance.
The government, when railways were established for the conveyance of pas-
sengers, wisely made it a condition that no smoke should be made, and there
has been no subsequent trouble upon the subject ; but if that improvement

1841,]

The Health of Towns,

193

had only been carried into effect after 14 years of fuliginous locomotion, the
uproar and commotion -would have been ten times greater than the most
stringent measures against the present generation of smoke producers could
possibly excite. — It is high time, however, to give a few specimens of the
quality of information the evidence accompanying this report contains. We
shall begin our extracts with the evidence of Dr. Southwood Smith.

Tlie Fever Districts of London. — " What do you mean by a fever district ? — I
mean a district in which fever is always so prevalent that the locality in question
may be regarded as the ordinary seat of this disease. Now the present epidemic
is not equally prevalent in all such districts, but it is confined to a certain number
of them. Tbe Commissioners, however, may form some judgment of the extent
to which it has recently prevailed from the fact that, in the four months from the
commencement of January in the present year to the end of April, we have actually
received into the wards of the TFever Hospital 500 fever patients; and during a
considerable portion of that time for days together we have refused applications
for admission at the rate of thirty or forty a-day, in consequence of not having
room. Now the remarkable fact is, that those cases come to us from certain dis-
tricts which are as familiar to us as our own names.

"The evils which you described in 1838 as referable to these districts still con-
tinue, and with increasing virulence? — At the present moment with increasing
virulence, certainly.

" The districts referred to contain a vast population, not in one part of London
alone, but in different portions of it, to which the same considerations apply? —
The fever districts of the metropolis are situated in different parts of it; and it is
in accordance with ordinary experience to find fever raging in some of these dis-
tricts, at the very time that others are enjoying a temporary immunity from it. In
former years I have found, on my personal examination, some localities in which
there was not a single house in which fever had not prevailed, and in some cases
not a single room in a single house in which there had not been fever. I
observed this particularly in certain localities in Bethnal-green and Whitechapel :
now, during the present year, there has been a very remarkable absence of fever
in these its ordinary seats, while in other districts it has been more than com-
monly prevalent.

" Did you attribute that, in those districts, to bad drainage, or want of water, or
some causes of that kind? — In every district in which fever returns frequently,
and prevails extensively, there is uniformly bad sewage, a bad supply of water, a
bad supply of scavengers, and a consequent accumulation of filth; and I have
observed this to be so uniformly and generally the case, that I have been accus-
tomed to express the fact in this way. If you trace down the fever districts on a
map, and then compare that map with the map of the Commissioners of Sewers,
you will find that, wherever the Commissioners of Sewers have not been, there
fever is prevalent ; and, on tbe contrary, wherever they have been, there fever is
comparatively absent.

" Have you, from your experience in these matters, formed a strong opinion
that the fevers and other diseases to which the humbler classes in these populous
districts are subject might be, to a great extent, removed by cleansing, draining,
and improvements in building ? — Every day's experience convinces me that a very
large proportion of these evils is capable of being removed ; that if proper atten-
tion were paid to sanatory measures the mortality of these districts would be most
materially diminished ; perhaps in some places one-third, and in others even one-
half.

" But great as the mortality from these causes may be, do you think the mor-
tality alone includes the whole of the evil ? — Certainly not; the number of people
who die can be taken only as an indication of the much greater number who fall
sick. The mortality, even of the London Fever Hospital, to which the worst
cases of fever in the metropolis are sent, is not, on an average of ten years, more
than one in seven ; in some years it is not more than one in ten or twelve, and,
comparing the number attacked with the number that die over the whole kingdom,
tbe mortality would not, in ordinary years, amount to one in twelve : so that the
number of sufferers from this disease is at least twelve times greater than the
number of persons that actually perish from it.

" The classes of the population referred to are chiefly those occupied in labour ;
in case of their being affected by fever they are, of course, disabled from ob-
taining subsistence for their families? — This is among one of the most powerful
causes of pauperism. The returns made in the year 1838 to the Poor Law Com-
missioners from the twenty metropolitan unions, in answer to queries sent to the
medical officers, with a view to ascertain the actual prevalence of fever during one
year, contained columns to show the number of persons receiving parochial relief
in the several unions, as well as the number actually attacked with fever. Prom
these returns it appears, that of the total number who received parochial relief in
most of tbe districts a very large proportion received it in consequence of their
being ill with fever ; but in one district, namely, St. George's, Southwark, out of
1467 persons who received parochial relief, 1276, that is, the whole number with
tbe exception of 191, are reported to have been ill with fever. This is an unusually
large proportion ; but these returns in general place in a very striking point of
view the pauperizing influence of fever."

We can only afford to add the following paragraphs on this subject, which
shows in a striking light the economy in ready money of improving the sanitary
condition of the people as well as the social evils of domestic discomfort.

" You have to a certain extent stated that in the Supplement alluded to, where
you say, ' The cost of these parishes, for the relief of their fever cases, amounts
to a large sum. By the returns from the Bethnal-green and Whitechapel Unions,
it appears that the extra expense for fever cases for the quarter ending Lady-day,
1838, is: to the Bethnal-green, 216Z. 19«. ; to the Whitechapel Union, 400/.;
altogether 616?. 19s.' And you go on to say, — 'Thus, at the rate of the last

quarter, there will be incurred, during tbe present year, for tbe relief of fever cases
in these two parishes alone, the sum of 2467/. 16s.?' — That is perfectly correct,
being drawn from accurate data, from the books of those particular parishes ; and
I think that it may be taken as a sort of indication of what the saving might be.

" Does the want of a decent and cleanly house for the men, when they come
home, produce any effect on their habits? — The moral influence of filth and dis-
comfort has never been sufficiently attended to. That influence is in the highest
degree anti-social. The wretched state of his home is one of the most powerful
causes which induces a man to spend his money on strictly selfish gratifications : he
comes home tired and exhausted: he wants quiet ; he needs refreshment: filth,
squalor, discomfort in every shape, are around him ; be naturally gets away from it
if he can."

These remarks apply not merely to London, but to every large town in the
kingdom, and especially to Liverpool, which is the most unhealthy town in
England.

Sewerage and Drainage. — On this subject Dr. Southwood Smith observes :

" In any legislative provision with respect to drainage, I wish particularly to
direct attention to the importance of making such regulations as shall secure the
proper construction of drains. I suppose the question of the paramount necessity
of adopting some general measure for drainage to be settled. I take it for granted
that the overwhelming evidence which has been adduced to show how much the
health and even the life of the community depend on this, has entered into the
legislative mind as it has into the public mind. Then, if any general measure
enforcing drainage be contemplated, it is of the last importance that the enactments
should be such as will really secure the end in view ; and that they should not be
such as will add to the evils they are intended to remove.

" Will you state the result of any observation and consideration of your own on
this subject? — The great principle in regulating the construction of drains appears
to me to be to make such provisions as will secure their being really conduits, not
reservoirs — pipes, through which the refuse matter is carried away, not receptacles
in which it is deposited and detained.

" Have you any observations to make as to the means of accomplishing this
objeet? — Experience has shown that this object, namely, the complete and rapid
transmission of noxious matters, may be materially facilitated by giving to tbe
bottom of the drains a particular form, that is, a semi-circular form, instead of
making them with flat bottoms.

" Have you any observation to make as to tbe importance of providing for drains
an abundant supply of water? — Yes, it is quite obvious that it cannot matter in
the least what pains are taken with tbe construction of the drain, so as to give to
it the form, the diameter, the fall, and so on, which scientific observation may show
to be the most effectual — it is plain that all this must be useless, and that all the
cost of making it must be entirely wasted, if it is not amply supplied with water.
No drain can be efficient through which there do not flow currents of water. If,
in any particular case, it be not practicable to cause a current of water to be con-
stantly flowing through a drain, then contrivances must be adopted to cause currents
to flow through it, at regular and no distant intervals. Without a provision for
this regular and abundant supply of water, drains not only fail in accomplishing
their object, but they become positively injurious. They generate and diffuse the
very poison, the formation of which it is their object to prevent. When the animal
and vegetable matters contained in a drain are not regularly and completely washed
away, they become stagnant; a deposit is regularly formed; the matters consti-
tuting this moist and semi-fluid deposit are placed under circumstances highly
favourable to their decomposition ; at regular distances along all the great tho-
roughfares close to the pavement, and opposite the doors of dwelling-houses, are
placed gully-holes, most conveniently situated for the regular escape of tbe poison
as it is formed. In this manner a drain may become at once a laboratory in which
poison is generated on an immense scale, and a conduit by which it is effectually
spread abroad ; and the extent to which at present poison is actually thus generated
and carried forth may be accurately measured by every inch of drain which is not
regularly washed by a good stream of water.

" Have you met in your own practice with any instances of mischief occasioned
by the escape of noxious gases from tbe sewers in tbe streets and houses? — I
have been struck with the number of cases of fever in houses opposite gully-holes.
I have observed that when fever once attacks any one member of a family in such
a situation, it commonly attacks several individuals, and that tbe disease is generally
severe — that is, it becomes in its progress typhoid.

" Do you think this is common ? — It is certain that other medical men have
made similar observations. I remember one of the medieal witnesses, examined
by the former Committee on the Health of Towns, states that of all cases of severe
typhus be bad seen, eight-tenths were either in houses in which tbe drains from
the sewers were untrapped, or which, being trapped, were situated opposite gully-
holes."

These remarks are fully corroborated by the evidence of many other
eminent medical men, but we have not space to record their observations.
We may here, however, introduce the very elegant and scientific elucidation
of the benefits of tbe system of irrigation we have commended, that is given
by the eminent and estimable physician from whose evidence we have
already so largely quoted.

Mutual compensations of tlie animal and vegetalle kingdoms. — " You think,
under proper regulations, it would be found practicable to make tbe very refuse
removed go far towards defraying the expense of constructing and managing the
drains and sewers by which it is removed? — Yes ; and I think there is a reason for
this expectation which has a deeper foundation than is apparent on a superficial view
of the subject. There are certain adjustments established between the physical and
the organic kingdoms, and between the two great divisions of the organic kingdom,

194

The Health of Towns.

[September

which we should do well to hear in mind even in the most practical consideration
of this matter. We know that atmospheric air is equally necessary to the life of
plants and animals, but that they produce directly opposite changes in the chemical
constitution of the air : the plant giving off as excrementitious that principle of the
air on which the animal subsists, and living upon that part of it which the animal
rejects as excrementitious; while the animal, in its turn, restores to the air the
principle which constitutes the food of the plant, and subsists upon that which the
plant has rejected as no longer useful to it. In this manner these two great classes
of organized beings renovate the air for each other, and everlastingly maintain it in
a state of purity and richness. On this beautiful adjustment depends this further
principle, equally at the foundation of all rational and efficient sanatory regulations,
namely, that the very refuse of the materials which have served as food and cloth-
ing to the inhabitants of the crowded city, and which, if allowed to accumulate
there, invariably and inevitably taint the air, and render it pestilential, promptly
removed and spread out on the surface of the surrounding country, not only give it
lieal tlifulness, but clothe it with verdure, and endue it with inexhaustible fertility.
These are great laws of nature, which are now well known to us ; a due conformity
with which would bring us health, plenty, and happiness, but which we can-
not disregard any more than we can disregard any other physical law without
suffering, and perhaps destruction. Do we act in conformity with these laws ? I turn
to the Report on the Sanatory Condition of the Labouring Population, and I find the
following account of the actual state of things : — 'Within the town we find the
houses and streets filthy, the air foetid — disease, typhus and other epidemics, rife
among the population, bringing in the train destitution, and the need of pecuniary
as vvell as medical relief — all mainly arising from the presence of the richest mate-
rials of production, the complete absence of which would in a great measure restore
health, avert the recurrence of disease, and, if properly applied, would promote
abundance, cheapen food, and increase the demand for beneficial labour. Outside the
afflicted districts, and at a short distance from them, as in the adjacent rural districts,
we find the aspect of the country poor, and thinly clad with vegetation, except rushes
and plants favoured by a superabundance of moisture, the crops meagre, the labour-
ing agricultural population few, and afflicted with rheumatism and other maladies,
arising from damp and an excess of water, which, if removed, would relieve them
from a cause of disease, the land from an impediment to production, and, if con-
veyed for the use of the town population, would give that, population the element of
which they stand in peculiar need, as a means to relieve them from that which is
their own cause of depression, and return it for use on the land as a means of the
highest fertility. The fact of the existence of these evils, and that they are remov-
able, is not more certain than that their removal would be attended by reductions
of existing burthens, and might be rendered productive of general advantage, if due
means, guided by science, and applied by properly qualified officers, be resorted to.'
If there be auy truth in these statements, it is surely worth while to consider how
far it may be practicable to lessen the present heavy expense of drainage, and what
means are at our command of turning the refuse matters to account, so as partly, at
least, to defray the necessary cost of drainage."

Ventilation. — Dr. Southwood Smith gives a number of instances, pointing-
out the pernicious effects of a deficient ventilation, not merely in close alleys,
cellars, and other filthy places, but in workshops, where a number of persons
are continually breathing the same polluted atmosphere. In tailors' work-
shops in particular these evils are active and conspicuous ; and the heat of
the stoves and irons, and the fumes of candles, when added to the closeness
consequent on the congregation of a multitude of persons into a small com-
pass, produce such an oppression that workmen from the country sometimes
faint under their influence ; while upon the more seasoned hands their effect
is to encourage the use of spirits or other stimulants ; and out of a want so
simple, and yet so exigent, as that of fresh air, habits of confirmed intempe-
rance very often arise. Indeed, in workshops of every description, there is,
with very few exceptions, a great disregard of the health and comfort of their
inmates, for we find very few of them warmed or ventilated ; though such
improvements would, we are confident, be a good economy. We have often
heard the workmen of Messrs. Maudslays' factory complain of headache, gid-
diness, and other indispositions, from the closeness of the atmosphere to be
met with there ; and we believe the evil obtains very widely. Its perpetu-
ation, however, is due, we think, rather to ignorance, or want of thought,
than to cupidity, for the evil could be remedied by a very trivial outlay ; and
we find the want of ventilation to have risen to a most injurious pitch, even
in cases where no expense had been spared to produce a perfect structure.
Dr. Arnott relates that a house specially constructed for the reception of
about sixty monkeys, in the Zoological Gardens, proved fatal in a mouth to
fifty of them, and left the rest in a dying state, merely because it was so cu-
riously fitted to exclude the cold, and by its nice workmanship prohibited
ventilation. A school of boys, in the neighbourhood of London, he found to
be nearly all ill from the same cause that killed the monkeys, while all the
time the cause of the malady was unsuspected.

It is very important that these facts should be generally known, so that the
simple expedient of ventilation may be adopted in all such cases. And to
ventilate a room, all that is necessary, in ordinary cases, is to have an open-
ing near the floor to let the fresh air in, and a somewhat smaller opening near
the ceiling to let the impure air out. The space beneath the door will gene-
rally suffice for the ingress orifice; while, for the other, as good a plan as any
appears to be, to have a tube near the ceiling, communicating with the chim-
ney. The draft of the chimney will draw the air in by this opening, and a
very effectual ventilation may be thus maintained.

Factories and workshops, of course, require more artistic expedients for
their purification, yet there are very few cases, even among this class of struc-

tures, in which the desired end may not not be obtained at a very inconsider-
able expense.

Upon the subject of defective ventilation Dr. Guy, Professor of Forensic
Medicine at King's College, makes the following remarks : —

Consumption caused by defective ventilation. — " You have stated that though
there are relatively more cases of consumption among the artizans of the metropolis,
nevertheless the tradesmen who die of that disease are cut off at an earlier ane.
How do you explain this? — The class which 1 have designated as artizans includes
the whole body of labouring men, of whom a laige proportion either use strong exer-
tion within doors, or are employed out of doors ; and I have ascertained that the
consumptive patients of both classes live longer than men following sedentary occu-
pations within doors, and longer than the class of tradesmen. It is this which gives
to the entire class of working men this slight advantage over the tradesmen of the
metropolis. This is shown in the following comparison : —

" Deaths from consumption under 30 : — in-door, 37-J per cent. ; tradesmen, 33
per rent. ; out-door labourers, 25 per cent.

" In-door and sedentary, 44 per cent. ; tradesmen, 33 per cent. ; in-door, usinw
great exertion, 31-g- per cent.

" The deaths under 40 in the three classes have nearly the same relation to each
other as those under 30. In other words, the tradesmen of the metropolis hold an
intermediate place between those who work out of doors and those who work
in-doors ; and between those who use little and those who use much exertion in
their in-door occupations.

" Do we understand you to assert that men who follow their employments out of
doors, though exposed to all the inclemencies of the weather, are less subject to
consumption, and that when they die of it, they die at a later age than men who work
in-doors, and are protected fiom the weather? — Yes. Both men and women who
follow their employments out of doors possess this advantage ; and it is not the
labourer only who is comparatively exempt, but even the hawker who stands about
in the streets and markets, and who probably uses little more exertion than the
majority of those who work within doors. It is not, theiefore, to exercise, but to
the open air that they owe this advantage."

Water supplies. — In any improved system for supplying towns with water,
it is, of course, a thing indispensable that there shall be a constant supply.
The whole array of butts and ball-cocks, by which much of the water of the
metropolis is at present contaminated, may thus be done away, and smaller
pipes for the distribution of the water will serve ; for the delivery will be then
extended over the whole day and night, which has otherwise to be accom-
plished in an hour or two.

The pipes of water companies absorb the largest amount of their capital ;
and are, in fact, the chief source of expense ; and after the pipes are laid, any
addition to the quantity of water passing through them is the occasion of only
a very trivial additional expenditure.

Mr. T. Hawksley, the designer and constructor of the Nottingham water
works, gives the following evidence on this subject: —

" Is what is usually called the ' waste of water' prevented in your works by an i
extra number of men ? — The fact is directly the reverse. The constant supply is I
the means of a large economy of men. Our company has maintained its supply by t
night and by day ever since its establishment, except during a period of one month, ']
when, for the purpose of experiment, the water was shut off at ten in the eveiiin"
and turned on again at five in the morning. It was then found that it would be
more expensive to keep extra turncocks, do extra repairs to valves, draw plugs to
cleanse the pipes, and attend to complaints. The original plan was therefore re-
sumed. We find that one experienced man, and one boy of about eighteen years
of age, are, on the system of constant supply, quite sufficient to manage the distri-
bution of the supply to about U000 tenements, and keep all the woiks of distribu-
tion in perfect repair, including cocks, main pipes, service pipes, and the tenants'
communication-pipes, to the extent they are laid under the public highways. The
Old Company has adopted the system of the Trent Water Company, and now
maintains a constant supply. Any company that possesses an ample quantity of
water at its works, and a sufficient reservoir in an elevated situation, may adopt
this mode of supply without difficulty or disadvantage, and indeed the difficulty
and disadvantage is far from insuperable when an elevated reservoir cannot be
obtained.

" The term 'waste ' would imply an excessive expense for the pumping of water.
Now it appears fiom one instance, cited by Mr. Wicksteed, of the duty of a steam-
engine of good construction, that by this one single pumping-engine, vipon the expan-
sive principle, and with coals costing 12s. per ton, with labour and stores, and all
except the interest on fixed capital, the cost of raising 80,000 gallons of water 100
feet high, was Is.; that by another, Taylor's Cornish engine, 1 lb. of coal converted
into steam raises 10,000 gallons of water 10 feet high : in other words, if a room
20 feet square were filled 4 feet deep with water, 1 lb. of coal converted into steam
would overcome the friction of the engine, and raise that water into a room 10 feet
above it. Does your own experience justify the conclusion from such instances,
that when the machinery and distributing pipes are fixed, and there is an unlimited
supply of water, as from a river, the expense of pumping additional quantities is
inconsiderable as an element of calculation? — Assuming the possibility of varying
our works without cost, the experience at Nottingham is to this effect, that we
could give eight or ten times the present unlimited supply for about a double
chargo; that we could raise all the water now taken SO feet higher by increasing
the charge 5 or 6 per cent. ; and that were we to lower the head to half its present
height, the saving of expense would not exceed 6 or 7 per cent, on the gross charge
to the tenant. The answer may be otherwise given, thus : The Trent Water Com-
pany supply houses at an annual average charge of about 7s. 6d., at any level re-

1814]

The Health of Towns.

195

quired, even into the attics of four or five story buildings; if the supply were af-
forded to the level of the pavement only, the charge could not be reduced more
than Gd. per house, or for the labourers' tenement not more than 4</.

" It is stated that the daily supply of the metropolis is equal to a lake of fifty
acres of a mean depth of 3 feet,- what, on Mr. Wickstced's estimate, would be the
additional expense incurred if the supply were doubled and the additional quantity
were raised by pumping 150 feet high?— On Mr. Wicksteed's experience the
expense would be 25/. 10s. per diem, or 9,300/. per annum, which, as about 200,000
houses are supplied by the companies, when divided gives llrf. per house per
annum for the expense of the pumuing to a height of 100 feet, or 16%d. of pumping
to a height of 150 feet. I wish it," however, to be understood that I do not concur
in Mr. Wicksteed's mode of estimating the cost. It is quite true that the expense
of pumping forms, in nearly all cases, but a small portion of the total charge to the
tenant; but Mr. Wicksteed's statement would afford a result fallaciously low.
Mr. Wicksteed's engine uses less coal, but employs more capital, so that the saving
is rather apparent than real. And again, the London and many other Companies
would be unable to obtain a supply of fuel at the price assigned by Mr. Wicksteed.

" In respect to the apprehension expressed, that if the system of constant supply
at hi"h pressure were adopted much larger mains would be required, what is the
evidence of fact and experience ?— Directly the reverse of the hypothesis. If the
supply of water for ordinary purposes be the only consideration, then, for the same
reason that smaller pipes do suffice or the tenants' communication-pipes, smaller
mains will suffice for the system of constant supply at high pressure. Where
20-inch mains are used on the system of periodical supply, 12-inch mains would
amply suffice for the system of constant supply ; instead of the 7 and 6'-inch mains,
5 or 4-inch would suffice ; instead of 3-inch service-pipes for the occasional supply,
2-inch would suffice for the constant supply; indeed, for constant conveyance, sizes
much smaller than these would answer the purpose; but as there are irregularities
of draught, it is needful to provide accordingly. The objection of Mr. Wicksteed
is founded upon a supposed state of things which never does occur, namely, of all
the pipes discharging water at the same time.

" It appears that of each thousand gallons which you may sell for 2-85U, or
Dearly 3d, that the total or general charges, exclusive of the interest of capital,
amount to 142d. (or a little less than lid.), for this same thousand gallons ?—

Yes.

"And of this 079(/., or about %d., applies to charges for management, salaries,
taxes, rents, law charges, and certain items for repairs and wages, which would
diminish if the quantity pumped were greatly increased ? — Yes.

" And 024d., or about id., applies to charges for attendance on machinery and
cleansing the reservoirs, which would be partially diminished by an increase of the
quantity of water? — Yes.

" Then, in fact, there remains only 0"39c/., or less than id., out of neaily L^.,
per thousand gallons, to defray charges such as coals, hemp, leather, oil and tallow,
repairs of machinery, &c, which are strictly proportionate to the quantity of water
delivered ? — Yes."

The following information, given by this highly competent witness, will
interest our practical readers : —

" You have stated that, on the system of constant supply at high pressure, smaller
instead of larger mains would suffice. It has been stated that at one town, where a
high pressureDwas put on old mains and distributary pipes constructed for a low
pressure the pipes which burst were very few, and the inconvenience (which it was
anticipated would be very great) was inconsiderable. Does your practical experi-
ence enable you to express a confident opinion that the mains and ordinary distri-
butary pipes for the system of periodical supply would not be required to be exten-
sively superseded, and others of greater thickness substituted for the application of a
system of constant supply, under a system of moderate high pressure, such as that
contemplated?— Yes; the amount of pressure does not practically enter into the
determination of the thickness of the metal of main pipes. Any thickness at which
mains can in the regular course of foundry business be cast will afford many times
the strength requisite to retain water under a pressure of 150 feet. In fact, pipes
are proportioned according to the difficulty of runuing the metal and adjusting the
core • and in practice, it is customary to prescribe a thickness of, at most, ouo-fifth
the square root of the diameter ("18 Vd), a proportion which has no reference
whatever to the strain arising from the pressure. Pipes are now cast lighter than
formerly, although the piessure under which water was usually transmitted has
been increased.

" Be so food as to explain the method by which you ascertain the dimensions
of pipes for a constant supply to the attic stories ?— Assuming the case of a street
of houses 600 yards long, I proceed thus :— I first ascertain, perhaps by the parish
books, the numbers and rentals of the houses; I then estimate the consumption of
water'in each house in gallons at 12$ V rent in pounds, which I find by experience
to afford a result as accurate as the nature of the inquiry will permit.

This gives for houses of 6/. rent 40 gallons per diem.
„ 10/. rent 56 „

„ 20/. rent 88 „

50/ rent 163
100/. rent 260
200/. rent 410
500/. rent 756

To obtain a proper practical taper, I divide the length of the pipe into portions
of about 200 yards, and assign to each the quantity of water to be conveyed ;

Final 200 yards 13,000 gallons per diem.

Middle 200 yards 11,000 + 13,000 = 24,000
First 200 yards 8,000 + 24,000 = 32,000

I next consider that nearly the whole of the water will be consumed in the four or
five hours elapsing between breakfast and dinner : to err on the safe side, I assume
the delivery to take place in four hours, and that the whole of the water taken off
from each length has to be passed to the end of that length. It will sometimes
happen that the reservoir from which the supply is obtained is nearly on the level
of the attic stories, and that in consequence perhaps not more than 4 feet of head
can be allowed on each length of 200 yards to produce the velocity and overcome
the friction : allowing this quantity in the case assumed, I shall be enabled to apply
the formula,

*^£-«

h
which I have found to apply with great exactness: in this formula (q) represents
the number of gallons to be delivered per hour, (/) the length of the pipe in yards,
(Ji) the head in feet, and (c/) the diameter of the pipe in inches.
" We now obtain the following diameters : —

First 200 yards .... 5^ inches ;

Second ditto 4^- inches;

Third ditto 3-Jiy inches ;

to which, adding half an inch for possible contraction by corrosion, the practical
diameters become 6 inches, 5 inches, and 4 inches, for a street producing, in
London, a water rental of at least 300/.

" What would be the saving in the size of the pipes consequent on the system
of constant supply, as compared with the intermittent system? — The diameters of
the service-pipes and sub-mains are diminished about one-third, and the weights
of the pipes about one-half."

In all cases in which towns cannot be supplied with enough spring water
to serve for the finer uses of its inhabitants, it. is quite indispensable that the
water should be filtered. The following account is given by Mr. Thorn, the
eminent hydraulic engineer, of certain filters constructed by him in Scot-
land : —

" With respect to the filtration of water, have you adopted any peculiar modes
of filtration to which you can speak as having been successful in any places where
you had the superintendence of the supply? — At Greenock, Paisley, and Ayr, I
erected self-cleaning filters. The filter that I erected at Paisley is 100 feet long,
and 60 broad, divided into three compartments, which may either act together or
separately, at pleasure; so that when one compartment is cleaning, the other two
continue in operation. The site of the filters is on a piece of level ground, exca-
vated to the depth of 6 or 8 feet, with retaining walls all round, joined with
cement, and puddled behind, so as to be perfectly water-tight. The bottom is laid
about a foot deep with strong stiff puddle, over which pavement is laid, cemented
so as to be impervious to water. The whole of this bottom is then divided into
drains or spaces, one foot wide and five inches deep, by means of fire-brick laid on
edge, and covered with flat tiles of the same material, perforated with small holes,
like those used in a kiln for drying oats. These holes are placed very near each
other, and are rather more than a tenth of an inch in diameter. There is also a
space of a quarter of an inch left open between the ends of the bricks, which sup-
port the perforated tiles, and their upper edges are little more than an inch broad,
in order that there may be little or no space without holes, and nothing to prevent
the water spreading equally over every part of the bottom of these drains. This is
particularly necessary when the filters are cleaning by the upward motion of the
water. The perforated tiles or plates are covered to the depth of an inch with
clean gravel, about three-tenths of an inch diameter ; this is to be followed with
five other layers of grave), each of the same depth, and each succeeding layer a
little finer than the previous one, the last being coarse sand. Over this there is
placed two feet deep of very clean, sharp, fine sand, similar to that used in hour-
glasses, but a very little coarser; and about six or eight inches deep of this fine
sand nearest the top is to be mixed with animal charcoal, ground to the size of a
coarse meal, each particle about one-sixteenth part of an inch diameter. There is
a longitudinal drain or pipe between the filter and the pure water basin, communi-
cating with both, and on each of the openings between this pipe and the filter there
is a stop-cock to close the communication when necessary. There are also two
drains to carry off the foul water when the filters are cleaning, and another to pre-
vent the water from rising too high in the filter. When the filter is complete, its
action is as follows : — The sluice and the valve are opened, and the water permitted
to flow through the filter into the drain below, until it becomes quite clear. This
will take two or three days when first set to work, unless very great pains is taken
to wash the gravel and sand before they are put into the filter. The filter will now
flow copiously for some weeks, (longer or shorter, as the water may be more or less
turbid on entering it,) and when the quantity passing begins to fall off, the stop-
cocks are shut, and the valves are raised. The water then enters bdoiv, and fills
all the drains; and, having a head pressure of several feet, it will foice its way up
through the sand to the top, and in its passage raise the scales or particles of mud
which have been deposited in the downward passage, and carry them into the foul-
water drain below. If the sand at the surface is stirred by a fine-toothed rake after
the water has been thus raised above it, and a little additional water admitted on
the top through the conduit, it will facilitate the operation of cleaning, as the mud
is always deposited on the very surface of the sand. By this means the sediment
will be carried off, and the water pass through quite clear again in a few hours ; the
valves should then be lowered, the stop-cocks opened, and the opciation of filtering
will a"ain proceed as above described. The cost of this filter was under 6007., and
the quantity uf water produced regularly every twenty-four hours, is, on the aveiage,
10,632 cubic feet. The expense of a filter, therefore, to give a supply of waier
of the best quality for Jami/y purposes, to a town of 50,000 inhabitants, may be

196

Specification of an Iron Steamer.

[September,

safely taken at 800Z. From often finding pure spring-water in the moors, where
the soil fur many miles was composed of peat or moss, I suspected there was some
suhstance in the earth which, hy combining with the tannin, or colouring matter,
rendered the water pure ; and this was proved to my entire satisfaction by a careful
inspection of the minerals in the hills above Greenock. I there ascertained that
the moss water, by flowing over or through a particular species of lava' or trap-rock
(amygdaloid) became fine spring-water. Since then, I have used the substance as a
substitute for charcoal, with perfect success and much economy. A very large pro-
portion of the hills above Greenock being composed of this substance, it may be
had at a nominal price."

We here close our extracts, though with the consciousness that there is a
large amount of interesting information left in these volumes, of which we
have been unable to give any specimen. We would desire to repeat, however,
that the most material part of the question lies in the judicious use of water ;
in supplying it in abundance and of good quality ; in leading it quickly away
after it has performed its purposes ; and in applying the water to which a fer-
tilizing power has been thus given to agricultural purposes, to recruit the land
with those elements of which the crops have robbed it. These are not dif-
ferent subjects, but parts of the same subject ; and any scheme of improve-
ment will be a failure where the whole do not go on together. Some of the
witnesses have expressed their incredulity of the efficacy of earthenware
pipes, for the distribution of water and for sewers, though, as we think,
without any sufficient reason ; for pipes of that description have been tested
with a great water-pressure, which they have been found perfectly competent
to withstand ; and when they are buried deep in the earth, there is very little
chance of their fracture. Besides, earthenware pipes are already used success-
fully for the distribution of water in some places. Tetuan, in Barbary, as
stated in the last number of the Artizan, is so supplied ; and the population
of that town probably amounts to 40,000. Sewer pipes may be made of the
same material ; and we may here observe, that sewers will not only answer
as well, but much better than the present, if made smaller. A house that
is supplied with water by a half-inch pipe may surely be very effectually
drained of water by a three-inch pipe ; and when the pipe is restricted to
such dimensions, there will be no depositure within it, but the whole will
be swept away. It appears very desirable that these sewer pipes should be
glazed on the inside : the glazing adds to the strength, and does not mate-
rially increase the expense ; and the pipes are then still less liable to choke.
In all the accommodations of houses it is important that water should be
abundantly used ; and plans may be adopted, with the aid of earthenware, of
much efficacy and little expense, by which a better system could be extended
even to the humblest dwellings. Precautions, however, should be taken, in
all such cases, against the inconveniences incident to frost, without which the
whole scheme might be a failure.

A good deal is said in this report about baths for the working classes ; but
we have already so far exceeded our limits that we are unable to enter upon
this part of the subjects. Warm baths could be erected, at a very trifling ex-
pense, in the vicinity of steam-engines ; the hot water of which — and which
in the ordinary course of working runs to waste — being made instrumental to
the uses of the bathers. The working classes in most of our large towns seem
to be very resolutely bent upon the realization of this improvement ; and we
hope to see the aspiration become universal, and more ardent. There is an
improvement made manifest even by the perception of these wants that is full
of promise, and which only requires to be stimulated and cherished to be
productive of the most important fruits.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate XXIII. represents London as intended to be restored by Sir Chris-
topher Wren ; and which we have introduced not merely as an interesting
document that is rarely met with, but as an illustration of the waste of power
in the present circuitous thoroughfares of the city. We do not know that
anything can show more clearly the necessity of legislative interference in
working out great municipal improvements than this silent plan ; for had such
interference been persisted in at the time of the great fire, London would not
only have been the finest city in the world, but a vast expenditure of health
and money would have been saved to the country. This plan was furnished
to the commissioners by Mr. Williams, Professor of Geodesy at the Putney
College ; and may be referred to with advantage in laying out towns, and plan-
ning metropolitan improvements.

Plate XXIV. contains a plan of London according to its present configura-
tion, with the contour lines laid down, of which we have already given an
explanation.

Plate XXV. contains designs for houses for the poor, by H. Austen, Esq. ;
but we cannot say that they have our approbation. The ascent to the upper
stories should, in our opinion, be by a common stone winding stair, as in the
houses in Scotland. We think, nevertheless, that the plan of galleries
might be adopted in some cases with advantage, in houses of a superior
description ; but in the houses reared for the poorest part of the population —
with which, as we have already said, improvement must begin — all such
fineries as balconies and platforms must be foregone. The first thing is, to
make the dwellings of the poor wholesome : — they may be made picturesque
after this is done, but not until then.

Art. II.— SPECIFICATION OF AN IRON STEAMER.

The Peninsular and Oriental Steam-Navigation Company lately offered several
premiums, of which the highest was 100/., for the best, second-best, &c.„
specifications of an iron steam-vessel of large dimensions, suitable for the navi-
gation of the Indian seas. These premiums have very recently been awarded,
and although several experienced engineers were among the competitors, the
first prize has been awarded to an apprentice ! whose specification and draw-
ings were adjudged by competent authorities to be superior to all the others.
The name of this precocious engineer is Master Murray, a youth in the em-
ployment of Mr. Fairbairn, of Manchester, or, rather, we should have said,
one of his apprentices ; and brother of Mr. Andrew Murray, one of the
government engineers at Woolwich. We think this young gentleman has
done himself great credit by his present display : it will not merely facilitate
his promotion in the occupation he has chosen, but will lead him to aspire
after a higher measure of excellence ; and the spectacle of such achievements
is, we think, calculated to rouse the ambition of other apprentices throughout
the country. This specification, with which we have been obligingly fur-
nished, is as follows : —

Specification for the Hull of a Steam Ship, of the following dimensions, for
the Service of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company,
to be propelled by two Engines of 400 horse power collectively.
Eleven Hundred tons. ft. in

Length between the perpendiculars . . ... 1 „n- ft

Ditto of keel and fore rake . . . . . . J

Extreme breadth in way of paddle shaft .... 33 6

Depth in engine room from the top of the floors to the under- "I „. „

side of the main deck J

Height of spar deck ........

Ditto, between decks ........

Burthen in tons, O. M.

11031

Keel. — To be of iron, 9in. by 5in., recessed for the reception of the gar
board strake on each side, to be in lengths as long as can be soundly wrought
and welded.

The scarphs to be 3ft. in length, accurately fitted, and secured with eight
rivets of 1 in. diameter.

Stem. — To be forged of the same dimensions and form as the keel, and
be a continuation of it to about the 15ft. mark, where it is to be 9in. by
3|in. with a recess for the plating of the bottom, in order that the plating
of the cutwater may abut against the plating of the bottom.

Stem Post. — To be recessed in the same manner as the keel for receiving
the plates of the bottom ; to be 6 in. by 4 in. at the head, and to be 9 in. by
4 in. at the keel, which is to be turned so as to form a knee, and be well
secured upon the keel ; or the after-end of the keel may be turned up, so as
to form a knee to which the stern post is to be secured.

The stem and stern post to have projections wrought on the aft-side and
fore-side, to which the keelson and plate bow and stern standards maybe
attached at each deck.

The plates to be secured to the keel with two rows of rivets 1 in. in dia-
meter, and to the stem and stern post by two rows of rivets of 1 in. and of £
diameter, not exceeding 3£ in. from centre to centre.

Rudder Trunk. — To be \va. plate, 12in. in diameter, formed and connected
with the stern post, and a horn and counter rib secured to each side of the
stern post, and wrought round the lower part of the rudder trunk, so as to
form a proper security for the after-end of the plates ; to Be of angle iron
6in. by 3|in. thick. Rudder to be as shown on the drawing.

FRAME.

Room and Space. — Room and space 12 in. for 120 ft. amidships, and then
be gradually increased to 18 in. forward and aft.

Floors. — Amidships for 120 ft. to be of plate, 16 in. by ^ in., with double
angle iron at the bottom, six by 3|in. by £in., and six by 35m. by |in. at the
top ; the upper or inner angle iron to run up along the ribs of the frame to
the 10 ft. mark, with f rivets 6 in. apart.

Before and abaft this the floor plates to be -j^in. thick, formed with angle
iron, in the same manner as the midship floors.

Frames. — Of angle iron, 6 by 3£ by -|in. for 120ft. amidships ; then before
and abaft this 6 by 3 by ■£$. AH the frames for the 120ft. to have reversed
angle iron, 6 by 3£ by -3%, continued from the floors up to the upper deck, so
as to be connected with the plate stringer thereof, excepting in way of paddle-
boxes and sponcings, where the reversed angle iron is to be continued to the
spar deck stringer.

To have a reversed angle iron, 4 by 3 by f , on every alternate frame before
or abaft the 120ft.

The frames to be in as few pieces as possible, and secured together at the
butts with a clamp or scarphing-piece, 4ft. long, of angle iron, to be same size
as the frame, with eight rivets of % diameter.

Keelson. — To be f in. thick, and as deep in the engine room as may be
required to bring the top of it to the same level as the engine bearers ; to
have double angle iron at the top and bottom, 4 by 4jin., and be secured to
the floors by four rivets in each.

The keelson to run forward and aft, so as to be secured to the stern and
stern post.

Sister Keelsons. — To have one in each bilge, so placed as to form the lower

1811.]

Specification of an Iron Steamer.

197

part of the fore and aft bulk-heads of the coal bunkers ; to be 16in. by -1%,
with double angle iron at the bottom, 3 by 3 by f , and single angle irons, 3
by 3, at the top. The spaces between the floors in a line with the sister
keelsons to be fitted with plates, secured with angle iron and made water-tight.
Similar pieces to be fitted under the main keelson, secured with angle iron to
the floors.

Engine Bearers. — To be 18in. by f in engine room, with double angle iron
at the top and bottom, 4 by 4 by Jin. ; to extend fore and aft as far as the
form of the body will admit ; to have short plates Jin. thick between the
floors, secured to the bottom by 3 in. angle iron ; to have four keelsons or
sleepers of East India teak, 6 by 18in., extending the entire length of the
engine room ; on these the sole plates of the engines and boiler platform are
to be placed.

Breast Hooks in Hold. — To have four iron breast hooks, 10 feet long on
each arm below the orlop-deck, of f plate, secured to the frames by 4 by 4
angle iron.

Crutches in Hold. — To have four iron crutches in the after-hold, of f plate,
secured to the frames by 4 by 4in. angle iron.

Trussing. — The trusses to be of plate, |- by 15in., in the engine room, be-
tween the neutral points, and 15in. by y^-Jin. before and abaft those points,
securely riveted to every frame.

Platforms. — To be 3in. deal, laid upon the sleepers in the fore and after-
holds, and so fitted that any part may be readily taken up to clean or paint
the inside of the plating and frame.

Longitudinal Binding Plates. — To have a binding plate £ by 12in. for
120ft. amidships, and tapered thence to stem and stern post to Jin. by 10in.,
riveted to every frame and diagonal truss, one at the bilge keelson, one over
the joints of the frame next above, and one under the toes of the orlop beams,
the lower deck beams, upper deck beams, and spar deck beams.

Ceiling in Hold. — Below orlop deck to be -j^-in. plate, or 2in. East India
teak.

Pillars. — In hold to be 3in. in diameter, attached to keelson and to beams.

Bulkheads. — To have four water-tight bulkheads besides those to the engine
room ; to be secured to the plating by two double angle irons, 6 by 3Jin., or
by single iron, G by 6 ; rivets to be 4 to Gin. apart, plated with § and -j^in.
stiffened by angle iron, 3 by 3 on each side, arranged diagonally, 2ft. oin.
apart.

To have such openings for communication between the compartments as
may be required, fitted with substantial water-tight doors.

It is intended that the foremost and aftermost bulkheads shall terminate
under the lower deck.

The fore and aft bulkheads of the coal bunkers are to be connected with
and form part of the ship.

OUTSIDE PLATING.

Garboard Strokes. — y|in. thick, and not less than 2ft. wide for 120ft.

amidships, to taper from thence forward and aft to J-^ at each end.
Flat of the Bottom. — To be fin. thick from the garboard strake to the 6ft.
mark for 120ft. amidships ; the rest of the plates to the same height to
be |in. thick. Above 6ft. mark to the lower edge of wales -^ in. thick
for 120ft. forward and aft, Jin. thick. Wales to be 4ft. wide of f plate ;
the longitudinal seam to be flush, double riveted.

Plating forward, in way of hawse-holes, to be fin. thick, and for 6ft.
below the holes and 10ft. abaft them. Above the lower deck port-cills
to be Jin. all round to the upper deck gangway-cill ; then f upwards,
excepting the range of plates above the ports, which is to be Jin.

Berthing above upper deck to be ■{'$ and £ plate ; rivets seven per ft.
Riveting. — All to be double riveted, nine or ten per ft. ; above the upper
deck to be single riveted, seven per ft. Longitudinal joints to be lapped to
the wale, above that to be flush. All the butts- to be flush, and double or
single riveted, as the longitudinal joints. No filling pieces to be allowed in
any of the seams or butts.

Slice or wedge pieces are to be fitted into the interstices between the back
of the frames aud the outside plating, before the plates are riveted to the
f.-ames.

Orlop or Plaiform Beams. — To be formed with a plate or angle iron ^ by
9in., with 2 Jin. by 2 Jin. double angle iron on the top and single angle iron
at the lower edge. The be*ams to be spaced so as to have one on every alter-
nate frame. The ends of the beams to be turned down at 18in. from the
ends, and formed with a foot, which is to be riveted to the frame with three
rivets of lin. diameter, and through the outside plating with three rivets of f
diameter. One angle iron on top of beam to run directly through to the out-
side plating, and be there turned and secured with two rivets. Where scuttles
or hatchways are required, the beams to be cast or formed so as to make the
openings of the sizes required.

Plate Stringer on Orlop Deck Bpams. — To be Jin. by 24Jin., extending
fore and aft, secured to the frame and trussing by 4 by 4 by Jin. angle iron,
riveted to every reversed angle iron and diagonal truss plate, and to the
beams with eight rivets.

All the plate stringers being intended to pass through the bulkheads are to
be secured there by double angle iron on each side, 2J by 2J by § thick.

Orlop Deck, Hook and Transom. — To be f plate, well riveted to the
stringer, and connected to the frame by 4 by 4 angle iron.

Diagonal Binding Plate on Beams. — To have diagonal binding plates, 10
by Jia. on the beams, extending as nearly direct as possible from corner to

corner in each compartment, to be riveted to every beam, and to the string
plates at the bulkheads.

Orlop Deck, Bow and Stem Standards. — To have bow and stern standards,
formed of two f plates secured to the beams by double angle iron, 4 by 4, on
plate, 10 by lin., running aft and forward, and to the projections worked on
the aft-side of the stern and on the fore-side of the stem post for that
purpose.

Breast Hook in Orlop. — To have a breast hook 10ft. long on each arm in
the orlop deck of f plate, and double angle iron 4 by 4Jin. thick.

Orlop Deck. — To be laid with Sin. Dantzic deals, secured from below with
wood- screws and -9% screw-bolt and nut from above alternately. The heads
of the bolts to be made circular, and let down flush with the wood by a too
suitable ; white or red lead to be put into all the holes.

Orlop Waterway. — To be of East India teak, 5 by 12, secured with screw-
bolts and nuts, and wood screws, through the plate stringer. Tarred felt, or
a mixture of lime and oil, is to be placed between the waterway and deck, and
the top of the plate stringer and the beams.

Orlop Scuppers.— To fit lead or iron scuppers, to carry the water from the
orlop deck into the limbers.

Pillars in Orlop. — To be 2Jin. diameter, fitted to every alternate beam,
and be connected with them at top and bottom.

Lower Deck Beams. — To be formed with a plate, or reverse angle iron, -^
by 12in. in the middle, tapered to lOin. at the side of the ship. To have a
double angle iron on top, and single- angle iron at bottom, 3 by 3Jin., to be
spaced so as to have one on every alternate frame, and be secured thereto in
a similar manner to the orlop beams. Where openings are required for
scuttles or hatchways, the beams are to be cast and proper framing introduced
to form the openings.

Plate Stringers on Lower Deck Beam.- — To be -Jin. by 24in., extending
fore and aft, secured to the frames by 4 by 4 by Jin. angle iron, securely
riveted, and to the beams with eight rivets.

Lower Deck Hook and Transom. — To be f plate, fitted as directed for
orlop deck.

Diagonal Binding Strakes on Beams. — 10 by J, fitted in a similar manner
to those of the orlop deck.

Bow and Stern Standards. — To be fitted as directed for the orlop deck,
and to be of the same strength.

Breast Hook 'tween Decks. — 'Tween decks to be 10ft. each arm of f plate,
and 4 by 4 double angle iron.

Lower Deck Waterway. — To be East India teak, 7 by 14, secured to the
plate stringer with screw-bolts and nuts, in the same manner as the orlop
waterway, with tarred felt, or a mixture of lime and oil, between it and the
plate stringer.

Lower Deck Spirketting. — Of East India teak 5 by 12, bolted edgeways to
the waterway with f screw-bolts and nuts under the plate stringer ; every 2ft.
secured to the frames by screw-bolts and nuts of the same size.

Lower Deck. — To be 3in. Dantzic deal, 5in. broad, grooved and tongucd,
secured to the beams as orlop deck, and the seams slightly caulked with cotton
or white oakum, made water-tight with marine glue.

Scuppers. — To fit lead or iron scuppers, to convey the water into the
limbers.

Pillars. — To be 2 -Jin. diameter, fitted to every second beam, and be con-
nected with them at top and bottom.

Beams in Engine-Room. — To introduce as many beams in the engine-room
as is practicable, in a range with the lower deck.

Upper Deck Beams. — To be formed with a plate or angle iron of the same
dimensions and security as those for the lower deck, excepting that the lower
edges are to be stiffened by two bars of half round iron, 2 by lin., neatly
finished, spaced and secured in the same manner as those of the lower deck.

Plate Stringer on Upper Deck Beams. — To be Jin. by 24in., extending
completely round the ship fore and aft, and secured in the same manner as
that on the lower deck.

Note. — To be of such breadth' that a straight line drawn from angle of
sponcing shall be within edge of plate.

The stringer to be of greater breadth and thickness in way of paddle-boxes,
and continued before and abaft them, until it falls in to the fair part of the
side.

Paddle, Boiler Hatch, and Engine Beam. — To be of box form ; those for
the engine, and crank hatchways, and boiler room, to be 18 by 14 by Jin.,
with 4 by 4 by Jin. angle iron. The ends formed as per sketch, so as to take
as wide a bearing on the side as possible. Paddle beams to be 22in. by 20in.,
and securely attached to the sides of the ship.

Cartings to Boiler Room and Crank Hatchwai/s. — Box carlings 14 by 14
by Jin., with 3Jin. by 3Jin. by Jin , securely attached to the beams at the
fore-and-after ends ; with diaphragm pieces, in way of half beams, and to
form a complete frame over the engine room.

Half Beams. — To be the same substance and spacing as the deck beams,
and securely attached to the carlings with angle iron and plates.

Upper Deck Hook. — To be fin. plate, fitted as directed for lower deck.

Upper Deck Transom. — To be formed by a continuation of the plate
stringer round the stern, and have an angle iron or turned plate underneath,
as per sketch, 8in. by -j^, riveted to the frames.

Stern Timbers. — To be double angle iron, 4 by 3 by Jin.

mmmm

198

Specification of an Iron Steamer.

[September

The stern timbers are to be disposed to form lights, and to be a continua-
tion of the frames.

The frames abaft are to run up and form the stern timbers.
Diagonal Binding Strokes. The Side Coal Bunkers to form a continuous
tie. — 10 by iin., fitted in a similar manner to those of the other decks, and
arranged so as to clear the hatchways and scuttles.

To have a fore-and-aft binding plate, 10 by^in., on each side, parallel with
middle line upon the beams of upper, lower, and orlop decks, in a line with
the fore-and-aft bulkheads of the coal tanks.

Bow and Stern Standards. — To be fitted as directed for the other decks.
Mast Partners. — To have iron mast cartings and partners to all the decks
nf the same dimensions as the beams, with a plate upon the top 2ft. in
breadth, and ^in thick, securely riveted to the angle iron of the beams and
cartings ; and partners to be laid with 5in. East India teak, 5ft. in breadth.
To have upright mast comings on the main and spar decks.

Bowsprit Partners and Bits. — To frame a secure bed or partners for the
bowsprit, with knight-heads, &c., of East India teak ; bowsprit bitts or step
to be 12in. by 12in. secured to the beams of both decks with chocks, fitted
to form a proper step for the bowsprit heel, and have cartings to both decks,
in range of the bitts.

Carrick Bitts. — To be of English oak, 8in. by 20in., securely fitted and
attached to two beams of each deck, and have cartings of the same size as the
beams, fitted to receive them in the upper deck ; then a plank, 6 by 16ins., of
East India teak. To fit standards at the fore-side.

Pall Pitt. — To be of English oak, 18 by 22, stepped into a carting 8 by fi,
of East India teak, on the lower deck, well secured to the beams, and have
suitable cartings and framing.

The bitt partners to be of 5in. East India teak ; and the decks, in way of
windlass forward, to be of East India teak, 4in. thick.

Windlass. — To be of English oak, 24in. diameter, fitted with Tjzack and
Dobinson's patent purchase iron palls and ring, Gryll's patent whelps and
riding chocks on both sides. The spindles to be 5in. diameter, and work in
brass boxes, all to be fitted in the best and most secure maimer.

Hawse Pipes. — To be of iron, in. in the clear, and fitted in a solid and
substantial manner, with proper bolsters, hawse plugs, and buckler's manger
and manger scupper. The bow to be of additional thickness in the way of
hawse holes.

Upper Deck Waterway. — To be of East India teak, 14 by 12in., to be
secured to the plate stringer in the same way as the lower deck waterway.
Scarphs to be 3ft. Gin. long, fitted with two 3in. coaks of East India teak.

Upper Deck Spirketting. — To be of East India teak, 4in. thick, bolted
edgeways to the waterways, as directed for the lower deck. The stuff from
thence up to be 2in. East India teak rabbited.

Upper Deck. — To be well and thoroughly seasoned, of 3in. Danlzic deal,
or East India teak, secured as directed for the lower deck, excepting that the
bolts through the deck are to be of copper or yellow metal.

Scuppers. — To be of iron, of such size and number as may be required.
Pillars. — To be 2|in. diameter, fitted to every second beam, and secured
thereto.

Spar Deck Beams. — To be formed with a plate, § by 10in., the middle
taperpd to § by Sin. at the side of the ship. To have double angle iron on
top, and two half-round bars at the lower edge, neatly finished. To be spaced
and secured in the same manner as those of the upper and lower decks.

Plate Stringers on Spar Deck. — To be -iin. by 24in. extending completely
round the ship, secured in the same manner as those on the other decks.

Boiler Hatchway , life. — To frame a boiler hatchway, and other hatchways
required for the machinery, and fit them with half beams, cartings, and shift-
ing beams, in the most secure manner, as directed for the upper deck.

Breast Hook. — To have one under the bowsprit, and one above the bow-
sprit, of fin. plate, fitted as directed for the other decks.

Spar Deck Transom. — To be formed by a continuation of the plate stringer,
with 8 by^j under, as described for the upper deck.

Diagonal Binding S/rakcs. — 10 by ^ in. fitted in a similar manner to
those of the other decks.

General Remark on Plate Stringers. — The plate stringers in way of the
paddle boxes are to be continued parallel to the middle line until they reach
the curve of the side before and abaft them.

Spar Deck Waterway. — To be of East India teak, 14 by 7, secured as
directed for the other decks. Scarphs to be 3ft. 6'in. long, and fitted with
two 3in. coaks.

Spar Deck. — To be of East India teak, 3in. thick, secured as directed for
the upper deck.

Planksheer. — To be of East India teak, 4in. thick.

Stanchions. — To be formed by a continuation of the angle iron frames, or
be of East India teak, fitted through proper openings and secured to the side.
Rouyldree Rail. — To be of American elm, 9 by 4in.

Awning Stanchions. — To be of iron, 1-Jin. square at the rail, fitted into
iron plates, &c, as usual

Boats' Davits. — To be of iron, and have one pair on each sponcing abaft
the paddle boxes ; two pair on each quarter ; and stern davits, of sufficient
length and projection to carry the boats clear of the side, and over the rail
when necessary.

Gangways and Side-ladders. — To fit a gangway ladder on each side, with
landing stags, handrails, crane, chain, and small purchase winches to hoist or
lower the ladders when required.

Sheet Bits, 8fc. — To fit such topsail and belaying bits as are required.
Purchase Winches. — To have one double purchase winch, with break, &c
capable of lifting two tons, fitted to each hatchway ; and a crane on each side
forward of the same power.

Capstans. — To have one on the forecastle and one abaft, fitted with sub
stantial iron spindle, partners, pall rim and palls. The drum-heads to be
hooped with brass. To fit Grylls' patent whelps to capstan and winches.

Hatchways, Scuttles, Skylights, and Ladderways. — To frame and complete
all such hatchways, scuttles, skylights, and ladderways, to all the decks as
may be required, with combings, hatches, gratings, skylights, companions, and
ladders.

The gratings to the skylights to be of copper ; those to the scuttles and
hatchways of wood or iron, as may be directed.

Ring and Eye-bolts, Belaying -pins, Cleats and Kevels. — To have such ring
and eye bolts as may be required, together with belaying pins (of yellow
metal), cleats, and kevels.

Stopper Bolts. — To have stopper bolts fitted in main deck of sufficient size

Stopper for Chain Cable. — To fit a chain cable stopper on each side o

such construction as shall be approved by the directors.

Trunks for Chain Cables. — To have iron trunks and lockers for the chain
cables, fitted with suitable bell-mouth scuttles.

Mooring Bitts and Towing Bitts, Timber Heads. — To fit mooring an<
towing bitts of English oak, as may be directed.

To fit such timber heads, as may be required, of African oak, and cove:
such of them as shall be directed with cast-iron casings.

Leading Chocks. — To fit such leading chocks forward and aft as shall b(
directed.

Catheads and Shankpainter. — To be of English oak, 14 by 13in., fifte<
with three brass coaked sheaves, stopper, cleat, &c. ; shankpainter, bill boards
and stools, for stowing the anchors.

Chain Plates. — To be six in number on each side for the fore-mast, five in
number on each side for the main-mast, and four on each side for the mizen
mast, of such size and fitting as may be directed.

Pumps. — To have four iron pumps, 7 in. diameter, with brass chamber
and boxes, besides those in engine room ; cistern and pumpdales to be fitte
complete, on the most approved principle.

Ports. — To be spaced as shown on the drawing, and fitted with bras
scuttles, as shall be directed.

Wheel. — To be of mahogany, handsomely fitted, together with eye bolt
leading blocks, &c, requisite for an efficient steering apparatus.

Tiller. —To have one fitted to work abaft the rudder head, and a span
tiller to fit on the fore part in case of accident.

Paddle Boxes, Spring Beam, Rim Pieces, Suspension Truss-Rods, Bridi
Planks, Houses on Paddle Boxes, &fc. — The spring beams to be of English o
African oak, 14 by 26in., tabled and keyed together, and trussed. The outi
part of the paddle boxes to be framed and trussed in the most efficient mar
ner, and to be planked with 2in. East India teak, and lined with l-}in., naih
with copper boat nails through and turned. The rim pieces, or forks ti
paddle beams, to be either of wood or iron ; if of wood, to be of English oal
lOin. by 20in. ; if of iron, 4in. by 4in., angle iron ribs and fin. plates. Th
sponcings to be fitted with wood or iron gratings, as shall be directed ; and
proper doors fitted to paddle boxes, as directed. To have a suspension truss
rod, 2in. diameter, with proper standards and fittings to each paddle beam ;
two bridge beams, to go through from side to side, and be well secured to the
fore and aft part of the paddle cases with four diagonal iron knees inside the
paddle boxes. To fit such houses and accommodations on the sponcings as
shall be directed.

Boat Chocks on Deck. — To fit swivel chocks for carrying two boats o
deck over the stock pen amidships.

Poultry Coops. — To fit such poultry coops, sheep pens, pigsties, and cow-
houses, as may be required.

Cisterns to Water Closets, Fittings and Scuppers for ditto. — To fit cis-
terns for Water Closets as may be required. Provide and fit twenty-four
patent closets, with service and soil pipes complete.

Coal Ports. — To fit such ports and scuttles for coaling as may be directed.
Head and Stern. — The head to be fitted with cheeks, trail boards, rails,
timbers, gratings, and figure, handsomely wrought and carved as may be
approved, and to have accommodations in head for use of seamen.

To fit stern and galleries as shown in the drawing, with handsomely carved
taffrail, quarter pieces, brackets, balustrade, drops, &c.

Gun Room and Mooring Ports abaft. — To fit ports in the counter, and
mooring pipes abaft, as shall be directed.
Mast Steps — To be fitted as directed.

Fenders. — To find and fit with proper chain swivels and eye bolts four
paddle box fenders of English oak.

Bulwark. — To have l^in. bulwark round the spar deck, with proper ports,
gangways, &c.

Joiner's Work. — To plane and joiner all the wood work with suitable
mouldings. To build store rooms in the hold, orlop, and 'tween decks, as
required (all the bulk heads to be fitted with gratings for ventilation where
practicable) ; mail room, magazine, bullion or strong room, as shall be
directed.

To build state rooms with sofas, and washing stands with china basins ;
cloak pins ; two bath rooms, to be fitted complete ; water and waste pipes
for one hundred first class passengers, and thirty second class passengers ; the

1844.]

The British Museum.

199

commander, purser, surgeon, engineer, chief and other mates, the engineers,
carpenter, boatswain, and other officers. Berths for the firemen and crew.
To build icehouse, cowhouse, &c. To find and fit twenty-four water closets,
of the most approved principle, with cisterns, service and soil-pipes ; all the
seats and risers to be mahogany.

. Ironmongery. — All the ironmongery to be of the best description, and ap-
proved by the directors.

Painting. — All the wood and iron work to have four coats of good oil paint,
and the cabins and deck fittings to be finished in such colours or graining as
may be directed.

Bottom to be coated with a composition to protect it from fouling.

Boats. To have four 30ft. carvel-built boats ; one 30 and one 28ft.

clench-work boats ; two gigs, 30 and 24ft. ; and stern-boat, 20ft. long ; all
to be fitted with suitable masts and sails, rudders, boathooks, oars, wash-
boards, and anchors or grapnels.

Ventilation. — To provide for the thorough and efficient ventilation of every
part of the ship by pipes or air trunks, communicating with the fireplaces or
the funnel, as the case may be. And in order to prevent as much as possible
the inconvenience likely to arise from the rapid transmission of the solar heat
through the plate of the side, a clear space, or air trunk, is to be left between
the cabins and side, in both upper and lower decks, having a communication
with the funnel to draw off the heated air.

Quality of Materials. — The plates to be Lowmoor or Staffordshire iron ;
and the whole of the angle iron, &c. used in the construction of the ship
to be of the best description and quality, and approved of by the directors.
The wood to be thoroughly seasoned, of the best quality of its kind, free
from shakes, sap, or defects.

Tanks.— To provide and fit sufficient tanks for. 15,000 gallons of water,
with proper man-holes, cocks, pipes, and pumps. The tanks to be divided
into masses, containing 64 cubic feet, and be of such forms as to occasion the
least loss of room in the hold.

Anchors. — To have four bower, one stream, and three kedge anchors, of
proper size, of such make as shall be approved of by the directors.

Cables. To have 300 fathoms of bower chain, 120 fathoms of mooring

-chain ; stream cable 120 fathoms, 9in. ; and four hawsers, of 4in., 5in., 6in.,
and 7in. each, 120 fathoms long.

Masts, Yards, and Blockmaker's Work. — To find and fit a complete suit
of masts, yards, booms, and blocks for a barque. The lower masts to be of
teak, or yellow pine. The other spars to be Norway red pine, or equal
thereto in quality.

All the blocks to be either brass-coated, or have brass sheaves, and iron-
bound, excepting where otherwise directed.

The whole to be fitted complete, with ironwork, and patent trusses for the
lower yards, caps, &c, as may be directed.

Rigging to Masts and Funnel. — All the stays and standing rigging to be of
chain or wire rope, and fitted as may be directed. All the topmast and run-
ning rigging and studding-sail gear to be of best Riga hemp and white rope,
fully rove, as may be directed.

Sails. To have two complete suits of sails of the best Coker canvas, or

■equal thereto in quality, of such numbers as may be required. To have a
complete suit of studding-sails for both sides forward and aft.

All the sails to be completely fitted with points, gaskets, &c.

Tarpaulings and Mast Coats. — To have two tarpaulings for every hatch-
way and scuttle on the main and spar deck ; double mast coats, and coats
for the rigging at the mast-heads. To fit a complete set of awnings, with side
cloths, all round the ship ; six windsails, of such sizes as may be required.

Gratings in Waist. — It is intended that the entire space amidships on the
.spar deck over the engine room shall be fitted with gratings, made in such
divisions as shall be directed.

Hull complete for Sea. — The hull to be completed with every description
of artificer's work, ready for sea. The skylights, stern sashes, and other
lights, to be glazed with plate glass. To have such deck and side lights
fitted with brass frames as may be required ; and opening for ventilation, with
proper hoods, covers, and tubes, as may be required ; together with binnacles,
lamps, bells, clock, belfry and bell, life buoys, signals and colours, water
buckets, fire and deck hoses, branches, force pumps, cooking apparatus and
| utensils, apparatus for distillation of sea water, with every other requisite for
the full equipment and finish of the vessel as a passenger ship, so that she
mav go to sea without any extra charge whatever, except for movable furni-
ture, and such other duplicates, not provided for herein, as may be considered
necessary by the directors.

Security. — The contractor to give security for the due performance of the
work as described in the preceding specification, within the period named for
the completion of the several works ; and to give security for such sums of
money as shall be advanced by the directors during the progress of the work ;
and assign the ship, and such materials as are provided for the carrying on
the same, to the directors.

Penalty. — In the event of the contractor's failing to perform the works in
the time, and according to the tenor of the specification, then the sum of
500Z. shall be paid by the contractor to the directors, as liquidated damages.
In the event of the works not being completed, and the ship safe afloat
1 ready for sea, by or on the 1st day of June next, then a further penalty of
50?. per diem shall be paid by the contractor for each and every day that she
shall be detained beyond that time, until the day of her being declared com-
plete, as required by the contract.

VOL. II.

Inspection. — The directors shall have power to inspect the works during
their progress, or to appoint any one to inspect the same ; and if any defective
or improper workmanship or materials shall be found, the same is to be
removed, and made good at the cost of the contractor.

Alterations. — It is understood, that if at any time during the progress of
the work the directors should require any alteration, that the same shall be
made at a reasonable charge, without invalidating this agreement.

In case of Dispute. — In case of dispute between the parties hereto, the
same shall be referred to three indifferent persons, one to be chosen by each
party hereto, and the third shall be appointed by the two persons so chosen.
All matters so submitted shall be decided with the least possible delay, and
that decision shall be final and conclusive.

Payment. — In consideration of the due and faithful performance of the
works described in the preceding specification, and the completion thereof by
the 1st day of June, 1845, the directors engage to pay to the contractor the
sum of pounds sterling, in the manner following : —

1st payment on signing the contract . .

2nd — Frames in place .....
3rd — Plated outside . .

4 th — Beams all in . . . ,

5 th — When launched .....
Remainder when complete ....

Art. III.— THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

We lately made some remarks respecting this structure in the Apprentice,
expressive of astonishment that the opportunity offered for obtaining a first-
rate work of its kind should be treated as a matter of perfect indifference, and
be allowed to pass away, without the slightest effort being made on the part
of those whose remonstrances would carry with them some authority ; and
we find we have still much to say upon the same subject. Difficult is it to
understand why such general apathy prevails in regard to the British Museum,
at the very time when so unusual a degree of interest is affected in all that
concerns art. The distinction, in this particular instance, is not a very flat-
tering one. Almost any other than Sir Robert Smirke would have caught at
a pretext for urging the policy of his being allowed now to improve upon his
first ideas for the facade of his building. Instead of adopting such course,
he seems rather determined to abide by his first ideas, without deviating from
them a tittle ; and assuredly they ought to be most choice and excellent ones
of their kind, for his stock of them is very scanty. Whether he be employed
upon a Post-Office, a College of Physicians, a Club-House, or a national
Museum, he treats them alike as to character, with little other difference than
what arises from size : some of them have more, others fewer columns and
windows, but the very same columns and windows are repeated on every
occasion. Aiming to be ultra- classical, he shows himself to be ultra-prosaic,
and frequently commits very shocking solecisms into the bargain. Not a
touch of fancy is to be detected in anything he has ever done, — nothing be-
speaking the slightest sort of relish for the subject. In regard to the facade
of the Museum, there is one point which is now put beyond all doubt, it
being now but too evident, that, let the centre portion be what it may, the
wings will be of the most mediocre and quotidian character, — nothing more
than two ranges of dwelling houses better built than ordinarily ; but, as ar-
chitecture, not at all superior to the taste displayed by our wholesale specu-
lators in brick and compo. These two features of the general design, so
important in it on account of their prominent position, will be also so essen-
tially homely in physiognomy as to be quite at variance with that monumental
character which ought to be carefully kept up throughout the whole compo-
sition. Instead of proving graceful, and accessories, they will now look like
mere after-thoughts and additions — parts which had not been provided for at
first ; and then, when found to be indispensable, stuck on to the rest, without
even ordinary consideration being given them. That such was really the
case, we do not for a moment suppose ; but, then so much the less excuse for
such very glaring inconsistency in the composition — if composition can be
called what runs counter to aesthetic principles and. artistic feeling. A central
mass requires to be supported by something of similar value at its extremi-
ties, otherwise the latter appears to be merely attached — which, in such case,
is not much unlike being detached ; at least, it looks as if the architect had
got to the end of his ideas before he had reached the ends of his building.
Dismissing the question as to that point, we may now consider what will be
the character of the front of the main building, or the facade " proper." If
the wings may be described as being nearly " all windows," so may the other
as being nearly " all columns :" there will, so far, be much greater display
and " continuity of colonnade " than in any other building in town, and the
columns themselves will be unexceptionable ; for we perceive that the archi-
tect intends to employ the very same, which he has done again and again on
previous occasions, without any variation as to detail, or introducing aught
that can be accused as innovation, or as betraying the conceit of attempting
to modify his order so as to give it some individuality of expression. In
his opinion, the very same degree of enrichment which has served for a Post-
Office, will serve equally well for a Museum ; and, indeed, it must be ac-
knowledged, that if the latter is devoted to art, the other is devoted to letters.
Still many will consider greater ornateness of character, and careful elabora-

c c

■■M

200

tion of style, desirable on the present occasion, and also some more decided
diversity of design, than will now be produced by the merely putting together
a much greater number of columns than usual. Of columns, there will be
no fewer than forty-two ; but, even in regard to them, the effect will fall
very far short of what might be accomplished with the same resources. The
only novelty in the distribution of the columns is, that the centre will have
an additional number of them brought forward, forming a slightly advanced
octastyle beneath a pediment : all the others will constitute only a shallow
colonnade, breaking round the angles of the plan. It is, besides, very ques-
tionable whether the giving two equal rows of columns to the " portico " will
not be attended with more than one inconvenience : in the first place, those
behind will cause that part to look too much choked up by them, and will
accordingly take off from the appearance of depth and space within -. secondly,
the kind of richness so produced is not likely to prove favourable to the un-
varied tameness of all the rest ; and, that it will be tame, we may rest assured.
Sir Robert Smirke is, in his way, a very " Father Mathew" — he would limit
us to the aqua pura of architecture uncontaminated by the addition of a
single drop of " spirit" infused into it. He is, moreover, most timorously
shy of making experiments ; nevertheless, he is now making one of some
magnitude ; for it is rather a bold experiment to give us at this time of day,
and on so very important an occasion, what will be ultimately pronounced a
signal opportunity recklessly flung away.

Surcharged Steam.

[September,

Art. IV.— SURCHARGED STEAM.

If, after steam has been generated, an additional dose of heat be imparted to
it, so as to increase its elasticity without altering its density, it appears that
a greater mechanical effect will be obtained than if the heat so imparted were
employed to raise an additional quantity of steam from water. The proof
of advantage in this application of heat depends, indeed, upon the accurate
determination of the specific heat of steam — a point, it must be confessed,
still involved in considerable uncertainty. But, to diminish the effect of this
uncertainty, we may investigate the amount of advantage of surcharging the
steam with heat under three suppositions : — 1st, that the specific heat in-
creases with the temperature ; 2nd, that it does not vary with the tempera-
ture, but remains at -847, as determined by the most accurate experiments;
and, 3rd, that the specific heat of steam is greater than has been determined
by experiment, being a function of the atomic weight ; and therefore the
same as that of water.

(1.) When air is heated, it expands, and the increments of volume are pro-
portional to the increments of temperature. Every increment of 1° in tem-
perature produces an increase in volume of -^-g-g-th part of the bulk of the air
at 32°. This rule has been found to apply to steam out of contact with
■water.

(2.) The specific heat of steam out of contact with water, is, in this case,
supposed to be inversely as its specific gravity. The specific heat of steam
at 212° = -847.

From these data we may determine the amount of the saving by using the
steam surcharged- with heat after leaving the boiler. The subject may be in-
vestigated as follows, and we may suppose the temperature of the steam to be
212°.

Let t' = temperature to which the steam is raised out of contact with water ;
s = mean specific heat of the steam between the temperatures of 212°

and t' ;
v = the volume of steam at the temperature f, the volume at 212°

being 100 ;
x = the volume of the same weight of steam at 32°, supposing that it

could be cooled to 32° without condensing ;
A = heat required to raise 100 volumes of steam from 212° to t' ;
h = weight of water in 100 volumes of steam at 212° ;
c = heat required to raise the temperature of a quantity of water (= b),

1 degree ;
A' = heat required to generate from water at 60° a quantity of steam

equal in volume to v — 100.

From (1) we have x + xx ,^(212 — 32) =100; or, since ^= -002083,
x + xx -002083x180 = 100; .-.#(1 + -37494) = 100;
100

1-37494
From (1) also we get v = 100 + x x -002083 (f — 212), which, by
substituting the value of x previously found, becomes

v = 100 + -2083 ft' -212).
1-37494

Since the specific heat of steam at 212° is -847, and since we have supposed
it to vary inversely as the specific gravity 100 : v : : -847 : specific heat at the

temperature f, which is, therefore,

•847v
100

; hence we have

(. — — + -847 J ; or substituting the value of v,

S=,(.847+0J1764J^-212)

1-37494 •

= .84? + 000882 (f— 212)
1-37494
But h = (f — 212°) -s -c, which, by substituting the value of *, becomes

h = r -847 (f - 212) + 000882(^-212)^ .Q

1-37494 J

earn produced by heating i
; and the water in an equal volume

Now the addition to the volume of steam produced by heating it from 212°

tof~,-100 = -2083(''-212>.
1-37494

may be found by this proportion : —

100 • b '2083 (*' — 212) . ^002083 (f — 212) -b

1-37494

1-37494

weight of water in a

quantity of steam whose volume is at 212° v — 100. Hence, supposing the
latent heat of steam to be 1000°, we have

h = (1000 + 150) -e x -002083(^-212) = 2-3954 {if - 212) -e

1-37494

1-37494

Now, since h = heat required to produce an additional volume of steam
equal to v — 100 by heating the steam out of contact with water; and since
h' = the heat required to make the same addition to the volume of the steam
by generating it from water, it follows that the saving of heat, by using the
former method, is

_ h_ 2-3954 (jt'-212)-c_

h' — h

1-37494

{'

847 (<'— 212) +

■000882 (<'— 212)2"
1-37494 .

'C)

which, reduced, = 1-2308 (/- 212) - -000882 «'- 212? -c

1-37494

The weight of water in steam equal in volume to v at 212°, is evidently

v
'b — ; consequently, the heat required to generate from water steam equal

in volume to v, is b'

v 1150c

100

; which, by substituting the value of b

becomes 115o(l + £0283 «' - 212)x
v 1-37494 J

which being reduced, gives the whole heat required to raise steam equal in
volume to v from water

= 1581-181 + 2-3954 (f— 212) .

1-37494

Consequently, by this formula, the heat saved is expressed in parts of the
whole heat used in generating steam in the usual way :—

h' — h-

1-37494

« , by substitution becomes

1581-181 + 2-3954 {J? — 212) c

1-2308 (f — 212) — 000882 (f — 212)3
1581-181 + 2-3954 (*' — 212)
If the steam be heated to 600°, then t' = 600°; and the formula in such
case gives the saving equal to — of the heat used, or fuel consumed, in the

common way. In a similar manner the saving may easily be calculated for
any other value of t'.

The preceding investigation is founded on the assumption that the specific
heat varies inversely as the temperature ; and, supposing such to be the case,
the saving resulting from heating the steam to 600° after leaving the boiler,
would be about |-th of the whole fuel used. We shall next suppose that the
specific heat does not vary with the temperature, but that, during expansion,
a certain quantity of heat becomes latent : in which case, the sum of the sen-
sible and latent heats absorbed by the steam after leaving the boiler (its pres-
sure being the same) multiplied by the specific heat, will give the actual
quantity of heat added to the steam in very simple terms.

From numerous experiments by Leslie and Dalton, on the heat or cold
produced by air during compression or expansion, Mr. Leslie has deduced
the following very simple formula : —

If 9 denote the density of the air, then 45 (— — 6 ) will denote the num-
ber of degrees of cold produced when the air is rarefied to unity ; or it will
represent the heat that requires to be added, so as to keep the temperature
unchanged during expansion. The latent heat of steam is about 1000°;
wherefore, the heat necessary to raise water from 60° into steam is 1000° +
152 = 1152° Fahr. Let us suppose, as before, that the steam, after leaving
the water at the temperature of 212°, is heated to 600°, and, at the same
time that its pressure remains unaltered. As the specific heat of steam, as
determined by the most accurate experiments, is -847, that of water being

1844.]

Design.

201

1-000, the accession of heat necessary to raise steam from 212" to 600° would
be 328°, if there were no expansion or alteration of volume ;

for 1 : 388 : : "847 : 328.
Supposing the steam to be allowed to expand, as the law of expansion is
^o part of its bulk at 32° for each degree of temperature, (see Thomson on
Heat, p. 9,) 100 volumes at 212° become when heated to 600° = 159
volumes,

448t6Jo = lM8}660:1048::100:158'8'°r159-
The density of the steam, when so expanded, will be
100
159
during

— = -629; therefore, 45 (_I_ — -629^

15

its expansion from

__^f) =45(J_
•62<J / V-629

629
100

•629

the heat absorbed by air

to 159 volumes, 45 (_L —-629) =
H29 '

M\\ = 45 (-598359) = 26*025015

•629

1

629
degrees.

As the specific heat of steam, however, is greater than that of air, the heat
necessarv to maintain the temperature of steam during its expansion from
100 to 159 volumes, will be 82°. For, -2669 : 26 : : "847 : 82°. Therefore,
the total heat required to convert 100 volumes of steam into 159 volumes,
is 1152° + 328° + 82° = 1562°, the pressure of the steam being supposed to
be unaltered.

To raise 159 volumes of steam in the common way would require 1831-68°.
For, 100 : 1152 : : 159 : 1831-68°, Wherefore, 183168 — 1562 = 270°, equal
the saving resulting from the expansion of the steam by heat after it has been

generated, 1832 -f- 270 = — of the whole fuel used, instead of , as de-

6-7 7-2

termined by the previous method. This difference, which is but a very
slight one, results from the specific heat being, in the first case, to vary with
the temperature, and in the other case not. It either does or does not vary. In
each case, however, a saving will result from heating the steam in the manner
recommended, of fth of the fuel.

Hitherto we have considered the specific heat of steam to be "847, as first
determined by De la Roche and Berard, and confirmed by Gay Lussac and
other eminent experimentalists. But if, instead of "847, we make the specific
heat of steam the same as that of water, viz., l-000, as would be the correct
number if the specific heats are proportional to the atomic weight, there would
still be a very considerable saving from surcharging the steam with heat. It is
unnecessary to again go over the calculations, but if the specific heat of steam
be supposed to be 1-000, the saving will then be found to be about ^th of the
whole. Taking the average of all these cases, it will probably be near the
truth to say, that the saving resulting from heating the steam to 600, without
increasing its pressure, will be -gth of the fuel commonly used.

Art. V.— DESIGN.

1.. Third Report of the Commissioners of the Fine Arts; with Appendix.
London, 1844.

2. Design: a Paper read at a meeting of the Decorative Art Society. By
Mr. Crabb, V.P. London, F. Calder, Oxford-street. 1844.

The arts of design have certainly received a prodigious impulse of late years
in this country ; partly in consequence of the exposition of Dr. Bowring,
which showed in a very striking light the great superiority in all matters of
taste of foreign artificers and manufacturers ; and partly in consequence of
, the demand for decorative works for the New Houses of Parliament, and
J the judicious measures adopted by the commissioners of the fine arts for
; awakening, by a public competition for the decoration of that structure, the
artistic genius of the nation. The late displays of works of art in West-
ii minster Hall have, at least, made it clear, that if this country has never been
j distinguished by any great proficiency in painting or sculpture, it is neither
from a want of genius among her artists, nor the want of appreciation
among her people ; and, indeed, we believe the conviction is fast coming
home to every mind, that it is from accidental and removable causes that
England has not risen to the same proud position in the formative arts that
she has long maintained in other departments of industry. The chief of
these causes is, in our judgment, the want of national edifices, where choice
and costly works of art might be displayed, and for which such works mi^ht
be purchased, with a fair remuneration to the artist. Greece, in ancient
times, had her temples ; and Italy, in the middle ages, had her churches
and cathedrals, where the artist might not only find a ready purchaser for
;! his choicest works, but might make his merits known to myriads of spec-
tators ; and his ambition was inflamed and his perseverance rewarded by a
concourse of circumstances so propitious. But England, in the present day,
has no such theatre where the artist may show forth his merits and receive
: his due reward ; and his productions are not only disposed of with difficulty,
.' but, when disposed of, are generally shut up in private collections, where
I they can have no public homage to cheer on their creator to fresh exertions,
j and where the genius which animates them, instead of kindling a flame of
j enthusiasm in kindred bosoms, falls dead and powerless upon empty walls.

\

If these views be correct, the first step of improvement, in any attempt
to regenerate the fine arts, should obviously be to supply the deficiencies we
have indicated; and, if the reception of works of art into our churches be
inadmissible, we ought to have a public institution formed in every town —
a sort of polytechnic — where works of art might be exhibited, and for which
they might be purchased. These institutions should be furnished with plas-
ter-casts, and other copies from the antique, and with copies of such of the
ancient masters, by the Daguerreotype process, as are conveniently attain-
able ; but their chief purpose should be to afford a beneficial market for the
works of living artists, and to exhibit the productions of contemporaneous
skill to the people. It is too much the habit with us to regard the modes of
the ancients as fundamental laws, from which there cannot be any deviation
consistently with a just taste ; whereas the fact is, that, however consistent
those modes may be with just taste, there are a thousand others equally so,
and much belter adapted to the existing condition of society. We would
beg leave to insinuate, moreover, that good taste is not an absolute and in-
variable thing, but varies with climate and chronology, so that the con-
formations that were in excellent taste among the ancient inhabitants of
Greece, may be in very bad taste indeed for our times and climate. The
modes of the ancients are properly only objects of reference or com-
parison, not of imitation : they may often give useful suggestions, and often
serve to show how far we fall short of attainable perfection ; but excellence
and progress are impossible, so long as they are worshipped with a blind
adoration. The true imitation of the ancients consists in going to nature
for ourselves, as they did — not in accepting the results which they drew from
that hallowed fountain as answerable to their condition, however unsuitable
to any other. There are some performances, indeed, which call up the
same emotions in all time, at least among people of the same race, and these
works are to be viewed just as if they were of modern formation. The
ancient Greek sculptures, for example, speak to us in precisely the same
language that they held in the days of Pericles ; and although it would be
absurd to make them objects of imitation at Timbuctoo, yet the Greek
form resembled that of modern European nations with sufficient nearness to
make the ancient sculptures applicable to the present uses of society. In
architecture, however, the same rule does not hold : the duplicate of a
Greek temple would make a very incommodious church ; and although such
perversions have been sometimes perpetrated, they cannot be defended upon
any principle, either of good taste or common sense. To the Greeks every
part of their temples had some mystic meaning that was precious to them,
but it is impossible that we can have any sympathy with the emotions thus
created, so long as we refuse to worship Jupiter and Minerva.

Design may be defined to be the delineation of imaginary objects, and
requires, for its successful prosecution, not merely an expert and ready
hand, but a fine and active imagination. Of the higher branches of the
art, which are generally ranked under the head of historical painting, we
do not propose to say much at present, though the report that stands at
the head of these remarks leads very naturally to such an inquiry ; but we
should wish to make a few observations on that branch of design which
consists in the application of ornament to industrial art, and to which Mr.
Crabb's essay is chiefly devoted. Of this essay we cannot speak in terms
of any high praise : it appears to us to be the offspring of a mind of narrow
views and limited information ; and it certainly conveys as little informa-
tion relative to the nature and requisites of design as an essay could well
do extending to the same number of pages. It begins, of course, with the
works of art in Egypt and other ancient countries, and from thence passes
on to those of Greece and Rome, France and Switzerland ; but throughout
all these historical narratives there is no information given of the nature of
those intellectual and mechanical acquisitions by which the power of design
is realized, or of the discipline best calculated to compass the development
of those capacities. It may not be superfluous, therefore, to state, that the
first step in the art of design consists in the power of imitating what we see.
This, indeed, is the alphabet of the art, and the next step consists in imi-
tating what we remember. Both of these things must be thoroughly mas-
tered before the student thinks of going a step farther ; for if there be an
imperfect facility in delineating our own perceptions, there must be a fatal
perplexity when we arrive at that stage where we have not only to delineate
but to imagine. These accomplishments, however, it must be remembered,
are merely mechanical, and cannot of themselves make a great artist,
though of course indispensable to his success ; but the secret of a great
artist's power lies in the capacity of awakening in his own bosom sublime
or pleasurable emotions ; and in the possession of the skill requisite for the
translation of these emotions into such artistic hieroglyphics as are intelli-
gible to ordinary spectators. These hieroglyphics of art, as we have ven-
tured to call them, are in some cases of universal application, and in other
cases not ; for, except in a few instances, they all derive their significancy
from association ; and the symbols which in one time or country may be
significant of a certain emotion, will have frequently a different interpreta-
tion in different ages and nations, just as the association varies to which
they are united. The language of form varies, indeed, as readily, though
not as much, as the language of sound ; and it is as idle to seek for neces-
sary relations in the one case as in the other. The forms significant to us
of vigour and gentleness and vivacity, and acceptable to us on that account,
may he esteemed by the Hottentots indicative only of disease and mortality,
and will fail, therefore, to earn their admiration : yet, in spite of all this,
we find artists trying to prove that things are beautiful by virtue of certain
geometrical proportions — a dogma as reasonable, in our estimation, as if they

202

Des\

ign.

[September,

tried to show that a horse must be called equus by all nations, or water
aqua. That beautiful objects, or objects thought beautiful by us, may have
certain geometrical proportions which it is desirable to ascertain, we by no
means deny ; but we deny that they are beautiful in consequence of those
proportions ; and they would at once cease to be beautiful if bound by acci-
dent or by habit to an opposite emotion.

From these remarks it will be obvious to all who have taken the trouble
of following us, that the next step in the art of design, after having acquired
the power of delineating objects that we see or remember, must be to
acquire a knowledge of the language of art ; or, in other words, to ascer-
tain what emotions, in our own age and country, spring most naturally
from certain forms and colours. It is of course impossible that we should
here attempt any enumeration of the symbols in which art commonly deals,
or any interpretation of the symbols of so extended a language ; but we
may remark, that waving lines are significant, for the most part, of grace,
freedom, and ductility; straight lines, of hardness, rigidity, and decision ;
while small and fragile objects carry the impression of gentleness and deli-
cacy. These impressions are due altogether to the influence of association ;
but colours operate in a different way from forms, and appear to affect the
eye in some such way as flavours affect the palate. Their natural operation
is organic ; but this natural taste is by no means strong, and may easily be
set aside by the influence of association ; so that we see the most beautiful
of the colours excluded from articles of dress, merely because such gaudy
hues are esteemed indicative of vulgarity. There is, however, a beauty of
colours that is independent of association, and also a harmony of colours
which consists in such a balance of the different hues, that their sum will
go to make white light. This equilibrium of colours is a thing of great
importance to the ornamental designer, and, indeed, it is one of the most
precious secrets of his art ; for the best designs may often fail from a dis-
cord among the colours, which a reference to the Polariscope would have
effectually averted.

Such, then, is a rough outline of the kind of information which, as it
appears to us, the student of the art of design should make it his ambition
to acquire. We do not, however, by any means maintain that an artist
may not rise to a high proficiency in his art without any such preparatory
study, or that curious researches in optics and metaphysics will carry him
far on the way to greatness. But we think those who at the outset of their
career acquire some information respecting the philosophy of art, so far as
it is ascertainable, and rise above the associations of their own limited
circle, will be much more likely to rise to eminence rapidly, and to set their
fame on an enduring basis, than if they had been content to adopt such
recipes of beauty as happened to be in fashion at the moment. Rubens
and Rembrandt both dimmed the splendour of their genius from the want
of some such generalizing principle ; for it was not human nature they
painted, but Butch human nature; and it is a vice into which untutored
artists are liable to fall, that they give a national peculiarity to their works,
which restricts the pleasure they ought to inspire to a comparatively narrow
circle. It is to the higher branches of art, however, rather than to the ap-
plication of art to industrial purposes, that this remark chiefly applies ; for
the flowers and fruits and garlands, with which decorative art chiefly deals,
are much alike in all countries ; yet the precautions to be drawn from
general laws are, even in the case of decorative art, by no means super-
fluous ; and in every design we ought to consider not merely in what light
it may appear to ourselves and neighbours, but also how it is likely to be
looked upon by the people of other nations.

We cannot afford, however, to extend these remarks further, as we mean
to lay before our readers a letter from Mr. Hallam to the Commissioners
of the Fine Arts, which will have much more interest for our readers than
our long-winded expositions. We should wish, however, to impress upon
the student the necessity not merely of ardour and assiduity in his pursuits,
but of the need of a steady direction of them towards that particular end
which it is their purpose to accomplish. Mr. Crabb charges the directors
of the Schools of Design — and not without some show of reason — with
wasting the time of the students upon landscapes and other vague delinea-
tions, instead of introducing them to such subjects as were suited to the
exigencies of industrial art. He further says, that the persons employed
as instructors in the schools of design are mere artists, who can, perhaps,
paint pictures and write essays, but are unacquainted with practical design.
If this be so, the evil is one that ought to be corrected ; for in a school of
design the pupil should be made to know whether a design will work
or not' — whether it can be woven or moulded or stamped, and whether, by
some trivial modification which does not impair its beauty, the manufacture
of the article might not be facilitated. A designer who did not know this,
would not be of much value ; and the intent of schools of design, we take
it, is to train up proficient designers.

The following is the letter of Mr.' Hallam, to which we have referred, and
which is headed " Observations on the Principles which may regulate the
Selection of Subjects for Fainting in the Palace at Westminster," and for
which we would solicit from our readers a careful perusal.

" The determination of Her Majesty's Government and of Parliament to restore
the building appropriated to the estates of the realm, in a manner befitting the
national grandeur and the dignity of their functions, has not unnaturally suggested
a wish, that with architectural splendour the excellences of other arts, especially
those of paintiDg and sculpture, might he combined. The commission to which I

have the honour to belong, was expressly appointed to consider how far this might
be carried into effect, for the encouragement of the Fine Arts in England. But
these words seem to intimate a still farther, and it may be said, a still more impor-
tant object than the immediate one of giving additional magnificence to the New
Houses of Parliament — the object of promoting the fine arts in this country, and
raising its general estimation, as a school of painting and sculpture, among mankind.

" It has long been a common remark, that our English painters, and it is chiefly
to Painting that I would now confine myself, with extraordinary merits in many
departments of their art, have not very greatly cultivated, at least in large pictures,
that higher style which we commonly call historical, though comprehending more
than actual history. Few who know what some have done, will ascribe this to
natural deficiency of genius adapted to such work ; but it would not be difficult
to assign several real causes adequate to explain the fact. It is only with one
that we can here have to do, and that is abundantly sufficient. The general size'
of private houses excludes pictures of large dimensions, while our public buildings,
though frequently containing apartments capable of receiving them, have either
not been applied to such a purpose, or, as has too frequently been the case, have
been occupied by works of such inferior merit, or upon such uninteresting subjects,
as to check any desire that might have arisen to see the ait of Painting more ex-
tensively put in requisition. With respect to our churches, it is evident that,,
partly on account of expense, and partly from other impediments unlikely to be
removed, they have in few instances become the depositories of valuable works of
art. It is therefore an important circumstance that, in the plan of the new edi-
fice which is rising under the superintendence of Mr. Barry, several apartments-
will exist of sufficient magnitude to receive larger pictures than can easily find
admittance into private houses, and of as great excellence as the artists of this
kingdom can produce. The competition invited last year for Cartoons, and which
is generally supposed to have drawn forth no inconsiderable degree of ability in the
highest line of art, that of historical invention and composition, was founded on no-
other principle.

" If, therefore, the development of native genius in historical painting, and the>
production of what is absolutely best, ought to be principally encouraged as well
for the sake of the splendour of the new palace, as of placing our successful artists
on a proper footing, it seems that we should be cautious of restraining too much
their talents by any limitation incompatible with their fullest exercise. And here,
as it appears to me, a certain difficulty may arise. No one, probably, would wish
to treat the buildings connected with the assembly of the Legislature, and to be
consecrated, we hope, hereafter by so many improving associations, as mere galleries,
where nothing in the works of the painter or sculptor is to be in harmony with the-
general design. Such would, I conceive, be the worst of two extremes, did it
appear necessary to choose any extreme at all. In our halls of Parliament, or aa
we approach them, let us behold the images of famous men ; of Sovereigns, by
whom the two Houses of Peers and Commons have been in successive ages called
together ; of statesmen and orators, to whom they owed the greatest part of their
lustre, and whose memory, now hallowed by time, we cherish with a more unani-
mous respect than contemporary passions always afford. It is for this reason, that I
do not much interfere with sculpture; though it is not evident that the ideal of
that art, which of course is its noblest object, need altogether to be excluded. Nor
do I discuss the propriety of historical portraits.

But in large works of painting, either in fresco or in oil, but especially in the
former, it does appear to me more than doubtful, whether the artist should in all
instances, and in all parts of the building, be confined to our own British history.
It is impossible for me not to feel my own incompetency to offer any opinion on.
an art which, as such, I so little understand. Still there are truths as to historic
painting which lie almost on the surface. It requires no skill to have observed,
that, in the selection and management of subjects, a painter will prefer, wherever
his choice is truly free, those which give most scope for the beauties of his art.
Among these we may of course reckon such as exhibit the human form to a con-
siderable degree uncovered ; such as throw it into action, and excite the sympathy
of the spectator by the ideas of energy or of grace ; such as intermingle female
beauty, without which pictures, at least a series of them, will generally be unat-
tractive ; such as furnish the eye with the repose of massy and broad draperies,
which is strictly a physical pleasure, and for want of which we soon turn from many
representations of modern events, however creditable to the artist; such as are
consistent with landscape and other accessories.

"Now, if we turn our attention to British history, do we find any very great
number of subjects which supply the painter with these elements of his composi-
tion ? I must, however, observe here, that by subjects from British history, I mean
events sufficiently important to have been recorded, and not such as may be sug-
gested by the pages of the historian, to an artist's imagination. As the sole
argument for limited selection appears to be grounded on the advantage of associa-
tion with our historical reminiscences, it can hardly extend to the creations of a
painter, even though he may attach real names to the figures on his canvas. And
I would here remark, by the way, that the subject of one of the prize cartoons, a
work in most respects of great merit, appears objectionable upon this theory of
historical illustration; since the first trial by jury is not only an event nowhere-
recorded, but one which no antiquary will deem possible as there exhibited. Nor
should any event, as I presume, be deemed historical in this point of view which
was as it were episodical, and which forms no link in the sequence of causation,
affecting only a few persons, great as they might be by fame or rank, without influ-
encing the main stream of public affairs. Even some stories not without relation
to the course of general history, and which no writer would omit, might not appear
prominent enough for selection, where the illustration of ancestral times should be
the leading aim. Yet these might be among the fittest themes for a painter's
composition. To take a single example, I should think the rencontre between
Margaret of Anjou and the Robber, after the Battle of Hexham, upon the verge of
what should be admissible as English history in this particular application to the

1844.]

Questions and Answers interesting to Naval Officers and Steam-Boat Engineers.

203

Houses of Parliament. This well-known story, perhaps, I would not reject, not as
being well known, which does not seem sufficient, hut as having somewhat of a
public importance, according to the common, possibly fabulous, report of those
times. I should, however, did it rest on my judgment, very much hesitate to admit
the penance of Jane Shore, because no public consequences ensued from it; though
I can easily conceive that it might furnish a beautiful picture. In these two cases
it may be remarked in passing, a female form would be predominant ; but for the
most part our history, as might be supposed, does not afford any plentiful harvest
of what is so essential in historic painting. In fact, the most beautiful and inter-
esting women in English history must be painted, if at all, on the scaffold.

" In this part of my observations, I do not anticipate much difference of opinion.
Some indeed have, perhaps, a notion that nothing but parliamentary, or at least
civil history, should be commemorated on these walls. But the majority would
probably be willing to let Trafalgar or Waterloo find a place ; and in general
whatever we read and recollect from Caesar to the present day. Yet with this
extension, it may be much suspected that really good subjects would not be found
over numerous. Battles we have, of course, but I cannot reckon battle pieces the
greatest style of historic art; and since the introduction of field artillery and scarlet
uniforms, they are much less adapted to it than they were. Versailles may show
us what this is good for. And as to coronations, processions, meetings of princes
or generals, and all overcrowded pictures, they will hardly answer the end which
we have in view of displaying the genius of a truly great painter, should we be
fortunate enough to possess one.

" There were doubtless subjects, in the long course of our annals, of a different
kind from these ; and it is by no means my opinion that English history is to sup-
ply nothing. We cannot but recollect that a living foreign painter, of high repu-
tation has, with a sort of preference, resorted to this source for his most celebrated
pictures. It is impossible that the large proportion of those which may hereafter
adorn the walls of the new building should not be of this description. The bias of
public taste in England tends so strongly towards what is called nature, and so little
towards ideality in painting, or even in sculpture, and has evidently exercised so
great an influence over our artists themselves, the motives for selecting our own
history are so obvious, and to a considerable degree, as I would again repeat, so well
grounded, that we can have no reason to apprehend a superabundant influx of more
universal subjects.

" It may deserve peculiar consideration that we have looked to the new building
as affording sufficient space for fresco paintings, and consequently such an oppor-
tunity as has not often occurred for encouraging what many deem the noblest style
of the art. The prizes awarded to the cartoons last year were understood to have
this object, if not exclusively, yet at least with a marked preference. The artists
who entered into that competition, and the public in general, have been led to
expect that a portion of the building was destined for that species of decoration.
Now, I conceive, that every difficulty which a first-rate painter in oil would find as
to displaying his powers upon subjects of modern English history, must exist in a
far greater degree when he has to deal with fresco. Probably there are few, if
any, instances of modern draperies in that material ; meaning by modern, the usual
dresses of this part of Europe during the last two centuries. The fresco style is
associated in our memories with grand and beautiful forms ; with learned anatomy ;
with noble expressions ; with all the poetry of art; hut not with portraits, or such
individuality of character as resembles portrait ; not with anything debased in this
sense by familiarity, as modern dress must be, even if less destitute of beauty than
it is. Some of the pictures of the foreign artist to whom I have alluded, could
not, I presume, have been successfully executed in fresco. What is admired in
oil painting might be ignoble to the last degree in the more ideal world which the
school of Michael Angelo and Raphael create. Let us remember what took place
as to the cartoons. The whole range of our history was open to the competitors ;
yet, among eleven prize designs, and I do not know that the proportion differed
much as to the rest, several represented the early Britons, several more the Anglo-
Saxons, and no one came down below the Plantagenet dynasty. We cannot doubt
that the selection was made in order to exhibit more of the naked figure, and more
breadth and flow of draperies, than any strictly historical event under the families
of Stuart or Brunswick could supply. But would there not be something ridiculous
in covering the walls of our Houses of Parliament with Caesar or Caractacus?
that is, if we determine to exclude all that religion, or mythology, or poetry, or
classical history would offer, and at the same time are compelled to exclude, by the
infelicity of recent times, which prefer utility to picturesqueness, and choose what is
convenient to themselves, rather than what would look well upon a wall, the
most important events; and the most distinguished personages of our annals. In a
larger view, that is, if we give full scope to the artist's genius, neither Caisar
nor Caractacus need be set aside.

" The arrangement adopted for the New Palace at Westminster, may lead,
perhaps, to a reasonable distribution of the paintings which may be chosen for its
decoration. In those apartments which are naturally associated with the business
of the Legislature, such as St. Stephen's Hall, the Central Hall, and the various
rooms belonging to the two Houses of Parliament, our English histc/ry, or possibly,
also, such allegory or mythic representation as bears upon legislation and policy,
ought exclusively to find a place. There would be in this at once a commemoration
of past times becoming the national sympathy, and a just observance of that
propriety in all its accessory parts, which a splendid monument of architecture
requires. But while the whole building is strictly denominated Her Majesty's
Palace, there is one part more peculiarly reserved to the Sovereign. Of this, the
principal apartment is the Victoria Gallery, of great length and magnificence, and
in which, more than any other room, the most excellent works of art ought to be
placed. It is probably here that fresco painting will be employed ; though I must
say I have not so clear a recollection of the plan of the interior, as to know whether
it would be adapted to that style. But if it be so, or even in the case of pictures in
oils being alone applicable, I would with deference submit, that in a gallery set

apart for her Majesty in her own palace, there can be no reason founded on the
analogy of this or other countries for restraining the painters who may be employed
to any conditions beyond those which the general laws of their art, and the due
consideration of the place may impose.

" It is, of course, far from my intention to insinuate that any artist should have
an unlimited choice of his subject, without control of her Majesty's Government,
whether testified through this commission or otherwise. No one, I trust, could
put so extravagant a construction on these remarks. It seems, on the contrary,
essential that the selection of subjects should be entirely reserved for the paramount
authority ; but it is this selection for which, with a view to the greatest possible
development of British genius, I would recommend a wider field, in some parts of
the building, than those who regard only its peculiar character as the seat of the
Legislature are inclined to contemplate."

To this letter, Lord Mahon makes a long and weak reply ; the drift of
which is, to maintain that there are circumstances in English History more
worthy of being represented than any other. If this he so, no harm can
arise from the option Mr. Hallam recommends, as such circumstances
would, of course, be selected.

Art. VI.— QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS INTERESTING TO
NAVAL OFFICERS AND STEAM-BOAT ENGINEERS.

In the last report of the Cornwall Polytechnic Society, a few questions are
given, without answers, as a form for the examination of naval engineers..
These questions, however, are very frivolous, and such as any tyro could
answer ; but the design appears to us good ; and, a few weeks ago, we drew
up, for the Apprentice, certain questions tentative of the capacity of steam-
boat engineers, with the answers thereto. It was our impression that all the
readers of the Artizan read the Apprentice also ; but we now believe that
such cannot be the case, as, during the past week, we have received several'
applications from readers of the Artizan, requesting to be informed of se-
veral points the Apprentice had previously elucidated ; and among the number
are some of the subjects despatched in the queries to which we have adverted.
We therefore reprint these questions and answers here, with such additions
and emendations as will make them more worthy of the-ARTizAN's pages ;
for the Apprentice, it is needless to say, does not aspire to the Artizan's
proficiency.

When you say that you have a vacuum in the condenser of 27 inches
of mercury, what do you imply ?

That the difference of pressure between the atmosphere and the attenuated
vapour in the condenser is equivalent to a column of mercury 27 inches
high.

What pressure is an inch of mercury in the common straight vacuum guage
equivalent to ?

About half a pound.

What pressure is an inch of mercury in the common syphon steam-guage
equivalent to ?

About a pound.

What is the cause of this difference ?

The level of the mercury in the syphon guage falls an inch in the one leg
when it rises an inch in the other, thus producing a difference of level of two
inches, which is the true indication for a pound of pressure ; whereas, in the
case of a straight tabe, the lower level remains stationary, or nearly so.

In graduating a common vacuum guage, should the inches be made rather
shorter than the truth, to give a correct indication ?

Yes, because the level of the mercury in the cistern will subside to some
extent when mercury is drawn into the tube. If it sinks one inch when the
mercury is drawn up to 27 inches, then every inch marked upon the scale
should be -^-th. of an inch too short to give a just indication.

What is the best method of preventing the accumulation of scale in
boilers ?

Effectual blowing off, or the use of brine-pumps.

Where brine-pumps are not applied, how often would you blow off?

Twice in the watch, or once every two hours ; and the blow-off cock
handles should be so made that they can only be taken off when the cocks are
shut, to obviate the danger of the cocks being left open. A good way of
blowing off is to have a small cock constantly running, which comes very
nearly to the same thing as the brine-pump.

Is there no danger attendant on this plan ?

Yes, the small pipe is apt to get choked up, and salt may accumulate to an
injurious extent by the concentration of the water, when you think blowing
off has been all the while going on ; but the same objection applies to the
brine-pumps, the refrigerators of which are liable to get choked up, and
should always be so made as to be easily accessible.

How would you propose to obviate these dangers ?

By providing every engineer with a hydrometer, by which he may test the
specific gravity of the water in boiler, or by fixing such an instrument on the
front of each boiler in a glass tube ; and should the water become too salt,
which such an instrument will show, the fires of that boiler must be drawn,
and the cause of the derangement ascertained.

If your boilers were short of steam, what would you do ?

I would first inquire whether the deficiency arose from insufficient fire
surface, insufficient flue surface, or an unwise expenditure of the steam after

204

Hazlilfs Essays on Art.

[September,

it is generated. In any case, however, I would shorten the fire-bars by
building bricks upon them, if they exceeded 4ft. 6in. or 5ft., if the vessel
were a sea-going one, and had long voyages ; for any excess of length beyond
this cannot be fired efficiently for a continuance at sea, and only causes a
great extra expenditure of fuel, with a diminished supply of steam. If the
funnel gets very hot, I would put a water casing round it, and I would place
a hanging bridge of sheet-iron in the flue at the foot of the funnel, so as to
retain a layer of hot air all along the top of the flue, and which can only
escape after it has undergone such refrigeration as to fall beneath the level
of the hanging bridge. If water passes with the steam into the cylinders,
I would interpose a perforated plate between the boiler and steam chest,
against which the foaming water might be broken, and the steam disengaged,
and I should of course carry the steam pipe from the top of the steam chest,
should it not already spring from that point, by adding a piece of turned- up
pipe to the inside. Finally, I would clothe the boilers, steam pipes, and
cylinders, to prevent the escape of heat ; I would consume the steam expan-
sively, if there be expansion gear; and if there be none, I would work with
the throttle-valve so far closed that the pressure in the boiler would be kept
up to that represented by the load on the safety-valve, though of course
without suffering any to blow off.

What object would you seek to gain by working with a partially closed
throttle-valve ?

Expansive action without expansion gear.
Explain how you attain this end.

The motion of the piston at the commencement of the stroke being slow, a
very small aperture suffices to give the same pressure, or nearly the same,
within the cylinder, that subsists in the boiler ; but as during the stroke the
motion of the piston quickens, this result no longer obtains under such
altered circumstances, and the pressure within the cylinder falls in conse-
quence of the aperture being too small to maintain the pressure at the quicker
motion. The pressure, however, cannot fall without expansion taking place,
so that by closing the throttle-valve you have an amount of expansion repre-
sented by the first and last pressures of the steam within the cylinder.

To gain the full efficacy of this plan, you would require to work with some
lap upon the valve ?

Yes, because towards the end of the stroke the motion of the piston again
becomes slow, and the pressure, therefore, within the cylinder has a tendency
to rise, thereby diminishing the expansive efficacy ; but this result cannot
take place if a moderate lap be given to the steam side of the slide-valve,
which will close the cylinder altogether before the piston arrives at the slow
part of its motion.

What is understood by the slip of the paddle-wheels ?
The difference between the speed of the float-boards and the speed of the
ship.

Is there a loss of power arising from slip ?

Yes, an amount of power is lost equal to that expended in throwing the
water back from the wheels. There is no power lost if the water remain
stationary, and the vessel only move ; but whenever the water is put in
motion by the wheels, there is a loss of power corresponding to the motion
communicated.

Is there ever a case in practice where the water remains stationary, and
the vessel only moves ?

No, and there never can be in the case of paddle-wheels, whether the floats
be feathering or otherwise. The impelling velocity of the perpendicular float
is greater than that of the float which has just entered the water, for the ef-
fective velocity of each is represented by the horizontal distances between
them, and the horizontal distances become less as you rise higher towards the
shaft on the wheel periphery. The effect, therefore, of the floats being dis-
posed in a circle, is the same as if they were disposed in a right line, but
moving at different velocities ; and if the vessel were to go as quick as the
quickest float, or quicker than the slowest, the slow floats would become in-
struments not of propulsion but of retardation. This actually occurs in some
cases in practice, for when the wheel is very deeply immerged, the speed of
the vessel may be greater than the horizontal speed of the entering float, and
in that case the paddle-wheel will carry a sea before it.

Whether is the screw or the paddle-wheel the most effectual propelling
instrument ?

Recent experiments have shown the screw to be the most effectual. Judi-
ciously constructed paddle-wheels of the common kind will give a propelling
effect of about 70 per cent, of the power expended ; feathering paddles about
80 per cent., and the screw about 90 per cent.
What is the best method of driving the screw ?

Gearing is the best machinery we are acquainted with for the purpose just
now ; but it is not unlikely that a better method will be found out. The
teeth of the wheel should be wood, and of the pinion iron chipped and filed ;
and for engines of the size of the " Rattler's," the teeth should be made in
four steps of lOin. each, or 40in. breadth of teeth altogether. The wear of
the teeth will be nearly inversely as the surface, and the surface must be made
great if a durable piece of work is required.

What would you do if your eccentric rod or strap were to break, in the
case of a side-lever engine on a long voyage ?

The eccentric catches are more likely things to give way, but I should, in
the case you have supposed, work the starting-handle of the valve off the op-
posite engine.

How would you accomplish that ?

The piston motion of the one engine corresponds with the valve motion of
the other engine, so that by attaching a rope to the side lever, or other con-
venient part of one engine having the piston's motion, with a large weight to
bring the rope back, the valve of the opposite engine might be wrought.
Would you not, in such a case, disconnect the faulty engine ?
No, that would not be necessary, and might not be possible, but I would
empty the cylinder of the faulty engine of steam, and then allow it to be
moved by the other engine until the valve could be put in connexion with
some temporary mechanism to give it the required motion. Should the pe-
culiarities of the engine's construction not admit of its connexion conveniently
with the side-lever of the opposite engine, it might be put in connexion with,
the cross-tail of its own engine, a piece of wood being lashed to the cross-tail
butt to increase the throw, and communicating with the valve-handle by
means of another piece of wood, by which the motion would be imparted.
If the air-pump rod were to break, what would you do ?
If there were no spare rod, and nothing wherewith to make one, I would
shut off the injection of that engine, and work it high pressure. This would
be the best plan in any case, if you were near port.

Supposing your injection roses got choked, what would you do ?
Inject from the bilge.

And if your bilge-roses got choked, what would you do then ?
Break them, if by the bilge-roses you mean roses in the bilge ; if, however,
you mean roses within the condenser, that could not be done, as roses there
are inaccessible ; but roses are not generally put on the injection from the
bilge-pipes within the condenser. Sometimes, however, both are attached to
the same pipe within the condenser, which is a bad practice : in that case,
however, I would run water into the ship, and partly open the shifting-valve.
If any of your bearings got very hot, what would you do ?
Set the hose to pump cold water upon it.

Is that plan not likely to crack the cast-iron parts of the machinery ?
Yes, if done incautiously ; and I have known the covers of paddle-shaft
plummer-blocks to be broken in this way ; but the application of cold water
must be made by degrees ; and, indeed, it is well to begin with hot water out
of the boiler. The deck-pump is also the boiler- pump, and by turning a cock,
hot water may be delivered on the hot bearing, and by shutting this cock
gradually, and opening the sea-cock gradually, the water may by degrees be
brought down to the temperature of the sea. After the brass is cooled, give
it a little sulphur and oil. If the heating be not very bad, sulphur and oil
will suffice, without any application of water.

If the water gets very low in the boiler from any cause before it is ob-
served, what would you do ?

Quench the fires at once. It is no use to begin setting on the hand-pump,
or even to attempt drawing the fires, for the damage might be done before
this could be effected ; but I would take two or three buckets of water, and
throw them into every furnace, taking care to stand to the one side to avoid
being scalded by the outrush of steam from the furnace mouth ; the fires
will not be extinguished by this discipline, but they will be put past doing
mischief; and should there be any falling of the furnace-crown, this
momentary pressure within the furnace will set it up again.

Suppose your safety-valves got locked from some cause, how would you
know it, and what would you do ?

The steam would be blown out of the steam-guage when the steam got
too high ; 1 would then open the blow-through valves of both engines.
Cases have happened of the mouth of the waste-steam pipe having been
blocked up in consequence of the cone usually placed within the ball being
forced up into the neck, and the boilers have been in danger of bursting,
though the safety-valves were open ; but the plan of opening the blow-
through valves would be equally effectual in such a case.

Art. VII.— HAZLITT'S ESSAYS ON ART.

Criticisms on Art.

By William Hazlitt.
C. Templeman.

Edited by his Son.
1844.

London

These are the productions of one of the finest critics on works of art this
country has ever produced, and display great powers of language as well as
a thorough acquaintance with the subject ; but there appears to us to be a
great want of finish about them, which mars the pleasure they are calculated
to convey. This, indeed, is accounted, and in some measure atoned for, by
the circumstance of most of them having been written for newspapers and
magazines, in which some years ago they appeared, and the urgent haste in
which such productions require to be finished leaves no time for that careful
retouching of which less hurried writings can have the benefit. There are
the marks of a master-hand, however, in every page, and we think Mr.
Hazlitt, jim., will be generally considered as having rendered an acceptable
service in the collection of these Essays from the newspapers and other for-
gotten tilings in which they originally appeared, and the publication of them,
in a'commodious form, so as to be easily accessible to his father's ad-
mirers.

These Essays are, as may readily be supposed, very various, and some
of them are upon subjects of only limited interest. We shall, however, lay
before our readers some extracts from the more general ones of the series,
and they may first take a specimen of the essay on originality : —

1844.]

V

y

HazliWs Essays on Art.

205

" Originality is any conception of things taken immediately from nature, and nei-
ther borrowed from, nor common to, others. To deserve this appellation, the copy
must be both true and new. But herein lies the difficulty of reconciling a seeming
contradiction in the terms of the explanation. For as anything to be natural must
he referable to a consistent principle, and as the face of things is open and familiar
to all, how can any imitation be new and striking, without being liable to the charge
of extravagance, distortion, and singularity ? And, on the other hand, if it has no
such peculiar and distinguishing characteristic to set it off, it cannot properly rise
above the level of the trite and common -place. This objection would indeed hold
good, and be unanswerable, if nature were one thing, or if the eye or mind compre-
hended the whole of it at a single glance ; in which case, if an object had been once
seen and copied in the most curious and mechanical way, there could be no further
addition to, or variation from, this idea without obliquity and affectation ; but nature
presents an endless variety of aspects, of which the mind seldom takes in more than
a part or than one view at a time ; and it is in seizing on this unexplored variety,
in giving some one of these new but easily recognized features, in its characteristic
essence, and according to the peculiar bent and force of the artist's genius, that true
originality consists. Romney, when he was first introduced into Sir Joshua's gal-
lery, said, ' there was something in his portraits which had been never seen in the
art before, but which every one must be struck with as true and natural the mo-
ment he saw it.' This could not happen if the human face did not admit of being
contemplated in several points of view, or if the hand were necessarily faithful to
the suggestion of sense."

This, we think, is very happily put ; and the following will show the
innumerable meanings which may be discovered in an object, with the vari-
ous moods of mind of the spectator : —

" When a young artist first begins to make a study from a head, it is well known
that he has soon done, because after he has got in a certain general outline and rude
masses, as the forehead, the nose, the eyes, in a general way, he sees no further, and
is obliged to stop; he feels, in truth, that he has made a very indifferent copy, but
is quite at a loss how to supply the defect. After a few months, or a year or two's
practice, if he has a real eye for nature, and a turn for the art, he can spend whole
days in working up the smallest details, in correcting the preparations, in reflecting
the gradations, and does not know when to leave off, till night closes in upon him,
and then be sits musing and gazing in the twilight at what remains for his next
day's work. Sir Joshua Reynolds used to say, that if he were not to finish any one
of his pictures till he saw nothing more to be done to it he should never leave off.
Titian wrote on his pictures/aciefe, as much as to say, that he was about them,
hut that it was an endless task. As the mind advances in the knowledge of nature,
the horizon of art enlarges, and the air refines. Then, in addition to an infinity of
details, even in the most common object, there is the variety of form and of colour,
of light and shade, of character and expression, of the voluptuous, the thoughtful,
the grand, the graceful, the grave, the gay, the I know not what — which are all to
be found (separate or combined) in nature, and which sufficiently account for the
diversity of art, and to detect and carry off the spolia opium of which is the highest
praise of human skill and genius —

' Whate'er Lorraine light-touch'd with softening hue,
Or savage Rosa dash'd, or learned Poussin drew,' —

all that we meet with in the master-pieces of taste and genius, is to he found in the
previous capacity of nature; and man, instead of adding to the store, or creating
anything either as to matter or manner, can only draw out a feeble and imperfect
transcript, bit by bit, and one appearance after another, according to the peculiar
aptitude and affinity that subsists between his mind and some one part. The mind
resembles, a prism, which collects the various rays of truth, and displays them by
different modes and in several parcels. Enough has been said to vindicate both
conditions of originality, which distinguish it from irregularity on the one hand, and
from vulgarity on the other ; and to show how a thing may at the same time be
both true and new. This novel truth, is brought out when it meets with a strong
congenial mind, that is, with a mind in the highest degree susceptible of a certain
class of impressions, or of a certain kind of beauty and power; and this peculiar
strength, congeniality, truth of imagination, or command over a certain part of
nature, is, in other works, what is meant by genius. This will serve to shew why
original inventors have in general (and except in what is mechanical) left so little
for their followers to improve upon ; for as the original invention implies the utmost
stretch and felicity of thought, or the greatest strength and sagacity to discover and
dig the ore from the mine of truth, so it is hardly to be expected that a greater
degree of capacity should ever arise (than the highest) — that a greater master should
be afterwards obtained in shaping and fashioning the precious materials than in the
first heat and eagerness of discovery ; or that, if the capacity were equal, the same
scope and opportunity would be left for its exercise in the same field. If the genius
Were different, it would then seek different objects and a different vent, and open
paths to fame and excellence, instead of treading in old ones. Hence the well-
known observation, that in each particular style or class of art the greatest works of
genius are the earliest. Hence, often the first productions of men of genius are
their best. What was that something which Romney spoke of in Reynolds' pic-
tures that the world had never seen before, but with which they were enehanted the
moment they beheld it, and which both Hoppner and Jackson, with all their merit,
have but faintly imitated ? It was a reflection of the artist's mind, an emanation
from his character transferred to the canvas. It was an ease, an amenity, an indo-
lent but anxious satisfaction, a graceful playfulness belonging to his disposition, and
spreading its charm on all around it, attracting what harmonized with, and soften-
j ing and moulding what repelled it ; avoiding everything hard, stiff, and formal,
! shrinking from details, reposing on effect, imparting motion to still life, viewing all

things in their 'gayest, happiest attitudes,' and infusing his own spirit into nature as
the leaven is kneaded into the dough ; still, though the original bias existed in him-
self, and was thence stamped upon his works, yet the character could have neither
been formed without the constant recurrence and pursuit of proper nourishment, nor
could it have expressed itself without a reference to those objects, books, and atti-
tudes in nature, which soothed and assimilated with it. What made Hogarth,
original and inimitable, but the wonderful redundance, and, as it were, supereroga-
tion of his genius, which poured the oil of humanity into the wounds and bruises of
human nature, redeemed while it exposed vice and folly, made deformity pleasing, .
and turned misfortune into a jest?"

We must conclude this essay with the following : — -

" Who can think of Correggio without a swimming of the head ? — the undulating
line, the melting grace, the objects advancing and retiring as in measured dance or
solemn harmony. But all this fulness, roundness, and delicacy existed before in
nature, and only found a fit sanctuary in his mind. The breadth and masses of
Michael Angelo were studies from nature, which he selected and cast in the mould
of his own manly and comprehensive genius. The landscapes of Claude are in a
fixed repose, as if nothing could be moved from its place without a violence to har-
mony and just proportions : in those of Rubens everything is fluttering and in
motion — light and indifferent, as the winds blow where they list. All this is cha-
racteristic, original, a different mode of nature, which the artist had the happiness
to find out and carry to the utmost point of perfection."

These extracts will serve, not merely as a specimen of the author's man-
ner, but will go to confirm a principle we have often indicated, which is,
that the function of a painting is to convey to the spectator the emotions
subsisting iu the breast of the artist at the time of its composition ; and all
leading points must, therefore, be exaggerated a little, and all indifferent
ones suppressed. A painter does not see all the parts of an object in nature,
and it should be the business of his art, not so much to give a daguerreotype
representation, as a representation which will communicate to others his
own feelings and impressions. Rousseau would not look upon a landscape
with the same eyes as Robin Hood, and of course would not describe it in
the same terms ; and art is merely another form of language by which the
artist may register his emotions.

The following are Mr. Hazlitt's sentiments respecting the ideal : —

"The ideal is the abstraction of anything from all the circumstances that weaken
its effect, or lessen our admiration of it ; or it is filling up the outline of truth and
beauty existing in the mind, so as to leave nothing wanting, or to desire further.
The principle of the ideal is the satisfaction we have in the contemplation of any
quality or object which makes us seek to heighten, to prolong, or extend that sa-
tisfaction to the utmost; and beyond this we cannot go, for we cannot get beyond
the highest conceivable degree of any quality or excellence diffused over the whole
of an object. Any notion of perfection beyond this is a word without meaning —
a thing in the clouds. Another name for the ideal is the divine, for what we
imagine of the gods is pleasure without pain, power without effort. It is the most
exalted idea we can form of humanity. Some persons have hence raised it quite
above humanity, and made its essence to consist specifically in the representation of
gods and goddesses, just as if, on the same principle that there are court painters,
there were certain artists who had the privilege of being admitted into the mytho-
logical heaven, and brought away casts and fac-similes of the mouth of Venus or
the beard of Jupiter. The ideal is the impassive and immortal ; it is that which
exists in and for itself, or is begot by the intense idea and innate love of it. Hence
it has been argued by some, as if it were brought from another sphere, as Raffaelle
was said to have fetched his Galatea from the skies ; but it was the gods, the ' chil-
dren of Homer,' who peopled 'the cloud-capt Olympus.' The statue of Venus is
not beautiful because it represents a goddess, but it was supposed to represent a
goddess because it was in the highest degree (that the art or wit of man could make
it) and in every part beautiful. The Venus is only the idea of the most perfect
female beauty, and the statue will be none the worse for bearing the more modern
name of Musidora. The ideal is only making the best of what is natural and sub-
ject to the sense. Goddesses also walk the earth in the shape of women; the-
height of nature surpasses the utmost stretch of the imagination ; the human form
is above the image of the divinity.

" It has been usual to represent the ideal as an abstraction of general nature, or
as a mean or average proportion between different qualities and faculties, which,
instead of carrying any one to the highest point of perfection or satisfaction, would
only neutralize and damp the impression. We take our notions on this subject
chiefly from the antique ; but what higher conception do we form of the Jupiter of
Phidias than that of power frowning in awful majesty ? or of the Minerva of the
same hand, than that of wisdom ' severe in youthful beauty ?' We shall do well
not to refine on our theories beyond these examples that have been left us —

' Inimitable on earth by model,
Or by shading pencil shown.'

What is the Venus, the Apollo, the Hercules, hut the personification of beautv,
grace, and strength, or the displaying these several properties in every part of the
attitude, face, and figure, and in the utmost conceivable degree, but without con-
founding the particular kinds of form or expression in an intermediate something,
pretending to be more perfect than either.

" If the face of the Venus had been soft and feminine, but the figure had not cor-
responded, then this would have been a defect of the ideal, which subdues the dis-
cordance of nature in the mould of passion, and, so far from destroying character,
imparts the same character to all, according to a certain established idea or precon-

206

Steam Communication with the East.

[September,

ception in the mind. The following up the contrary principle would lead to the
inevitable result, that the most perfect — that is, the most abstract representation of
the human form — could contain neither age nor sex, neither character nor expres-
sion, neither the attributes of motion nor rest, but a mere unmeaning negation or
doubtful balance of all positive qualities ; in fact, to propose to embody an abstrac-
tion is a contradiction in terms. Besides, it might be objected captiously that
what is strictly common to all is necessarily to be found exemplified in each indi-
vidual. The attempt to carry such a scheme into execution would not merely
supersede all the varieties and accidents of nature, but would effectually put a stop
to the productions of art, or reduce them to one vague and undefined abstraction,
answering to the word man. That amalgamation, then, of a number of different
impressions into one, which in some sense is felt to constitute the ideal, is not to be
sought in the dry and desert spaces or the endless void of metaphysical abstraction,
or by taking a number of things and muddling them all together, but by singling
out some one thing or leading quality of an object, and making it the pervading
and regulating principle of all the rest, so as to produce the greatest strength and
harmony of effect. This is the natural progress of things, and accords with the
ceaseless tendency of the human mind from the Finite to the Infinite. If I see
beauty, I do not want to change it for power; if I am struck with power, I am
no longer in love with beauty ; but I wish to make beauty still more beautiful,
power still more powerful, and to pamper and exalt the prevailing impression,
whatever it be, till it ends in a dream and a vision of glory. This view of the
subject has been often dwelt upon. I shall endeavour to supply some inferences
from it. The ideal, then, it appears by this account of it, is the enhancing and
expanding an idea from the satisfaction we take in it, or it is taking away whatever
divides, and adding whatever increases our sympathy with pleasure and power ' till
our content is absolute,' or at the height. Hence that repose which has been re-
marked as one striking condition of the ideal ; for, as it is nothing but the con-
tinued approximation of the mind to the great and the good, so in the attainment
of this object it rejects as much as possible not only the petty, the mean, and disa-
greeable, but also the agony and violence of passion, the force of contrast, and the
extravagance of imagination. It is a law to itself. It relies on its own aspirations
after pure enjoyment and lofty contemplations alone, self-moved and self-sustained,
without the grosser stimulus of the irritation of the will, privation, or suffering,
unless when it is inured and reconciled to the last (as an element of its being) by
heroic fortitude, and when ' strong patience conquers deep despair.' In this sense,
Milton's ' Satan' is ideal, though tragic ; for it is permanent tragedy, or one fixed
idea without vicissitude or frailty, and where all the pride of intellect and power is
brought to bear in confronting and enduring pain."

The chief secret of success in the ideal appears to us to be the excitation
only of congruous emotions, and every new emotion called in will weaken
the final effect that does not enhance it. There are kinds of beauty which
cannot be combined, for no one would think of putting a female head upon
a herculean body, or of mingling into one composite being the beauty of
age and of infancy. The emotions excited by these dissimilarities counteract
one another by a necessary antagonism, and the whole conception fails,
not because its elements have been severally defective, but because they have
been inconsistent.

Art. VIII.— A NEW DIRECT ACTION ENGINE.

Mr. Hastie, the managing engineer of the firm of Scott, Sinclair, and Co.,
of Greenock, has forwarded to us a drawing of a direct-action engine, which
we look upon as being superior, after a few trifling modifications, to any that
has as yet come under our notice. The plan admits of a long connecting-rod
and a long stroke without rising above the deck, as in the case of the steeple
engine, and at the same time occupies no more length in the ship than is
necessary for the cylinder and the projection of the valve casing. It is not
very easy to explain the plan without a drawing, for which, however, we have
not room ; but we shall endeavour, nevertheless, to make it as intelligible as
we can.

Each engine, then, has a cross-head and side-rods, as in a common side-
lever engine ; but the bottoms of the side-rods are maintained in the vertical
position by substantial double guide-rods, the eyes working upon which are
provided with deep stuffing-boxes, which may be screwed up as the guide
brasses wear. From the bottom of each side-rod springs another side-rod,
which joins a single crank on the shaft, and the two cranks of each engine
are placed so far apart as to enable the cross-head to ascend between them.
By this means the cross-head may ascend as high as the upper extremity of
the crank when on the top centre, or even higher, so that a long stroke is
thus realized with long connecting-rods. The air-pumps are wrought by
means of horizontal rods extending from pins near the top of the connecting-
rods to upright levers fixed upon a rocking shaft ; and a lever may extend
again from this shaft to the space between the engines, to give motion to an
air-pump in that situation. It will be necessary, we conceive, to make the
air-pumps not of the circular but of the parallelogram form, so as to get
them between the engines ; but this form operates as well as any other, so
that it need not constitute any objection to the general plan.

Art. IX.— NEW USES OF EARTHENWARE PIPES.

Earthenware pipes have long been in use for the drainage of land ; but
latterly they have been applied to numerous other purposes, and these appli-
cations are still extending. In a late number of the Artizan we noticed
their employment as chimney flues, in which capacity they have given much
satisfaction ; and we have now to notice their applicability as pipes for dis-
tributing water through towns ; and for catching and leading away again, in
the form of drains, the water so distributed.

Pipes of earthenware, of a dense texture, have been subjected to a great hy-
draulic pressure without showing any symptoms of weakness or porosity ; and
in Ayr and other places earthenware pipes have been employed, for some time
past, as drains for streets and houses, and their use is fast extending. In
cases where a large drain is required it will be more convenient to make each
length of pipe in three pieces, the bottom being nearly a semi-circle, and the
two upper parts being quadrants of a somewhat larger circle, so that the drain
will be of an egg or heart shape in its cross section. It is, of course, neces-
sary to make an overlapping part at each of the joints, so as to maintain the
pieces in the right position.

We do not know whether earthenware pipes, if effectually glazed, would
answer for the conveyance of gas, but we think the experiment is well worth
trying. Unglazed pipes would obviously be unsuitable, as the gas would pe-
netrate their substance ; but pipes well glazed would be as impermeable as
pipes of glass, and we really think furnish a fair prospect of a satisfactory
result. There would be some difficulty with the joints, perhaps ; and we do
not, at the moment, see of what they could be made. Lead would not do, as
the heat necessary for its fusion would be apt to crack the pipe ; nor would
pitch, for the naphtha of the gas would dissolve it ; nor would cement, for the
gas would filter through. Possibly some kind of fusible metal might answer
the purpose ; but this is a subject which it is time enough to investigate after
it is ascertained that glazed earthenware tubes will do.

In oriental countries earthenware pipes have long been used for the distri-
bution of water ; and although these pipes are generally of the rudest manu-
facture, they have been found to answer their purpose perfectly. In Lisbon
we have stone pipes, made by making a hole through a stone block ; but such
pipes are expensive, and are not easy to connect. We believe that earthen-
ware, or terra cotta, to give it a finer name, may be beneficially substituted
for cast iron in many cases ; and we should like to see the attempt made more
extensively.

Art. X.— STEAM COMMUNICATION WITH THE EAST.

A treaty, it appears, has been concluded with the Pasha of Egypt for faci-
litating our communications with the East, and Suez, it is said, is ceded to
England. If this be so, we trust the event will lead to immediate steps for
the formation of the canal, to connect the Red Sea and Mediterranean, that
has been so long in agitation, for, until this be done, our communications
with India by the way of Egypt can never, we conceive, be on a secure and
satisfactory basis. There is no engineering difficulty in the way of such an
undertaking that is not superable with ease ; nor do we apprehend there
can now be any political one, and the government would, we think, act
wisely in making a loan to the Pasha of Egypt for the execution of the
undertaking, providing, however, that it should be executed on a scale and
in a manner that would meet with the approbation of competent judges. A
transit duty would of course be charged upon vessels navigating the canal,
which should be the same for ships of all nations, and these duties should
be so moderate as to encourage vessels to make this route the highway to
the East. Vessels coming from India would still, in all probability, pursue
the route by the Cape of Good Hope, on account of the prevalence of
northerly winds in the upper part of the Red Sea ; but the greater number
of vessels proceeding to India would, we believe, prefer the Red Sea route,
provided the canal dues were not such as to present any serious impediment
to such a choice.

The Isthmus of Suez consists, so far as has been ascertained, chiefly of
sand and shingle, which could be easily cut through, and a few of the Ame-
rican scooping-machines, if set to work upon it, would do great execution
in a very short time. The water in the Bay of Tineh, indeed, in which the
canal would terminate on the Mediterranean side, is very shoal, even at a
distance of two miles from the shore ; but a passage could easily be dredged
in this shoal part, and piers run out to confine the current of salt water
flowing from the Red Sea, which would, after its admission, suffice to keep
the channel clear. The water at the mouth of this channel should be de-
flected, by means of a curved pier, in the direction in which the shingle
travels, so as to distribute any depositure brought by the current along the
shore, instead of setting it down at the harbour mouth, and the entrance
would thus be kept clear of a bar. Into these engineering details, however,
we need not enter, as all such things would be foreseen and provided against
by the professional engineers employed. The English government, how-
ever, if it advances the money, should take care that an engineer of emi-
nence, whether he be French or English, should be selected, for the work
might otherwise be committed to some of those Egyptian botches who have
led the Pasha into so much needless expense in other instances.

The project of a railway, in lieu of a canal, has of late been revived in

1844.]

A National Polytechnic.

207

Eg>vt, probably with the view of retaining to Alexandria her present im-
portance. But a railway would be a thing of great expense and only very
small utility, for it would not, we fully believe, induce a single additional
ship to select this route for accomplishing a communication with India. A
railway across the isthmus, or a canal from the Nile to Suez, as was at one
time proposed, could only benefit the internal trade of Egypt ; and we
rather suspect that the time is not yet come for introducing the railway
system into that country with advantage. But a canal across the isthmus
is an undertaking which not only concerns Egypt, but the world ; and, if it
were once formed, Egypt would become the connecting link between the
Eastern and Western hemispheres. At present this connection is broken,
for sixty miles of sand is quite as effectual a separation for all commercial
purposes as six hundred, and the stream of commerce never can again flow
through Egypt until the waters of the Red Sea and Mediterranean are
reunited.

If the cannl be formed between Suez and the Bay of Tineh, England, we
think, should endeavour to obtain possession of Socotra, as a coaling station
for steam-vessel. Its geographical position is preferable to that of Aden,
heinT situated more nearly midway between Ceylon and Suez, while the
circumstance of its being an island, considerably removed from the main
land, sets it beyond the hostility of surrounding barbarians. If the canal,
however, across the isthmus be suffered to remain unaccomplished, we think
the island of Perim, at the Straits of Babelmandel, the preferable coal-
depot, as coal is unattainable at the upper part of the Red Sea at present,
except at a ruinous expense ; and the distance from Perim to Suez and
back is much the same as that from Perim to Ceylon. We trust, however,
that there is no doubt of the canal being speedily begun. England and
Egypt are both greatly interested in its accomplishment, and the recent
treaty shows that they are willing to act in concert ; and if not, Syria is not
far distant, nor the Porte untractablc.

Art. XL— A NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC.

We do not know of any measure that would be productive of so much advan-
tage to the industrial arts of this country as the formation of a national
institution, where all new and important products in the arts might be
exhibited, and the newest improvements and existing condition of the several
arts would be ascertainable. Foreign countries possess institutions of this
description ; and in that at Berlin, models representative of all the new im-
provements throughout Europe are to be inspected gratuitously ; so that a
person contemplating any new contrivance may see what has already been

done thus obviating the waste of time incident to re-invention of things

previously discovered, and rendering available to bis own uses the ideas of his
predecessors. In England there is a prodigious waste of ingenuity among
the operative classes ; in the first place, from a misconception of what is
wanted to be done ; and, in the second, from the re-invention of contrivances
previously matured ; whereas, if our artizans could only be brought up to the
highest point of what has been already done, and be then informed of the
things it is still desirable to do, with a general indication of the manner in
which they are probably accomplishable, a vast amount of ingenuity now
running to waste would be turned to a profitable purpose, and a stimulus
would be given to improvement such as no surmountable difficulty could long
withstand. . .

It is obvious that an institution of this kind could not restrict itself to the
mere display of models and specimens, though that would be one of its func-
tions ; but it is essential that lectures should also be given upon the various
branches of chemical art, upon the steam-engine and other mechanisms, and
upon the more difficult parts of carpentry and building. These lectures
should not be of the popular kind, but should consist of such information as
one intelligent workman would communicate to another, and should have
reference to the art discoursed upon in its most advanced condition, and to
the new or prospective improvements in it. They should be such, in short,
that any person attending them would not merely become conversant with
sound general principles, but with the last touches of improvement, and with
its further tendencies. Practical men would thus not only have an oppor-
tunity of becoming acquainted with all novelties of value, but would be,
moreover, enabled to : apply their own ingenuity at such a point that none
of it would be wasted, but the whole would conduce to a further progress.

There is another use to which an institution of this kind might be made
subservient, which consists in diffusing among the industrial population juster
notions of the advantages of a better ventilation and more scrupulous clean-
liness in their dwellings, and showing them, by models of cheap and simple
expedients, how those ends may be accomplished more effectually. There
would, of course, require to be a hall for the reception of these models, to
which' the female part of the community should have access, and, indeed,
ought to be attracted ; for it is chiefly by their instrumentality that improve-
ments in the domestic and sanitory condition of the people is to be accom-
plished.

Art. XII.— RAILWAY ADMINISTRATION.
The last number of the Westminster Review has a long article upon this
subject, showing forth the evils which attend the present system of railway
monopoly, and pointing out the means by which these evils may be sup-
pressed. To this article the Railway Chronicle, a recently established

VOL. II.

railway paper, makes a weak and sophistical reply, and in the true spirit
of partizanship, seems only ambitious to be plausible without caring much
whether at the same time it may not be also disingenuous. If the Railway
Chronicle has any good reason to give us why certain public bodies in this
free country should monopolize the right of way between its different districts,
we should like very much to hear it, and shall receive with all due reverence,
so precious a communication ; but, in the absence of some better reason
than it has yet given, we must be permitted to thiuk with the Westminster
Review, that the monopoly in question is an intolerable oppression, and to
join in its aspiration for the speedy extirpation of such a tyranny.

We shall be told, probably, in answer to all this, that a monopoly can
hardly be said to exist when the public highway is open, and that persons
have the option of using other means of conveyance, but we laugh at such
sophistries, and demand, if a monopoly is to be disclaimed, the possession of
other means of railway conveyance. What should we think of a turnpike
trust that exacted exorbitant tolls, and told us in answer to any complaint,
that we might if we choose, take our way through brakes and across quag-
mires, after the fashion of the ancient Britons ! Yet this is just the language
virtually held by these railway monopolists, for in each case we have been
defrauded of the benefit to be derived from a superior method of locomotion,
and of which the public ought to reap the advantage. In foreign countries,
where the railways are in the hands of the State, the public has reaped the
advantage of that improvement, for the railway fares there are more than
one-half less than in England ; and the public of this country is only pre-
vented from reaching still larger benefits by the intervention of this detestable
monopoly. The evil, however, will assuredly work its own reparation, and
the whole railways in the kingdom will come into the hands of the State,
so soon as the public is sufficiently insulted to discern all its injuries, and
sufficiently aroused to take its own part.

But have you so slender a regard for property, we shall be asked, as to
confiscate the possessions of railway directories ? By no means ; let them,
keep their railways, say we, but let us have other railways rnnning along
side. We know it is a very improvident thing to make two railways, where
one would do ; for the money spent on the one or the other, is so much money
wasted ; but it is a still more foolish thing to sit down in supineness, under
the iron sway of a legion of monopolists, and to suffer ourselves to be cheated
out of the benefits of a superior method of locomotion. The government,
however, should have the management of competing lines, and not private
companies, for the rival companies might coalesce, and the monopoly would
then be as strong again as ever. But, whatever be the details of the ame-
lioration, a better system we must have. A crisis is coming which neither
the combinations of directories, nor the plentiful distribution of advertise-
ments, and other persuasives to venality, will be able to avert, and the rail-
way people, will if they are wise, change their policy while it is yet possible,
and bend to a necessity they cannot resist.

Art. XIII.— THE ACCIDENT TO THE STEAMER " TAY."

This vessel has just come out of dock, after having undergone a consider-
able repair, rendered necessary by having lately struck upon a coral-reef,
in the West Indies. We cannot allow the occasion to pass without making
it the vehicle of a few remarks respecting the position occupied by naval
engineers, as we think the circumstances attendant upon the accident to the
vessel in question afford a singular confirmation of the justice of the senti-
ments we have already presumed to express on that subject. It will pro-
bably be in the recollection of our readers, that, in our former remarks, we
maintained the engineers of steam-vessels to be a much more able and effi-
cient class of men than was generally imagined ; that in all cases of diffi-
culty much must depend upon their capacity and self-possession; and that
it was unjust and injurious to rank men upon whom so much thought and
responsibility devolved among the mere scum of a naval steamer. The case
of the "Tay" fully bears out these views, for it appears that it was to the
skill and energy of the engineer and his assistants that the salvation of this
fine vessel is altogether attributable ; and we really think that a class of
men capable of such achievements, and upon whom in the hour of danger
everything must often depend, might reasonably be treated by our naval
aristocrats with somewhat greater consideration.

The " Tay," it appears, has long been managed badly in the nautical de-
partment, and has on previous occasions been indebted to the watchfulness
of the engineer for avoiding dangers into which she was running headlong.
The people in the engine-room have, indeed, expected that the vessel would
run ashore some day, but of course they dare not to interfere in things not
pertaining to their department; but the engineers foresaw the likelihood of
such a danger, and had the measures fixed in their own minds to which they
would resort on such a contingency. The captains in the royal mail steamers,
it appears, have of late been made the providores, and it has been the prac-
tice, in the " Tay" at least, for the whole of the officers — those of the watch
as well as the rest — to dine together at the cabin- table. On the day on
which the vessel struck they had already been at table an hour and a half,
and the captain was just beginning to return thanks for his health having
been drunk, when the vessel struck upon a coral-reef with a tremendous
crash, and heeled over on her side, and sank down at the stern until the

208

The Accident of the Steamer " Tay"

[September,

water rushed into the cabin by the stern-windows. All was, of course,
amazement and consternation among the passengers, and the bearing of the
captain and his officers was not calculated to add much to their confidence,
for these carpet commanders became perfectly bewildered when real diffi-
culty came upon them, and had not in their possession two ideas to rub
together. The engineers, however, who were prepared for such an emer-
gency, and who actually had trained their men what to do when it arose,
proceeded at once in the execution of their predetermined measures ; and
the captain, who we suppose was not unconscious of his own incapacity, as
well as that of his officers, gave a carte blanche to the engineer to adopt
whatever steps he chose. Immediately that the vessel struck the engines
were reversed, not in the idea that the vessel would thus be drawn off the
reef, but for the purpose of keeping the hold clear of water, which now
flowed in at the rate of nearly an inch a minute. The ports were of course
also all shut down, to prevent any water entering the vessel through them ;
and the injections from the bilge were opened, so as to take away the water
that escaped into the ship by leakage. This water, it should be remarked,
in flowing from the bow, where the damage was done, to the engine-room,
had to pass through the coal-reserve, and the refuse thus brought to the
injection roses would soon have choked them up, to obviate which tempo-
rary roses were placed between the keelsons, and a man was stationed at
each, whose duty it was to keep them clear.

As soon as it was ascertained that the engines could keep the water under,
the engineer next resolved to get the vessel, if possible, hove off the reef, and
he therefore threw overboard 150 tons of coal, a large quantity of spare
machinery, and a number of tons of quicksilver in iron bottles, but these
things were so disposed of that they might be again recovered, and only
about a dozen bottles of the quicksilver out of the whole number have been
lost. Anchors were next run out astern, the sails were hoisted aback, and
the engines turned astern with their full power, but although by some en-
gineering expedient, such a strain was put upon the chains that they broke,
the vessel remained immoveable. In this way the vessel remained for six
days upon the reef, the engines moving all the time to discharge the water,
and the boilers were during the whole period blown off as regularly, and the
ordinary duties of the engine-room as scrupulously attended to as if nothing
uncommon had occurred. In the meantime, the preparations for heaving
off the vessel had been renewed, and a Spanish steamer having come to render
assistance, the desired result was accomplished, and the vessel proceeded to
Havannah, within the harbour of which place a soft mud bank was selected,
on which she was grounded without injury. During the time the vessel was
on the reef, the nautical authorities were several times for abandoning her,
and after the example of the " Isis," and some other vessels, we have no
doubt they would have done so, but for the pertinacity and persuasion exer-
cised by the engineer, who, we believe, had quite as much trouble in managing
the officers as in managing the ship.

As soon as the ship was safely landed in the harbour of Havannah, the
engineer got a number of carpenters on board, who under his direction, cut
away the cieling in the bow abaft the injury, and erected a water-tight bulk-
head, with its outer boundary abutting upon the timbers, and from this
water-tight bulk-head to the bow a water-tight platform extended so as to
form that part of the bow into a tank, within the limits which the injury
was situated. Pipes were led from this tank to the condensers, so that the
pressure within the tank might be diminished by drawing the water for
the engines therefrom, and an air pipe was also set upon it to prevent the
possibility of a vacuum being formed inside. Of these details, however, we
are unable to give any further account at present, as they are not very intelli-
gible without a drawing, and the drawing with which we have been furnished
we must reserve for the next number of the Apprentice, as it did not reach
us in time to accompany what we are now writing. We may remark that
the expedients resorted to exhibit much sagacity, and have been found per-
fectly effectual for their intended purpose. By their means the " Tay" has
been brought safely to London, and after a slight repair is now again as good
as ever. The passengers on board the vessel have sent the engineer a letter,
expressing their gratitude to hirn for his exertions, to which they attribute
their preservation. The Royal Mail Company has, of course, discharged
the captain and his officers, and has also sent a letter to the engineer ex-
pressing the conviction of the directors that the salvation of the ship is the
effect altogether of his energy and skill, and enclosing, as we understand, a
present of 50?., — a very inadequate recompense by the way, in our judgment,
for such a service, especially as the company are their own insurers. We
do not mention these things for the sake of reprehending the captain's mis-
deeds or the company's parsimony, but merely to show how high a degree of
merit and capacity is existing in a class that in some quarters appears to be
esteemed so lightly, and how important a part the engineer of a steamer
will generally have to play in cases of difficulty and danger. We know very
well that it is objected against this class that they are for the most part
uneducated, but what good, we should like to know, is all the college learning in
Europe, in the face of such disasters ? Is a ship to be got off a rock by
algebra, or are the lives of her crew and passengers to be saved by the aid
of Lindley Murray ? We would not be understood as saying anything in
disparagement of book learning, so long as it is not suffered to assume the
place of qualifications far more important ; but, we do say that literary and
scientific attainments, or a fine carriage, and plausible address, are things of
very second rate importance to the engineer of a steam vessel, but the grand
considerations are how far he will approve himself a faithful and energetic

servant, and how he will acquit himself in the hour of danger. If he be not
a man of great courage, as well as great capacity, of great energy of will
and of great stedfastness in his decisions, he is unfit for his occupation, and
should be superseded by some other man of a more vigorous mind. But if
he possess these qualifications, he may be content to leave fine letter-writing
and sentimental grimace to those naval exquisites who appear to be fit for
nothing else.

It is not to be supposed from the tenor of these remarks, that we think
the engineer of a steam vsssel justified in meddling with any department of
the ship beyond the engine-room, except when the captain requires his aid ;
and, we think, it is much to be lamented that captains are to be found whose
incapacity is so much calculated to bring nautical, or more particularly naval
men generally into discredit. But we think it an object of vast importance
that the engineer should be an eligible selection, and the captain ought to
advise with him upon any danger or emergency. In the best conducted
steam-packet companies, as for example, the Peninsula and Oriental Steam-
Packet Company, this we believe is invariably done, and the captains find
their account in such communications. One great thing is, that they thus
attach the engineers very effectually to them, and in that class — so turbulent
and untractable as they are said to be in other cases — these commanders find
their ablest and most trustworthy officers. In that Steam Company, there
are many engineers who could acquit themselves as ably as the engineer of
the " Tay" has done, under similar circumstances, and we really think it
would be difficult to say more in any man's favour.

Upon the West India Mail Company, we trust this lesson will not be
thrown away, and we go upon no hypothetical ground when we tell them,
that they will find their account in eradicating all affectation of the navi
system from among their vessels as expeditiously as possible. So far as
relates to the rank held by engineers, the navy, we believe, will soon undergo
a change itself, for the system at present existing, has been found to be pro-
ductive of the most pernicious consequences. And we would beg leave to
suggest to the Royal Mail Company, that if the naval plan had been found
or deemed beneficial in the commercial marine, it would have been adopted
long ago, for the managers of other steam companies have not been indifferent
or unobservant spectators of all these methods, and, we believe, are at length
found not to have been such fools as they were at one time suspected. We are
glad to find, however, that the imitation of the navy is gradually b"ing given
up, and the company is beginning at length to recover itself by the acquisition
of a more adequate experience, and by a return to the methods pursued in
other similar undertakings. One fault, however, is, that the company does
not pay its engineers sufficiently, and although the company may have some
good men, it will not be able to keep them at the present rate of wages, now
that the late dulness in steam-engine manufacture has passed over. There
are a few of the vessels, and among them the " Forth," that are, as we hear,
going to wreck from the want of adequate skill and attention, and we believe
the expansion valve cam of one of the engines of this vessel, will be found
to have been turned round, so that the cylinder gets no steam at all, until
a large portion of the stroke has been completed. Such a mal-adjustment
could not continue, if the engineer were equal to his duty, and no blame is
to be attributed to the company's superintending engineer for the perpetuation
of such incapacity ; as he cannot, we believe, get skilful men to go for the
wages the company offers, and it is obviously impossible that any super-
intending engineer of so great a flotilla can be acquainted with the working
state of every part of every engine himself. It is, we submit, bad economy
to have indifferent engineers at any price : of course it is desirable to restrain
their wages within moderate limits, but the first thing is, whatever the cost,
to have men equal to their duties.

Art. XIV.

-NEW LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL
INSTITUTION AT PRESTON.

We give in this Number engravings of a building for the accommodation
of the literary and scientific public of Preston. Last month the foundation
stone was laid. We cannot, of course, be expected to say anything of the
festivities of the occasion, which are given at considerable length in the
Preston Guardian, but here is its account of the building : —

" The style of the architecture of the edifice is what may be termed Tudor —
the details being principally selected from public and private edifices, erected during
the reigns of Henry VII., Henry VIII., and Elizabeth. The windows of the Col-
legiate Hall are similar to those used at Merton College, Oxford. The great win-
dow of Shepherd Library is a transcript of that applied in the gable of the Free
School at Coventry. The archway between the two turrets in the west elevation,
as well as the gallery, has been copied from West Stowe Hall, in Suffolk, as far as
the general idea is concerned, but not as to detail. In fact, there is not a moulding
applied throughout the entire range of building, for which authority cannot be
cited.

" The construction of the various roofs has also been particularly attended to,
applying those beautiful examples of carpentry consigned to us by our ancestors.
The principle of construction in the roof of the Museum, for instance, may be
found in what is called the Guard Room of Lambeth Palace. The stone principals
of the roof of the Lecture Room or Theatre, are suggested by those used over the
Great Hall of Conway Castle, though more elaborate and refined in detail — the

1841]

Tubular Boilers.

209

epandrels being pierced by quatre-foil and trefoil pannels — the effect of which, when
executed, will be beautiful and unique.

" The effect of the News Room and Billiard Rooms, when complete, will sur-
pass that of anything yet executed in the town. It is intended to insert plate glass
in all the front windows, so that the beautiful tracery will show to every advantage.
The oriel window of the front Billiard Room is taken from a fine example at
Oxford.

" The large News Room is intersected in the centre by a range of piers and
arches, of polished stone, having elaborate caps and bases.

" The Collegiate Hall is 4 feet by 20, and 25 feet high.
Shepherd Library 36 — 20, in two floors.
The Museum 40 — 24, and 30 feet high.
The Theatre 41 — 30, with galleries.

Billiard Rooms 30 — 21, each 21 feet high.
News Room 43-6 — 30, and IS feet high.

" The general cost of the whole range of buildings, which will be alike orna-
mental to our town, and illustrative of the research and taste of the architect,
Mr. "Welch, has been estimated at 5000Z. and upwards."

Art. XV.— THE BUILDING ARTS.

THE MANSARD ROOF.

The scientific construction of roofs is one of the most interesting' parts of
carpentry, and one of the greatest importance to practical men. We shall
therefore, we conceive, render a useful service to our practical readers by
pointing out the conditions which must be kept in view in the construction
of one of the most useful descriptions of roofs known as the curb, or mansard
variety, and the means by which'tbose conditions may be realized. This kind
of roof, it is well known, consists in an arrangement of beams or rafters,
as represented in the subjoined diagram, fig. 10, and is of very frequent
occurrence in manufacturing districts, where the attics are generally em-
ployed as workshops, and, in consequence, require to be roomy and com-
modious. We also find these roofs coming largely into use in more modem
erections designed as dwelling-houses, especially in the outskirts of the me-
tropolis, where the building mania is now in full operation. We have lately
observed entire streets of new and elegant second and third-rate houses
covered in after this manner ; and in consequence of the extent to which
the principle is being applied, we think it will prove interesting to our prac-
tical readers to be put in possession of the method of conducting the calcu-
lations, in reference to the strains and the positions of the beams by which
the roof is supported.

Fig. 10.

The above sketch, fig. 10, is a transverse section of a mansard roof,
showin" the rafters and the tye-beam by which they are retained in their
places when in a state of equilibrium. AE is the span or width of the house ;
AB, BC, CD, and DE, the four rafters, which in the present case we con-
sider to be all of the same size and length, and mutually connected by their
extremities at the points B, C, and D, the remote ends, A and E, being
fixed to the wall-plates in the usual manner, and the angles at B and D pre-
vented from bulging outwards by means of the tye-beam BD. The object
of calculation therefore is, to assign the length of the beams, their posi-
tions with respect to the horizon, and the several strains to which they are
exposed when supporting a roof of a given weight, the span of the roof and
its rise being also given.

When the rise of the roof is equal to half the span, the solution of the
question is extremely simple, for in that case we have only to describe a
semicircle on the span as a diameter, and to divide the arc into four equal
parts ; the chords of those divisions will be the required rafters both in
length and position. In this construction the angles which the rafters make
with the horizon are easily ascertained ; for since the semicircle is divided
into four equal parts, each of those parts will contain 45 degrees ; therefore,
by subtracting 45 from 180 and dividing the remainder by 2, we get 67° 30'
for the angles at A and E respectively, being the inclination of the extreme
bars or rafters to the horizon. But, by the nature of the figure, the angle

BCD contains 135°, or twice 67° 30' ; from which it appears that CBD and
CDB are each equal to 22° 30', being the complement of BAE or AED. The
length of the rafters themselves can, therefore, be very easily found, for we
have sin. 67° 30' : £ AE : : sin. 45° :AB=|AEVix cosec. 67° 30';
admitting now, that the house is 24ft. wide, the length of the rafters will
obviously be AB = 6 x 1-4142 x 1-0824 = 9,184 feet.

If the extreme rafters AB and ED were produced upwards to meet in a
point, and if from this point the whole weight which they have to sustain
were suspended, it would produce the same effect upon the walls at A and
E as is produced by the roof in its actual state. This consideration enables
us to determine the thrusts upon the walls when the weight of the roof is
known, for we have only to resolve the weight when considered as acting
at the point of concourse, and in the direction of gravity, into its compo- .
nent forces in the direction of the produced rafters, and the components thus
determined will indicate the magnitude of the thrusts upon the walls ; and
if one of the thrusts thus found be again resolved into its co-ordinate verti-
cal and horizontal forces, we shall obtain the magnitude of the constant
horizontal thrust at the several joints or angles of the frame, and from this,
in combination with the angle of direction of the beams, is determined the
proportion of weight supported by each beam, or supposed to be applied at
each of the angles or points of connexion. Thus, for instance, suppose the
distance between any two contiguous frames to be 2ft., then each frame or
set of beams in the roof considered individually, will support 73-472 square
feet of covering ; for we have seen that the length of each beam is 9-184ft.,
and since the frame consists of four beams, the whole length or girt from
wall to wall over the ridge is 36736ft., and the whole surface allotted for
each frame is, therefore, 36736 x 2 = 73-472 square feet, as stated above.

The materials of which the roofs or coverings of buildings are now com-
posed are so very numerous, and some of them of so light a quality, that we
are at a loss to decide on any particular substance as a standard of weight ;
bat as slate is the most ponderous of these, and at the same time the most
generally employed in the better class of structures, we shall adopt it as our
rule in this particular case. Now, supposing slate to be of the same spe-
cific gravity as brick, a cubic foot of it will weigh 1251!>s., and if we assume
its thickness in the roofing to be half an inch, to make allowance for the
overlayings, the weight on a square foot will be 5"21bs. ; taking therefore,
the lining and other timbers, including the framing-beams themselves, at
about the same weight as the slating, we will get 10-41bs. per superficial
foot for the weight to be supported by the beams, but in round numbers
say lOlbs. ; then the whole weight to be supported by each frame is
73-4721bs. x 10 = 734721bs. ; and this we conceive to be applied at the
point of concourse of the produced rafters. From the nature of the figure
which we are now considering, the beams when produced will meet each
other in any angle of 45° ; consequently, each of them will make with the
vertical line passing through the concurring point an angle of 22° 30' ; hence,
we have sin. 45° : sin. 22° 30' : 734-72 : 397-631bs., the oblique thrust
upon the walls in the direction of the contiguous beams BA and DE,
or those immediately in contact with the wall-plates. It is unneces-
sary in the present instance to calculate the strain in the direction of the
rafters that form the upper part of the roof, since that is neutralized in con-
sequence of the tye beam BD ; but the horizontal thrust upon the walls
being of considerable magnitude, it is important to know its amount, and
for this purpose we have sin. 67° 30' : sin. 22° 30' : : 367*36 : 152-161bs.,
the horizontal thrust at the points of junction with the wall-plates A and E.
This is the quantity that corresponds with the symbol n in the formula n
(tan. <j>— ton. 6) = m, so that the value of w, or the weight supported at the
angles B and D can easily be found. Thus, the value of the angle <p is 67°
30', and that of 6, 22° 30' being complements of each other ; therefore it is
a) = 152-16 (cot. 22° 30'— tan. 22° 30') =152-16 x 2 = 304-321bs. for the
weight at the angle B ; but the weight on the angle D is the same as that on
B ; therefore, the weight at the vertex C is equal to thewhole weight diminished
by 304-32 x 2 ; that is = 734-72—608-64 = 126-081bs. The meaning of
this is, that the weights 304-32 ; 126-08, and 304 321bs., being respectively-
suspended from the angles B, C and D, will produce the same effects on the
walls as is produced by the roof in its actual state, supposing the weight to be
accumulated at those points in the specified proportions. The method of
resolution has already been given (in page 177, No. XX.) and therefore it
need not be here repeated.

Art. XVI.— TUBULAR BOILERS.

The use of these boilers is still extending ; and for steam vessels scarce
anything else is now being manufactured. In our remarks last month upon
this subject, we omitted to state a few' particulars which we ought to have
given, and now return to the subject for that purpose.

The diameter of the Braganza's cylinders is 62 in., and the length of the
stroke 5 ft. 6 in. ; diameter of the cylinders of the Tagus 62 in., and stroke
5 ft. 9 in. ; and diameter of the cylinders of the Sydenham 58 in..
Most of the tubular boilers that have been made hitherto are short of steam;
and many of them prime very badly, and have a very fluctuating water level .
The boilers of the Sydenham, however, are exempt from these evils; and
we have no doubt that the boilers of the Braganza, when tried, will be found
equally free from them. Upon the whole, the Braganza's plan of boiler is,

210

The Occupations of the People.

[September,

we should say, if our judgment be good for anything, the best example of
the tubular method that has come under our observation.

A correspondent asks us what the advantage is of brine pumps in the
case of tubular boilers, and whether a cock constantly running would not
answer as well. The only advantage of brine pumps that we know of is
that they insure, or are supposed to insure, the regular extraction of the
water, and the cessation of this extraction when the vessel stops ; whereas
a cock might be left open or shut by neglect. But the brine pumps are
very treacherous things ; for the refrigerator pipes are sometimes found to
get choked, and the water may rise to an injurious concentration, while the
extraction of the supersalted water is all the while supposed to be proceed-
ing. In ordinary boilers no such mistake can occur ; for the blow-off cock
is opened until the water has subsided to a certain point in the glass gauge.
It is in that case obvious that a quantity of water has gone out ; though
even then it is necessary to see that one boiler does not blow off into the
boiler adjoining ; which will sometimes happen, if all the cocks be opened
together.

No steamer employing brine pumps should be without a barometer gauge,
by which the specific gravity of the water may be tested. Brine pumps are
not necessary to tubular boilers, nor are they employed in all cases ; but
the employment of some continuous method of blowing off is desirable, on
account of the small volume of water such boilers contain, and their inabi-
lity, in consequence, to suffer such fluctuation of the water-level as would
be requisite for an ordinary blowing off. A cock constantly running, how-
ever, would answer perfectly well, if care only be taken that it does not
become choked.

Art. XVII.— PHOTOGRAPHIC LITHOGRAPHY.

We lately suggested in the Apprentice a method of taking photographic re-
presentations on a lithographic stone, so that they might be printed from,
and as the subject is one of much importance, we desire again to call the
public attention to the subject. Mr. Beard, the photographic artist, has,
taken the matter up, and is now we understand, making some trials, the
results of which, however, we are not yet able to announce ; but, pending
these researches, we wish to direct the attention of our readers to the subject,
both because a novelty of the kind is of considerable interest, and because
we do not know of any so effectual a way of improving a new process as by
bringing the scattered ingenuity of a large number of minds to bear upon
its principles and manipulations.

The means by which the photographic image becomes fixed upon the
stone consist in the capacity the photographic preparation possesses, when
subjected to the action of an essence of cloves and cassia, to assume the
metallic form in those places which have been unacted upon by light, while
those places which have been so acted upon do not assume the metallic
form. The stone, after having received the image, and having undergone
the silvering process, which is identical with that of Drayton's process for
silvering looking-glasses, is rubbed over with water, which, however, will
only penetrate in those parts unprotected by the metallic covering. The
metallic covering may next be removed by the solvent power of quicksilver,
and we have then a stone saturated with water, only in some places, and on
the application of the common lithographic printing roller, the ink will of
course only adhere in the parts not so saturated, and we shall have a stone
in part saturated with water, and in part with ink, as in the ordinary litho-
graphic process.

It is needless to say that we anticipate from this new art many important
benefits, and it will not be one of the least, that, by its aid, copies of all
great works of art may be diffused among the people at a very small
expense. Any man of moderate means may thus acquire a Louvre or a
National Gallery for himself; and these copies will of course surpass every
other in the great quality of fidelity. In fact, they will reveal the spirit of
the artist quite as effectually as the original work ; and all those minuter
shades and elusive peculiarities which constitute an artist's manner, and
which cannot be caught in an ordinary copy, will be given in these delinea-
tions with matchless fidelity. It is, however, as needless as it is easy to
descant upon the advantages of photographic delineations, if they can be
furnished at a moderate charge, and this method makes that condition pos-
sible. Of course a new process cannot rise at once to maturity, and many
failures must at first occur ; but time will cure these evils, and progressively
realize all the advantages the art is able to confer.

Art. XVIII.— LOSS OP MECHANICAL EFFECT INCIDENT TO
THE PRESENT MEANS OF EMPLOYING FUEL.

The temperature of an ordinary furnace is many thousands of degrees, while
the temperature of ordinary steam is little above 212°, the temperature of the
hot-well of an engine being 100°. All mechanical effect produced by heat is
realised by its passing from one temperature to another ; and in the subsidence
of the temperature from 212°, or perhaps 220°, to the temperature of 100°,
the power of an ordinary engine is attained. It is obvious, however, that

this portion of the declination forms only a small part of the series, and that
no advantage is taken in the existing methods of realizing powers, of the dif-
ference between the temperature of 20,000°, which may be taken as that of
an ordinary furnace, and 212°, or 220° it may be, which is the temperature
to which the heat is reduced before and after it is used. There would thus
appear to be only a very small portion of the mechanical virtue of the coal
realized by an ordinary steam-engine ; and the device of some method be-
comes important, by which advantage might be taken of the higher tempera-
tures. We do not think that this is accomplishable by the employment of
steam, and there are great mechanical difficulties standing in the way of deal-
ing upon any terms with high temperatures. But the power is there, if it
could only be used ; and the loss incident to the present methods of employing
fuel ought to stimulate the ingenious to the device of means by which so
great a loss might be avoided. So long as the steam-engine is employed, we
do not see in what way a much better effect is to be got than is realized at
present ; for nobody, we presume, would think of employing steam of many
thousand degrees in temperature, for no vessels could be made to generate or
contain steam of such a quality. The considerations, however, to which we
have adverted, seem to indicate the advantage of surcharged steam, the tem-
perature of which is high, though the pressure may not be more than usual.
An investigation of the benefits of this sort of steam is given in another part
of the present Number, by which it appears, that by the use of this kind of
steam a saving may be realised.

Art. XIX.— THE OCCUPATIONS OF THE PEOPLE.

Abstract of the Answers and Returns made pursuant to Acts 3 and 4 Vict
c. 99, and 4 Vict., c. 7, intituled respectively, "An Act for talcing an
Account of the Population of Great Britain," and " An Act to amend
the Acts of the last Session for taking an Account of the Population. "
London : 1844.

This Abstract is a work of vast labour and difficulty, but it is at the same
time of corresponding importance ; for it is a most desirable thing to know
not merely the number of inhabitants in the country, but the nature of their
several employments ; and to be able to trace the growth or decline of par-
ticular branches of industry, in the fluctuations of the number of persons
engaged in it. Indeed, all legislation must proceed very much in the dark,
without the aid of such information as is here collected ; and we esteem it a
matter of great consequence to every person who addresses himself to tin
public in any way, to be in possession of the information this Abstract ren
ders. It, of course, consists chiefly of tables, showing the number of per
sons of each different occupation existing in the places specified ; but it i
prefaced with some very interesting remarks, touching upon the general
subject ; some of which we cannot do better than here transcribe. The
following relates to the rate of increase in the population : —

" It will not fail to he remarked, that the result of this comparison for all Eng-
land is, that while the ascertained increase is nearly 14£ per ceut., the natural in-
crease at the present rate would appear to be not quite 10 per cent, in ten years.
As this difference can, of course, in no way be accounted for by immigration from
county to county, there appear to be only three modes of resolving the difficulty,
each of which, or all combined in various degrees, may be adopted for that purpose.
1st. The immigration into England from Ireland and Scotland may be greater than
the immigration from England to the colonies. In support of this it may be re-
marked, that the ascertained increase for Scotland is much less than that for Eng-
land ; and that this is still more the case with the Returns for Ireland, although
there is no reason to suppose that the natural increase is in the same ratio less, —
a point upon which no certain decision can be formed, for want of a civil registry
of births, deaths, and marriages in those parts of the United Kingdom similar to
that in force for England and Wales. 2nd. The difference shown by the result of
this table may be caused by the registry of births being more defective than that of
deaths. Many reasons may be suggested why this should be the'ease, — the most obvious
being that of illegitimate births, where numerous motives concur for avoiding regis-
tration, if possible, while the registrar is less likely to he able to detect the omission.
Indeed it is so well known that the registry of births was so very greatly deficient in
1833, that on this account that year has not been brought into calculation in this
table, as far as regards the births. The third reason that may be assigned why the
excess of births over deaths, as shown in the last four years, should not, when
spread over ten years, furnish the increase exhibited by the Census Returns, is,
that the increase might have gone on at a greater rate during the former than it did
in the latter portion of the decennial period. There is no doubt that the period
immediately preceding that at which the census was taken was one of considerable
depression in almost every branch of industry ; and that the distress thereby engen-
dered may have unduly increased the mortality, and therefore lowered the rate of
natural increase, cannot be denied."

The following comparison of the number of persons respectively employe 1
in agricultural and commercial occupations, and which shows the rapidly
increasing proportion of the latter, is cimuch interest and importance: —

"The altered proportion which the agricultural bears to the commercial classes
for Great Britain generally, will at first perhaps excite surprise. The proportions
which the agricultural, the commercial, and the miscellaneous classes bore to each
other, were, in

1844.]

Marvels of the Day.

211

Commercial.

Miscellaneous.

44

21

46

2)

42

30

Agricultural.

1811 35

1821 33

1831 28

■while they were respectively in

1841 22 46 32

"It should be noticed that these comparative statements refer, in the three first
decennial periods, to families, but upon the present occasion to individuals. The
latter mode give9 a more accurate view of the amount of employment afforded in
each division of labour ; but inasmuch as there are rather more of the younger
branches of a family employed in trade and manufactures than in agriculture, it
may have slightly augmented the difference here exhibited. The other facts shown
by these returns are, however, so much in accordance with these results as to con-
firm their accuracy. The increase of population generally, in the agricultural
counties, is very small, while in the manufacturing and mining seats of industry, it
far exceeds that of England generally. It is also obvious, that while the natural
limits of the extent of laud in cultivation must restrict the numbers returned as
cultivating it, the unlimited nature of the supplies afforded of the produce of
other countries, must make the extent of demand the only measure of the num-
ber of hands that may be employed commercially in converting the raw material
into the articles required for clothing or luxury, and in disposing of them, when
converted, among home and foreign customers. So, also, the extent of surface, is
no test of the depth to which the labours of the enterprising miner may be di-
rected ; and it is a curious fact, that in some counties there are more labourers
employed in bringing up and rendering available the hidden treasures concealed
below, than can be profitably employed in cultivating the surface.

"The total number of agricultural labourers in Great Britain, of both sexes,
amounts (as will be seen in the Classification) to 1,138,563, being the largest
number returned under any one head, except domestic servants, who amount to
1,165,233. It is a curious fact, that the total number of both sexes included
under these two heads is, in localities varying much as to other circumstances,
pretty nearly the same. It must be matter for congratulation that so large a num-
ber of females as 908,825 should be comprehended in a class in which habits of
steady industry, of economy, and of attention to the maintenance of good charac-
ter are so necessary as that of domestic service.

" Of tradesmen and handicraftsmen, by far the largest number are included
under the head of boot and shoemakers, amounting in the whole to 214,780, or
nearly one-third more than the butchers, bakers, buttermen, milkmen, grocers, and
greengrocers put together.

"It was important to ascertain correctly the numbers employed upon the staple
articles of manufacture of this kingdom, inasmuch as in the absence of any
official Returns upon this point (except those of the Factory Commissioners),
the estimates of persons qualified to judge and to arrive at correct conclusions have
varied very greatly. . The numbers employed in and about the manufacture of
cotton have been estimated much beyond, and as far below the truth. It will
he seen by the following table (p. 16) that the actual number, including men,
women, and children, returned under that head, amounts to 302,376.

" To the numbers included strictly under the head of cotton manufacture,
might be added as employed upon this fabric in its more advanced stages most of
those here returned under the head of "lace"' and '-'hose;" if to these be added
the fair proportion of those who appear under the general heads of weavers, spinners,
and factory-workers (fabric not specified), we may fairly assume the numbers to
whom the cotton manufacture furnished employment in Great Britain was near
upon half a million in June, 1841. And this, be it remembered, was a period of
great depression in this branch of trade, and when many large establishments were
closed.

" In order to give a general view of the relative importance of the different
staple manufactures with reference to the number of hands employed, we have
prepared a table, in which we have allotted to each fabric its fair proportion
of the total number of persons here returned under the general appellation of
weaver, spinner, and factory-worker, (fabric not specified)."

To these remarks we shall only add, that in round numbers there are of
blacksmiths, 97,000; bricklayers, 39,000; cabinet-makers, 30,000 ; car-
penters, 162,000; coopers, 18,000; dress-makers, 106,000; engineers,
25,000; masons, 82,000; painters, plumbers, and glaziers, 48,000;
printers, 18,000; sawyers, 29,000; shipbuilders, 20,000 ; shopkeepers,
26,000; and tailors, 126,000. This is but a slender enumeration, but will
f suffice to convey some faint notion of the consequence of the artizan
population.

Art. XX.— ANALYSIS OP BOOKS.

Observations on the Sanatory Arrangements of Factories, with Remarks on
the present Methods of Warming and Ventilation, and Proposals for
their Improvement. By Robert Ritchie. London, Weale, 1844.

This little work is the substance of a paper read before that very useful body,
the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, and it contains a great deal of physiological
information, illustrative of the necessity of a more thorough ventilation, as well as
a description of the methods by which such a ventilation may be accomplished.
The following is a summary of the modes recommended : —

"I propose to warm the atmospheric air to a moderate temperature before ad-
mission to all factories by mild heating surfaces — to combine the ventilating with
the warming process, by giving continual supplies of fresh and pure air in every
case with the heat, and regulated in moisture according to the temperature of the
air: — and in factories where high degrees of heat are requisite, such a mode of

warming the air may be combined with the surface of pipes, but, if possible, should
be avoided. I propose to make use of mechanical ventilation in factories, by
means of a wind-fan, screw-ventilator, or air-pump, placed at the bottom of the
building, in order to throw in a constant stream of fresh air of regulated warmth,
and to draw off the exhaled or vitiated air by a wind-fan on the upper part of the
building, communicating with pipes placed near the ceiling of each room, these two
wind-fans being worked either by the steam-engine, or other power as may suit best,
or that some similar mode be adopted at every factory, to attain a constant and
steady supply and movement of the air throughout the different floors of the fac-
tory, and that it may be kept at an equal and regulated temperature, and a full
supply of pure air may be thrown in. There can be no great difficulty in the attain-
ment of all this. The great object I have in view, is to establish a sound principle of
ventilation and warming, applicable to all mills, rather than dwell much on details —
the latter I have, however, fully entered on in my paper ; but it is well known,
that details admit of so many endless modifications, according to local circum-
stances and interior arrangements of buildings, that no plans I could propose, how-
ever varied, would suit all. But when the modus operandi is guided by carrying
out a fixed principle, obstacles in practice will soon be overcome. The subject is
surrounded with some difficulties ; the proposals I make are not given on the idea of
being perfect, but on their simple practical application."

The Sequential System of Musical Notation : a proposed New Method of

Writing Music in strict conformity vnth Nature. By Arthur Wall-
bridge. Second Edition. London: Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., 1844.
This production lies in an orbit somewhat beyond our cycle, and any opinion we
might presume to pass upon the merits of this new system must be given with cor-
responding diffidence. In our eyes, however, the scheme appears to be one of great
ingenuity, and we look upon some such innovation as being perfectly feasible. We
believe Mr. Wallbridge will be able to explain the objects and advantages of his
system much better than we could do, and we therefore give our readers the Au-
thor's summary of them.

" This system is proposed to the public as a method of writing music in perfect
accordance with nature, and combining simplicity of construction with capability
of expressing any degree of complexity. It has been attempted to obviate all the
objections urged against former systems of improved notation, and to render this
not only rational in theory, but easy and satisfactory in practice.

" An arbitrary arrangement of sounds has hitherto prevailed, which renders
change of key clumsy and difficult. Even the human voice, the most flexible and
perfect of all instruments, to which each one of the twenty-four keys, major and
minor, is equally natural, has been subjected to this bondage. In the Sequential
System, no such arbitrary arrangement is recognised, but music is written independ-
ently of all artificial considerations, and the performer is left to execute it according
to the peculiarities of the instrument for which it is intended. The general intro-
duction of the new system, however, would necessitate a new description of key-
board, constructed iu no particular key, but, like the human voice, with capacity for
adaptation to any key, with the same ease and propriety.

" The letters forming the syllables which designate various conditions of notes
are invariably to be pronounced according to the Italian alphabet ; except u, which
is German, and pretty much like eii in French : and a, which is to have the sound
of the English a in the words call, fall, &c.

" The Sequential System of Notation is offered with all humility. It is not the
production of a musical doctor, who, complacently seated in his chair of state,
speaks dogmatically to the crowd beneath him, but of an amateur, who, finding the
old path to the temple crooked, miry, and full of sharp, ugly brambles, suggests the
desirability of making a new one, and submits a plan for the purpose."

The work throughout is extremely well written, and altogether appears to us to
be admirable for its merit, and remarkable for its modesty.

Steill's Pictorial Geography. London : B. Steill, 1844.
The design of this little work is a good one, and appears to be very well carried
out. It aspires to make the study of geography interesting by the aid of pictorial
delineation, and we have consequently a vast number of well-engraved wood-cuts,
which will vastly facilitate the juvenile readers' apprehension. The system is that
of the infant schools, and there cannot, in our judgment, be a better, either for
infants or illiterate adults.

Art. XXL— MARVELS OF THE DAY.

Ruined Cities of Mexico. — We lately attended a lecture in Miss Kelly's Theatre,
on the " Ruined Cities and Ancient Inhabitants of America." The lecturer, Mr.
Sheppard, principally aimed at showing that the New World was peopled by a
Scandinavian race, and in corroboration of this doctrine, he referred to some sculp-
tures which he exhibited, as evidence of a similarity in religious belief, the said
sculpture being, he maintained, an impersonation of the Edda doctrine of their
European progenitors.

In giving this abstract of the lecture, we must be understood as speaking rather
doubtfully ; for it was by no means an easy matter to ascertain the drift of the
lecturer's arguments, and we are not at all certain that we properly apprehended
them. There was a great want of coherence in the lecture, and it seemed to be
simply an index or list of contents of some work, upon which Mr. Sheppard gave
a few perplexing comments in the course of reading it. The lecturer seemed to be
well read in the musty lore of the controversy on the origin of the American
people, and apparently had looked so long and so fixedly at that one point, that it
had assumed an importance in his eyes, most disproportionate to its real significance.
He therefore declaimed with much vehemence against the immobility and dulness
of those who could look upon the subject with a more unimpassioned gaze than
his own, and gave as the climax of his discourse the convincing and magnificent

212

Marvels of the Day.

exclamation, " I wonder what people are made of ?" In the course of the lecture
there were several similar outbursts, the most amusing of which, perhaps, was when,
explaining the system of which this lecture was only an example, he declared in
a tone of noble indignation, that if the people of this country failed to support
him, he should certainly carry his valuable self and system to other and more
intelligent lands, and that having a mission to fulfil, its object should not be sacri-
ficed by England's neglect. From some remarks at the close of the lecture, which
we had the patience to sit out, it appears that the system which he advocates, and
which he held out dire threats of establishing elsewhere, is, simply to give popular
lectures on history and physical geography with numerous illustrations, both
scenic and otherwise, of countries, their productions, animals, and costumes. This,
we think, is good; but by no means so original as to justify the self-gratulation of
Mr. Sheppard ; it is in fact, the very system which is pursued in the numerous
infant schools of this and other countries, although Mr. Sheppard is entitled to
praise for his exertions in extending its obvious benefits to adults. Mr. Sheppard is,
however, endowed with so large a share of self-esteem that its manifestation mars the
pleasure and profit his lectures might otherwise convey ; and he obviously lacks
that connexion in his discourses, which is so necessary to retain the attention of a
popular audience. Mr. Sheppard does not however pretend, as he tells us, to be
a good lecturer ; he merely wishes to set the machine in motion, for which purpose,
with characteristic diffidence, he expresses his willingness to lecture upon one-half
the nations and countries of the globe. We should be wrong to close our remarks
without stating that the paintings were admirable, and that the lecture evinced
much kindly and liberal feeling, leading us to conclude that an amiable recluse
had injudiciously assumed the character of a public lecturer; and had with much
simplicity assumed that every one was sufficiently acquainted with the ancient
cities of America, to be able to fill up any hiatus in his expositions, and had the
same exaggerated opinions of the importance of such inquiries, with which he
happened to be possessed. But what, although the ancient Americans came from
Scandinavia — will that make bread cheaper, or trade more brisk? Will it affect
the currency, or improve our methods of locomotion, or will the resolution of such
a doubt, in fact, accomplish any useful purpose, directly or otherwise ? Wc suspect
not, and although we are by no means for making utility the test and limit of our
pursuits, yet, we really think that people who can show no such incentives, ought
to hold a less emphatic tone respecting the consequence of the wares they offer to
the public.

A new destructive Power. — Mr. Nasmyth, of Patricroft, near Manchester, has
submitted to the Admiralty a design for an iron bomb-proof ship, propelled by
great steam-power, which may be employed to run down vessels in time of war, and
thus cause their instant destruction. This is a return to the mode of fighting prac-
tised by the ancient galleys, and, when aided by the force of steam, we have no
doubt that it would be most effectual. The vessel is proposed to be propelled by
the screw, and the how is of course to be so formed as to make a hole in the anta-
gonist vessel beneath the water. The idea, we must add, is not new, and has to our
knowledge occurred to other persons.

Baths and Wash-houses for the Operative Classes in London. — A project is in agi-
tation for extending to London the benefits of public baths for the industrial classes
which have made such an impression elsewhere, and for associating with them wash-
houses for clothes at 6uch a moderate rate of charge as to be within the means of the
most humble. " It is contemplated," says the Spectator, " to begin with four foun-
dations, three on the Middlesex, and one on the Surrey side of the river, at the total
expense of 30,000/. The annual charge thereafter to be met by the payments of
those who may use them : Id. for a cold, and 2d. for a warm bath (the use of a
towel inclusive), being the rates for the bathers; while at the wash-houses all ap-
pliances and means for six hours' scrubbing, drying, and ironing, are to be supplied
for 2d. With the aid of an income to be derived from a few baths of a more ex-
pensive kind, the institutions are thus expected shortly to compass their own sup-
port. It cannot be doubted that the 30,000/. will speedily be raised."

Excavations on the Site of Ancient Nineveh. — Recent researches at Khorsabad,
which stands on the site of the " city of Ninus," have brought to light many in-
teresting Assyrian remains, which seem to occupy a middle place between the
remains of Persepolis and Egina, both of which they resemble. The French consul
at Mossul has been very assiduous in the business of resurrection, and has lately dis-
covered the remains of an Assyrian palace, the walls of which are covered with bas-
reliefs, executed with great labour and finish; but, in the representations, there is
throughout a great want of perspective. There are a multitude of inscriptions met
with, which the same explorer is getting copied. The remains of this part of the
world deserve a more ardent research than they have as yet received, for we believe
in them will yet be found the chronological key to the history of the human race.

FROM OUR CALCUTTA CORRESPONDENT.

Inland Steam Navigation. — A large meeting was held, a few days ago, of the
shareholders of the India General Steam Navigation Company, to receive the report
of the proceedings. The chief point brought forward, was the declaration, by
Dwarkanath Tagoro, that the Directors of the Steam Tug Association wished that
all idea of a union of the two companies should be abandoned. Dwarkanath could
not well have expressed himself otherwise, than that the Directors of the Steam
Tug ivislied that the two companies should be kept separate, although it is very
well known that the Tug Company was most anxious for a junction ; but, seeing
that the majority of the shareholders would not allow the new Company to be
turned into a jobbing concern, the Tug Company has been forced to forego the
alliance. It was politic enough that such a motion should proceed from the lips
of Dwarkanath, as he plainly saw that he could not gain his end, and that people
were determined neither he nor his firm should have any greater influeneo in the
proceedings of the Company than any of the other shareholders— that the Company

would not even use coals from his mine in Burdwan, unless they proved them, by-
experiment, to be the best and most economical — and that the Company would
certainly not give the secretaryship into the hands of his firm, in order that the
said house might appropriate the oyster, and give the shareholders and the public
the shells. A new and unpaid board of Directors have been appointed, for a fixed
period of twelve months ; and the office of Managing Director has been thrown
open to public competition. A letter was read from the present Managing Di-
rector, who is only provisional, detailing the various duties of this officer, and
stating his opinion that the salary should be 100/. per month, until the placing of
the first boats; after which period, it should bo 200/. per month. He thinks that
the Company should not tender, and that no managing director should accept, a
lower remuneration.

Timber Trade of Moulmein. — I may here tell you something about Moulmein
and its timber trade, which I lately gleaned from a very able article in the Moul-
mein Chronicle. Your readers must all know of the existence of the vast teak
forests in that district, and that the export of that valuable wood constitutes not
only the timber-trade, but, indeed, almost the export commerce of Moulmein. The
disquisition, however, to which I have referred was not an assortment of recipes
how to fell teak, or how to choose the trees that should be felled, but to explain
the high rate of interest upon money in Moulmein. This phenomenon was attri-
buted to three causes: — 1st. The hazardous nature of the timber-trade, the staple
of these provinces : 2nd. Property in lands and houses not being considered valid
security : and, 3rd., The contiguity of Moulmein to the Burman frontier. As to
the first of these causes, the principal borrowers of money are the Burmese
foresters, who have to purchase elephants, and the necessary gear, and have to pay
the wages of their Cooly labourers. The risk of lending is, then, very great ; for
the prospect of receiving the money back depends upon the health of the people
and the elephants — the character of the parties dealing — the probability of losing a
great portion of the timber before it reaches Moulmein, by sudden rises or falls of
the river — the state of the market when the cargo arrives — and the probable dura-
tion of the loan. Should the market be low when the cargo arrives, the borrower
borrows from a second party, at 3 per cent, per month, in order to repay the first
lender ; so that the timber may not be required to be disposed of in a falling
market. The lenders are chiefly natives, moguls, who, although they often sus-
tain heavy losses, make in the end good fortunes. As to the second reason, and
it is extraordinary that the cause should exist, that landed property is not consi-
dered as valid security. When these provinces were ceded to the British Empire,
the people were invited to settle. Whatever location was pitched upon, the settler
of course considered the ground as his own — Government not having parcelled, or
attempted to dispose of grants of land. The consequence is, that occupation has
established some degree of right ; but the want of documents, and distinct boun-
daries, has been the cause of endless litigation. This can be easily understood,
when, even at home, parties having plenty of documents and deeds, are continually
wasting their money at law, disputing about a brick-wall or a foot-wide ditch,
though every precaution has been taken to preserve the proper boundary. Houses,
again, are unsatisfactory security, owing to the inflammable nature of the materials
with which they are constructed, the majority of them being erected of wood, or mats-
thatched over with straw. And as to the third reason assigned, the distance bet
tween Moulmein and the Burmese town of Martaban, is only a couple of miles
So close a contiguity, of course, affords an easy means of escape to fraudulenr
debtors. The natives, it appears, at Moulmein, raise money by pledging, but neve,
selling, their jewels. The interest paid is 2 per cent, per month, and often more
Europeans, too, in drawing on their correspondents in India, take their bills into
the bazaar, where they are cashed at a discount also of 2 per cent, per month. All
goo ds, such as English manufactures, are sold at a credit of two or three months
and are paid by a bill, which is never settled within less than six months after
being placed in the broker's hands. The great disadvantage, then, which traders
have to bear, is, that all purchases of timber are paid in cash, and all sales of im-
ported goods by credit, the payment being uncertain enough even after the term
of credit has expired.

Miscellanea. — The Earl of Lincoln has directed Mr. Page and Mr. Thomas
Cubitt to survey and lay out Battersea-fields for a park, to be called Albert Park.
They have received instructions to plan an ornamental piece of water for a bath-
ing-place, to be screened with plantation. There i3 to be an exhibition of the

products of industry, next year, at Vienna, but it will be confined to the manufac-
tures of Austria; whereas the Berlin exhibition includes the products of the whole
of Germany. The Emperor of Austria intends, it is said, to create a special order
of merit for the manufacturers who shall be declared wurthy of it, and the posses-
sor of the decoration will he declared noble ; but his nobility is not to be hereditary.

The New Royal Exchange is so far advanced that the committee of Lloyd's

have announced to the subscribers that the subscription-room will be prepared for
the transaction of business in a short time. The centre area of the Exchange is
nearly all laid down with the tesellated pavement. The building is entirely cleaned

externally, and workmen are employed in placing the flag-stones. A new and

extraordinary life-boat is being built upon the diagonal principle, the planks of

which are composed of India rubber and ground cork, A new Theatre Royal

is about to be erected at Manchester. The architects appointed are Messrs. Irwin
and Chester, who are preparing designs for the structure. The estimated expense
is 17,000/., and it is calculated that the new theatre will be opened by Christmas.
The style of decoration will be that of the age of Francis I., closely resembling

the style of the Princess' Theatre, Oxford-street. A new optical instrument,

called the proteoscope, on account of its versatility, was exhibited for the first time
at the Polytechnic Institution on Monday afternoon. The instrument reflects
drawings magnified to an enormous size on an opaque disc.

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THE ARTIZAN.

No. XXII.— OCTOBER 31st, 1844.

Art. I.— CARPENTRY.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF ROOFS.

The roof described in Art. XV., page 209, in which the beams are supposed
to be all of the same length, and the angles situated in the circumference of a
semicircle, is the simplest in the construction or graphic delineation, and the
easiest of calculation of any variety of mansard roof that can occur. It is,
however, seldom used in modern buildings, in consequence of the flatness of
the upper part, which does not readily discharge the extraneous matter that
may happen to be lodged upon it ; a circumstance that does not take place
when the inclination of the rafter to the horizon is less than what is techni-
cally denominated the angle of repose. This is a point which ought to be par-
ticularly attended to in the construction of roofs ; for when matter is allowed
to accumulate externally, the equilibrium may be destroyed, and, in conse-
quence, the stability of the building itself become endangered. It will be
observed, that we here express ourselves contingently ; for it would be diffi-
cult to conceive a case where, in ordinary circumstances, matter would be ■
permitted to accumulate to such an extent as to derange the stability of a
well-constructed roof; yet we think it necessary, in treating expressly on the
subject, decidedly to condemn the practice of giving any part of a sloping
roof a less inclination than 33 degrees, for at that point all matter that gra-
vitates has a tendency to slide off if it be not prevented by friction or some
other obstacle in the line of its motion. It will be understood by these re-
marks, that we do not include the case of a flat roof or platform over a build-
ing ; for, in this case, the accumulated load falls between the points of equi-
librium, and is, in consequence, not attended with so much danger as when
the equipoise is destroyed laterally by an unequal accumulation of matter on
the sloping parts. It may be remarked, that the sketch in page 209 does
not satisfy the conditions of the description there given, for the beams are
not all of the same length, neither do all the points of connexion lie in the
circumference of a semicircle: this apparent inconsistency may, however, be
explained, by stating that, on introducing the subject, our motive was to give
a general idea of the arrangement, by selecting an example that actually ex-
ists, without attending particularly to the proportion that subsists between
the parts, and accordingly we selected one which appeared in a drawing by
the late Timothy Brarnah, and of which the sketch here alluded to is an
exact copy ; but in order that nothing may be wanting to render the subject
as complete and explicit as possible, we here present our readers with the
actual construction of the case in question. This we do the more readily, as
the subject, when considered in all its generality, is a very important one, and
because, when the simpler cases are well understood, the more difficult ones
become so much the easier of comprehension. The construction is as fol-
lows : —

From a scale of equal parts of a magnitude suited to the size of the page
or the paper on which the construction is to be made, set off the straight line
AE, fig. 11, equal to the given width or span of the roof. Bisect the span
AE in the point F, and at F erect the perpendicular EC, which make equal
to half the span, FA or FE ; then will FC be the rise or height of the pro-
Fig. 11.

posed roof. Upon the point F as a centre, with FA as a radius, describe the
semicircle ABCDE ; bisect the quadrants ABC and EDC in the points B
and D, and draw the radii FB, FD, and the chords AB, BC, CD and DE

will be the rafters required.

VOL. II.

Here, then, it is obvious that each of the triangles AFB, BFC, CFD, and
DFE, is isosceles, having the angles at the base equal to one another; but
the four angles at the centre F, subtended by the chords AB, BC, CD, and
DE, are respectively equal to 45 degrees ; and since the three angles of every
triangle are equal to two right angles, or 180 degrees, each of the angles at
the base is equal to \ (180° — 45°) = 67° 30' ; hence the inclination of the
extreme rafters AB and ED is known, and so also is that of BC and DC ;
for, draw BD, which represents the tie-beam of the roof, and it will mani-
festly intersect the vertical radius FC at right angles in the point H, so that
the angles CBH and CDH are respectively the complements of FCB and
FCD, and are, therefore, equal to 90° — 67° 30' = 22° 30', being the same
angles as were used in the calculation previously performed. Draw the
straight lines or chords AC and EC, and let fall the perpendiculars BI and
DK ; then will AC and EC be the rafters in a common roof when it is of
true pitch ; that is, having the angle ACE equal to 90 degrees, or a right
angle; and the distances, Al, IF, and AF, are respectively the orthographic
projections or seats of the rafters AB, BC, and AC on the plan or base AE ;
and the same may be said of the corresponding rafters on the other side
of the roof.

It is not a necessary condition to the equality of length in the several
beams that constitute the ribs or frames of the roof, that all the points of
connexion should be situated in the circumference of a circle, as we have here
supposed them to be ; but, on the contrary, the beams may be all equal
among themselves for all values of the angle in which they meet each other,
from 180 to 90 degrees ; the lengths undergoing all magnitudes from one half
of AC to one half of AE : in the former case the figure coincides with the
common circumflex or inverted V roof, as ACE in the diagram ; and in the
latter case it becomes a rectangle. But when the height of the roof is either
greater or less than half the span, the latter condition cannot obtain ; that is,
two equal lines drawn from the points A and C cannot meet each other in an
angle of 90 degrees ; the greatest length of the rafter must, therefore, be
limited by the point in which a straight line bisecting AC perpendicularly,
meets the vertical line passing through A, or the horizontal line passing
through C ; the least length being still equal to one half of AC or AC, ac-
cording as the height is greater or less than half the span or base of the roof.
It may, perhaps, be both useful and interesting to exemplify the principles
here stated by a graphical construction ; and for this purpose, let AF, fig. 12,
be half the width or semi-span, and FC,
FC, the rise or height, the one above true
pitch, and the other below it.* Join AC
and AC', to represent the common or cir-
cumflex rafter in the two cases, and through
the points A and C draw the straight lines
AB and C B', the one perpendicular to
AF, and the other parallel to it. Bisect
AC and AC perpendicularly by the
straight lines DB and D' B', and let them
be produced to meet AB and C B' in the
points B, B', and draw CB, AB', which
will be the greatest possible lengths of the
rafters for the two assumed heights ; CD
and C D' being their least lengths. That
these are respectively the greatest and
least lengths is very easily shown ; for,
if CB of AB' were made longer than what we have represented them to be in
the figure, the rafters would fall into the positions denoted by the dotted lines,
AE, CE, or AE', CE', where AE lies on the wrong side of the vertical line
AB, and, in consequence, overhangs the wall ; and C E' being elevated above
the horizontal line C B', declines towards the middle of the roof, positions
which are totally inadmissible in the form of roof that we are now consider-
ing ; it is therefore obvious, that if the length of the rafters be not limited by

* It may be proper to remark, that what is here meant by true pitch, is that
point in the height which would give the common circumflex roof a true pitch, or
that which would give an angle of 90 degrees for the inclination of the sloping
planes, or sides of the roof.

214

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[October,

the conditions of construction, they may admit of any magnitude whatever
between CD and CB, or between CD' and C'B', which are their ultimate
values ; that is, the rafters may concur in any point of the lines BD or B' D',
according as the height is greater or less than th# semi-span, or above or
below true pitch.

The above method of assigning the limits suggests another that is some-
what more easy and elegaDt ; for, by the nature of the figure, it is obvious
that the angle BAC is equal to the angle ACF, each of them being the com-
plement of the angle CAF ; but the angle BCA is equal to the angle BAC,
the triangle ABC being isosceles by construction ; consequently, the angle
BCA is equal to ACF.

Again, the angle B'C'A is equal to the angle CAF, each of them being
the complement of ACF ; but the angle B'AC is equal to the angle B'C'A,
for the reason just stated ; consequently B'AC is equal to CAF ; hence this
process. At the point C make the angle ACB equal to ACF, and through
the point A draw the straight line AB parallel to FC, and meeting CB in the
point B ; then is CB or AB the greatest possible length of the rafter when the
height is above the true pitch ; but, when the height is below the true pitch,
at the point A make the angle B'AC equal to CAF, and through the point
C draw the straight line CB' parallel to AF, and meeting AB' in the point
B' ; then is AB' or C B' the greatest possible length of the rafter.

The method of construction given above for determining the limits of the
rafters, in the case when they are equal, is very simple ; but the limits can
also be readily assigned by calculation ; and, because numerical results are
always more to be depended on than those obtained by a mechanical process,
we shall show how the thing is to be done in this way likewise ; and for this
purpose we must have recourse to the property of the right-angled triangle,
where

AC= a/AF2"+CF2; and AC = a/AF2+CF2;
but CD = i AC = i a/AF2 + CF2 ; and CD'
consequently, by similar triangles, it is

FC : a/AF2 + CF2 : : i a/AF2 + CF2
therefore, by working out the proportion, we get

AF- + CF2

|AC' = i a/AF2 + CF2;

BC;

BC = AB

2-CF

Now this is a very simple expression for the extreme limit of the rafter ; and
the rule for reducing it is as follows : —

Rule. — When the height of the roof is above true pitch — that is, when
the height is greater than half the span — divide the sum of the squares of the
height and semi-span by twice the height, and the quotient Will be the
greatest length that can be given to the rafter ; and for the least length, take
one half of the square root of the sum, of the squares of the height and
semi-span, and the result will be the least length ; in which case, the upper
and the lower rafters will form a straight line, as in the common circumflex
or inverted V roof.

By pursuing a similar process when the height is less than the semi-span,
or half the width of the house, we get

AF : a/AF2 + CF2 : : £ a/AF2 + CF2 : AB' ;
and by working out the proportion, the value of AB' or CB' becomes

AF2 + CF2

AB' = CB' = -

2-AF

This expression is symmetrical with that from which the above rule is de-
duced ; and, consequently, the reduction will be performed in a similar
manner, with this difference only, that the divisor is twice the semi-span
instead of being twice the height of the roof : this distinction being attended
to, there is no necessity for repeating the rule, which is in all other respects
the same as the above.

It is not improbable that some of our more advanced and experienced
practical readers may sneer at the trouble we have taken to point out the
limits to which the length of the rafters may be extended ; thinking, perhaps,
that there is no occasion for such limitations, as there is but little danger of
men who know their business falling into an error of the kind. This may be
all very true, but still we have thought it proper to put the less experienced
practitioners on their guard in such a case ; and, in order to show that it is
just possible a mistake of the sort may occur, we shall propose the following
very simple problem : — Let it be required to construct a curb or mansard
roof consisting of four equal beams in each frame or rib, the base or span of
the roof being 24 feet, and the rise or height 15 feet.

Here the height or rise of the roof is greater than the semi-span ; and,
since there is no length of rafter mentioned, it is more than probable that an
inexperienced workman would take the mean between the semi-span and
height for the common length of the beams. There is nothing in the nature
of the problem itself that would lead him to a different line of practice ; and
if he did suspect that the result obtained in this way would not answer his
purpose, he could only ascertain the validity of his suspicion, by means of a
number of trials with the rule and square. But, supposing that he did adopt
the mean between the two given dimensions, which is (12 + 15) -s- 2 = 135
feet — not at all an unlikely length in the case — and proceeded, as is usual
with workmen, to put the whole of the ribs together before putting any one
of them on the wall-plates to prove their accuracy ; he would then find to his

cost that all his labour had been in vain ; for, having joined the rafters ac-
cording to this length, and with the direct distance between the wall and the
ridge, they would form a wrong angle at the points of connexion; and, in
consequence, the whole would have to be undone, and again refitted. Now, by
applying the above rule, all this labour and loss of time would be avoided, for
we at once obtain a length for the beams beyond which they cannot extend ;
and, consequently, any length between the limits thus obtained will be found
to answer the purpose of a roof. Thus we have £ a/152 + \L22 = 9'6 feet the
least limit, and (152 + 122) -H 30 = 12-3 feet, the greatest limit. Hence it
appears, that the assumed length of 13-5 feet is greater than it possibly can
be, by 13'5 — 12-3 = 1*2 feet; and if the roof were to be constructed in
this way, the lower rafter would beetle over the wall, thereby giving an in-
clination in the wrong direction. We do not say that any such a blunder can
actually be committed, for the error must ultimately be detected before the
structure can be reared ; but we affirm, that such an oversight may occur in
the first place, having ourselves witnessed instances of the kind; and, in con-
sequence, much valuable time and labour may be needlessly lost : it is,
therefore, to prevent the occurrence of such a circumstance, that we have
dwelt so largely on this particular case. Seeing, however, that any length
may be given to the rafters, between the limits of 12-3 and 9'6 feet, it may
be of use to inquire what length is actually the best, and in what position the
beams ought to be placed when the best length obtains. Now, it is a well-
known principle in the doctrine' of Mechanics, that when two plane surfaces
intersect each other in an angle of about 109-J degrees, they are in the
strongest possible position for resisting any pressure that may be exerted in
a direction perpendicular to their surfaces ; consequently, if we suppose the
upper part of the roof forming the ridge to be two such planes, the length
and position of the beams will be determined by the following construc-
tion : —

Let AE, fig. 13, be the base or span of the roof, CF the rise or height,
and AC the direct distance between the ridge and the wall-plate at A. Bisect
AC in the point G, and at the point G erect the perpendicular GB, which
will be the line of concurrence of the beams AB and CB. At the point C
make the angle FCB equal to 54° 45', or half 109° 30', and let CB meet the
perpendicular GB in B, and draw AB ; then will AB and CB be the lengths

and positions of the beams ; and if a similar figure be constructed on the
other side of the vertical line FC, we shall have the rib of the roof ABCDE,
in which the beams are all equal to one another. A similar mode of pro-
cedure would answer for the case in which the rise or height is less than half
the span, as FC ; but, since the construction would fail when the angle ACF
is greater than 54° 45', we do not think it necessary to describe the process.

In order to determine the length of the rafter-beams by calculation, we
must again recur to the property of the right-angled triangle, where it is
shown that AC = a/AF2 + CF2 ; and CG = \ a/AF2 + CF2 ; but by the

AF
principles of plane trigonometry, we have tan. ACF = — ; hence the angle

CF
ACB becomes known, for it is equal to the difference between BCF and
ACF; that is, ACB = BCF — ACF ; and from this the side BC can easily
be found; thus we get cos. (BCF — ACF) : \ a/AF2 + CF2 : : rad. : BC =
i a/AF2 + CF2 x sec. (BCF — ACF) ; from which equation we deduce the
following rule in words : —

Rule. — Divide the semi-span, or half the base of the roof by its height,
and the quotient will give the tangent of an angle ; find the angle corre-
sponding to this tangent ; subtract it from half the angle of the ridge, and
reserve the remainder for a future operation. To the square of the height
add the square of the semi-span, and extract the square root of the sum ;
then multiply one half the square root thus found by the secant of the re-
served angle, and the product will be the length of the beam sought.

Taking AF = 12 and CF = 15 feet, as before, the process of calculation,

according to the rule, is as follows, viz., = — = 0-8, which being found

CF lo
in the table of tangents, gives ACF = 38° 40' ; but, by the conditions of
the problem, the angle BCF is 54° 45'; therefore, by subtraction, we get

1844.]

The Building Arts.

215

ACB = 54° 45' — 38° 40' = 16° 5', the natural secant of which is 1-0407.
Now, by the foregoing calculation, we found CG, or J AC, to be 9'6 feet ;
therefore, by multiplication, we obtain 10407 x 9-6 = 9-996 feet = BC
or AB.

Having thus determined the length of the rafters in the case of an equality,
we have next to determine the strain upon the walls, which in some measure
depends ,on the length of the beams, since the quantity of covering to be
supported depends on that datum. Supposing, therefore, as in the example
(Art. VI., page 209), that 10 lbs. per superficial foot is the load that the ribs
have to sustain ; then, admitting the ribs to be 2 feet apart, the whole load
upon the walls is 9-996 x 4 x 2 x 10 = 799-68 lbs., or 399'84 lbs. upon
each wall. But the effect of this weight is produced in the direction of the
extreme rafters BA and DE ; we must, therefore, resolve it into these
directions.

Conceive the extreme beams AB and ED to be extended upwards until
they meet the production of the rise or height FC; then, by the principles
of equilibrium, we know that if a weight equivalent to that which the walls
have to sustain were suspended from the point of concourse, the effect would
be the same as that which is produced by the roof in the ordinary arrange-
ment ; it is therefore only necessary to resolve the calculated weight into two
parts, acting in the direction of the lower beams BA and DE, and the result,
ing forces will be the magnitude of the strain upon the walls in these direc-
tions. It would render the figure inconveniently large for our columns to
produce the extreme beams as here described, for the purpose of showing the
method of resolution ; but the proportion will not be altered by drawing lines
parallel to them from any point in the base, which may concur within the
figure without increasing its dimensions. Thus, let H and I be any two
points equally distant from the centre, F ; and through the points H and 1
thus assumed draw the straight lines HK and IK respectively parallel to AB
and ED ; then is HKI a figure precisely similar to that which would arise by
extending the lower beams, AB and ED, to meet the production of FC, and
must, in consequence, be possessed of the same properties.

Let FK denote the whole weight sustained by the walls, including the
weight of the covering and timbers, as formerly estimated ; and upon FK, as
a diagonal, construct the parallelogram F r, K s, which will be the parallelo-
gram of forces, and Kr, Ks will be the magnitude of the strains in the di-
rections of the beams BA and DE. Through the point r draw rt parallel to
the base, AE ; then is the oblique strain, K r, resolved into its co-ordinate
vertical and horizontal composants, K t and r t, the one acting as a weight in
the direction of gravity, and the other as a thrust in the direction of the
horizon ; that which acts in the direction of gravity being obviously equal to
half the whole weight, as it ought to be. In order to calculate the values of
the oblique and horizontal thrusts, K r and r t, we must first determine the
magnitude of the angle HKF, which is the complement of BAF. Now,
CAF is the complement of ACF, and BAC is equal to BCA ; but ACF has
been found by calculation to be 38° 40', and BCA 16° 5' ; therefore we have
HKF = 38° 40' — 16° 5' = 22° 35', the double of which is 45° 10', which
gives 134? 50' for the angle F r K ; consequently, by the rules of plane tri-
gonometry, we have sin. FrK : FK : : sin. FKr : Kr ; that is,

sin. 134° 50' : 79968 : : sin. 22° 35' : Kr = 433-05 lbs., the oblique thrust ;

and for the corresponding horizontal thrust, it is

cos. 22° 35' : 399-84 : : sin. 22° 35' : tr = 1663 lbs., the horizontal thrust.

Having thus determined the horizontal thrust, which is the same at all the
points of connexion, we can easily find what portion of the entire weight
should be suspended from each angle of the figure, that the whole might re-
main in equilibrium without the aid of tye-beams or any other support what-
ever beyond the necessary connexions ; but having already illustrated this
part of the calculation by applying the formula n (tan. <p — tan. 9) = w, it
is unnecessary to repeat it.

A similar process of resolution to the above might be performed to deter-
mine the thrusts in the direction of the upper beams CB and CD ; but, since
these strains do not affect the walls otherwise than by the weight of the
beams, which is incorporated with the thrusts already determined, it is need-
less to perform the operation, it being evident that the tye-beam, BD re-
ceives the strain transmitted in the directions of the rafters, CB and CD, and
thereby prevents it from affecting the walls at A and E.

Returning to the case in which the height is equal to the semi-span, let us
suppose the upper planes, or those adjacent to the ridge, to make with each
other the angle 109J degrees, or that in which the planes offer the greatest
resistance to pressure in a direction perpendicular to their surfaces ; then it
is manifest that the beams or rafters can no longer maintain their equality,
but must be limited by the angle which those immediately contiguous to or
resting on the wall-plates make with the horizon. This angle may be of
various magnitudes according to circumstances, the larger the better when
the object is to obtain room ; but when other considerations enter the in-
quiry, such as strength and harmony of appearance, we would prefer the
angle to be the same as that which obtains when the beams are equal in
length, and the points of connexion in the circumference of a semicircle, as
in fig. 11 ; in this case the angle of inclination is 67° 30'.

Admitting, therefore, that the angle which the upper beam makes with the
vertical line at the ridge is 54° 45', and that which the lower one makes with
the horizon 67' 30' ; the. construction for the lengths of the lower and the
upper rafters will be effected in the following manner : — From a scale of equal

parts set off AE, fig. 14, equal to 24 feet, the span or width of the roof,
which bisect in the point F ; at the point F erect the perpendicular FC, which

make equal to the semi-span AF. At the point A make the angle FAB equal
to 67° 30', the given inclination of the lower beam, and at the point or ridge,
C, make the angle FCB equal to 54° 45', the given inclination of the upper
beam with the vertical line FC ; then will AB and CB be the lengths of the
beams required. Make the straight lines ED and CD respectively equal to
AB and CB, and draw the horizontal line BD ; then is ABCDE the required
roof. From the point B let fall the perpendicular, BG ; then will AG be the
orthographic projection or seat of the beam AB, and BH or GF that of BC
upon the plan or base of the roof AF.

The principle of calculation in this case is not so easily perceived, but,
nevertheless, it is not difficult ; for, draw the straight line AC, connecting
the points A and C ; then, since AF and FC are equal to each other by the
hypothesis, the angles ACF and CAF are each of them 45 degrees, or half a
right angle ; therefore the angles ACB and CAB are respectively the dif-
ference between 45" and the given angles 54° 45' and 67° 30'; that is,
ACB = 9° 45', and CAB = 22° 30' ; but, by the property of the right-angled
triangle, AC is equal to a/AF2 + CF2 = 12 V2 = 16-97 feet. Conse-
quently, by the rules of plane trigonometry, it is 22° 30' + 9° 45' = 32° 15';
which, subtracted from 180°, gives 147° 45' ; hence we get

sin. 147° 45' : 16-97 : : sin. 22° 30' : BC = 12-17 feet ;
and by a similar process we obtain

sin. 147° 45' : 16-97 : : sin. 9° 45' : AB = 5-39 feet.

Having thus determined the lengths of the rafters individually, the total
girt over the roof, from wall to wall, can easily be found ; and, in conse-
quence, the other particulars of weight and strain may be ascertained, as in
the foregoing cases ; but since the process has already been illustrated by two
separate examples, it is unnecessary to repeat it.

The next case that we have to consider, is that having a platform directly
over the middle of the plan. We do not intend to give a calculation of this
variety, but it may nevertheless be useful to illustrate it by a diagram. Thus,
let AF, fig. 15, be the span of the roof; bisect AF in G, and erect the per-
pendicular, GI, making it equal to the proposed height of the platform ; pro-
duce GI until it becomes equal to AG, and at its upper extremity make an
angle equal to 54° 45', the same as in the preceding case. At the point A

Fig. 15.

A H

make the angle GAB equal to 67° 30', and the position of the point B will
thus become known, as well as that of the rafters AB and BC. Join BE,
and through the point I draw CD parallel to BE or AF, intersecting the
rafters BC and ED in the points C and D ; then is ABCDEF the roof re-
quired. From the points B, C, and D, let fall the perpendiculars, BH, CK,
and DL ; and AH, BK, KL, are respectively the projected values of the
beams AB, BC, and CD, upon or parallel to the plan of the roof. The prin-
ciples of calculation will readily be deduced by attentively considering the
steps of the process in the case immediately preceding.

The next variety that claims our attention, is that in which the upper
planes, or those which form the ridge, make with each other an angle of 90
degrees, or a right angle, corresponding with the true pitch in the case of a
common roof. In this variety the height must always exceed half the width
or semi-span, otherwise the roof will not be of the species we have hitherto
been considering, but will drop its characteristic designation, and merge into
a roof of the common form. In order, therefore, to retain the nature of the
mansard roof, it becomes necessary to increase the height ; and when the

216

The Building Arts.

[October,

span, the length, and the inclination of the lower beam are given, the con-
struction is effected in the following manner : — Let AE, fig. 16, be the span
of the roof; bisect AE in F, and erect FC perpendicular thereto, which con-
tinue to any length at pleasure. At the point A make the angle FAB equal
to the given inclination of the lower rafter, and from a scale of equal parts

set off AB equal to the given length. Through the point B draw the straight
line, BD, parallel to the base or span, AE, and at B make the angle DBC
equal to 45 degrees ; then will EC, which meets the perpendicular, FC, in
the point C, be the other rafter. On the point C as a centre, with the dis-
tance BC as radius, intersect BD in D, and draw DE ; then is ABCDE the
required roof. From B let fall the perpendicular BG, then will AG be the
orthographic projection or seat of AB on the plan, and BH or GF the cor-
responding seat of the longer rafter, CB.

The upper portion of the roof, viz., BC and CD, being of true pitch —
that is, having BCD, the angle at the ridge, equal to 90 degrees, or a right
angle, — the length of the rafters, BC, CD, and the rise or height, FC, can
very readily be found by calculation, admitting the span AE to be known,
together with the length and inclination of the lower rafters, AB and ED.
Now, by the preceding operations, we have found the length of the lower
rafter, AB, to be 5-3858 feet, its inclination to the horizon 67° 30', and the
span in all the cases has been taken at 24 feet ; consequently, by the rules of
plane trigonometry, we have from the right-angled triangle ABG the follow-
ing proportions, viz. : —

rad. : sin. BAG : : AB : BG ; and rad. : cos. BAG : : AB : AG.

But, by the trigonometrical tables, the natural sine and cosine of 67° 30' are
0-92388 and 0-38268 respectively ; hence, by multiplication we get

BG = 0.92388 x 5-3858 = 4-9758 feet,
and AG = 0-38268 x 5-3858 = 2-0611 feet.

Now, AF, the semi-span, is equal to 12 feet by the question ; therefore, by
subtraction, we get GF = AF — AG = 12 — 2-0611 = 9-9389 feet; but
BH = GF ; consequently, BH = 99389 feet. Since the upper portion of
the roof is of true pitch, the angles BCH and CBH are each equal to 45
degrees, or half a right angle ; it therefore follows, that the perpendicular
HC is equal to the base BH ; and in this case the rafter BC or CD is the
diagonal of a square whose sides are BH and CH ; but, by the principles of
geometry, we know that the diagonal of a square is equal to the length of its
side multiplied by the square root of the number 2 ; hence we have

BC = 9-9389 x V2 = 9-9389 x 1-4142 = 14-0556 feet,

the length of the rafter required. The rise or height of the roof is obviously
equal to FH and HC, when taken conjointly ; but FH = BG, and BG has
been found above to be 4-9758 feet ; therefore, by addition, we get

FC = FH + HC = 4-9758 + 9-9389 = 14-9147 feet,

the whole rise of the roof required.

It very frequently happens that houses are constructed in such a manner
as to have one room more at the front than there is at the back, and this ad-
ditional room is gained, not by making the front wall one story higher than
the back one, but by the more economical mode of giving the front part of
the roof the mansard form, while the back part is of the common form, con-
sisting of one continued sloping plane from the ridge to the wall-plate. This
is an interesting case of the general problem, and its practical construction
offers some difficulty ; for it is necessary so to arrange the timbers as to have
the same slope, and to bear equally on both sides of the ridge ; and this con-
dition can only be satisfied when a vertical line demitted from the ridge to the
plan bisects the angle of the slopes.

Fig. 17 represents a roof of this sort, where it will be observed that there
are two pitches, which will fulfil the conditions of the question when the
parts are properly proportioned to each other ; the one of them as shown by
BCD, and the other by BGD ; the lengths of the beams AB and CD or GD
being the same in each ; but there are also instances in which only one pitch
will obtain ; and this depends entirely upon the relation that subsists be-
tween the parts, as will be seen hereafter in detailing the steps of the con-
struction. Under the circumstances stated above, it is evident that the
straight lines drawn from the ridge of the roof perpendicular to the span,

Fig. 17.

such as CE and GF, do not bisect AB, the width of the house, as in all the
cases that we have previously illustrated, but must fall nearer to or farther
from A according to the lengths of AB and DC, which we suppose to be
given. It will, however, be seen, from the nature of the thing itself, that in
all cases where an equilibrium obtains, the vertical angle must be bisected
by the perpendiculars CE and GF ; or, which is the same thing, the rafters
CB, CD in the one case, and GB, GD in the other, must make equal angles
with the horizontal line BM, where HK and MN are each of them equal to
Bh, being perpendiculars from the points of intersection, H andM, upon the
span or width, AB.

In the Apprentice, No. XVII., for May 25th, 1844, we have given an ex-
ample of a roof of this kind, with this exception only, that there the height
of the front wall is higher than the back one ; which is not the case in the
present instance, both walls being on the same level ; but it will be observed,
that the sloping timber, AB, reduces the solution of the problem to the same
principles ; for we have only to calculate the height, B h, and the distance,
D k, the one corresponding to the height of the front wall, and the other to
the width of the house, and then the remaining steps of the process will be
precisely the same as in the case alluded to. The method of construction
followed in the Apprentice implies a knowledge of the higher geometry, since
it is effected by the intersection of a circle with a curve line supposed to be
generated by motion ; this, however, is too refined a consideration for prac-
tical men, and, since it is probable that they will never resort to it, we shall
here endeavour to give a construction dependent on the same principles, but
differently applied. Thus, let AD, fig. 18, be the whole width of the house,
or span of the roof, AB the rafter standing on the front wall, and DC that
on the back wall reaching to the ridge. Let AB make with AD the angle

Fig. 18,

BAD which is given, and from the point B let fall the perpendicular B A, and
extend B h upwards in the contrary direction, until h a becomes equal to
CD. Produce DA to any convenient length in the direction A o, in which
take any number of points, i, k, I, m, n, and o, through which and the point B
draw the straight lines o g, nf, me, Id, he, and i b, making them respectively
equal to h a or DC ; then through the several points a, b, c, d, e,f, and g, let
the curve line abed efg B be drawn, and it will pass through the ridge of
the required roof when the condition of equal slope obtains. On the point
D as a centre, and with a distance equal to ha, the length of the given rafter,
describe the circular arc, rs, intersecting the curve in the points G and C ;
draw BC, BG, and DC, DG, and ABCD or ABGD will be the required roof,
having the rafters of the upper portion equally inclined to the horizon. If
the circular arc, r s, should not intersect the curve line abed efg B, but only
touch in one individual point ; then the point of contact will be the point of
the ridge, and the roof will only have one pitch ; and if the curves do not
intersect or touch, the question is impossible. Through the point B draw
the straight line BHM parallel to AD, and let fall the perpendiculars, MN,
HK, CE, and GF; then are the triangles DMN, DCE, and DHK, DGF
respectively similar, when taken two and two ; from which circumstance we
deduce the method of calculation as follows : —

The thing to be determined by calculation is BC or CM, and BG or GH ;
and for this purpose we must assume as known the angle of inclination, CDE

1844.]

The Building Arts.

217

or GDE ; let either of these angles be denoted by the symbol cp, then, by the
principles of plane trigonometry, we get

rad. : DC :

DE = DC x cos.

COS. 0

but EN = EA by the nature of the problem ; therefore, by subtraction, it is
EN = D h — DE ; that is, EN = D h — DC x cos. <p. Tkis term consti-
tutes one side of the general equation, which leads us to the discovery of the
thing required, and we have only to find another independent expression for
the value of the same part of the figure : thus we have

sin. cp : MN : : rad. : DM = MN x cosec. cp ;

but CM = DC — DM = DC — MN x cosec. cp ; hence we get

rad. : (DC — MN x cosec. cp) : : cos. cp : EN = DC x cos. cp — MN x cot. cp ;

comparing these two values of EN with each other, we get

DC x cos. cp — MN x cot. cp = Dh — DC x cos. <p.

Now this is a rigorous and legitimate equation, involving two different func-
tions of the unknown angle ; therefore, by transposition, we obtain

2- DC x cos. cp = D A + MN x cot. cp.

Here we have a very neat and simple expression for finding the value of the
angle which the rafter makes with the plan of the roof for the higher pitch ;
and an identical expression would arise for that of the lower pitch, by refer-
ring the steps of the process to the several lines concerned in its formation.
It is, however, unnecessary to repeat the operation for this case, since the
letters corresponding to the several parts can easily be introduced in the
above equation ; and when this has been done, the method of calculation is
the same in both cases.

It may be proper to remark, that the terms D A and MN, which enter the
equation as known quantities, are, in reality, not given by the conditions of
the problem, but have to be determined by calculation from data furnished
by the circumstances of construction ; and these data are, the entire width or
span, AD ; the length of the rafter, AB ; and the angle BAD ; the length of
the longer rafter, DC or DG, is also supposed to be given, but it is not neces-
sary for the determination of the terms referred to, although it is essential to
the solution of the problem.

Since the equation involves two different functions of the angle, viz., the
cosine and the cotangent, it is difficult to reduce by any direct process with
which we are acquainted ; the solution must therefore be effected, either by
some method of approximation, or by the reduction of an equation of a high
degree, — a process that, we are very well aware, but few of our readers would
feel themselves inclined to perform, or even to trace the steps of the operation
if it were performed for them ; we shall, therefore, adopt the method of ap-
proximation, or trial and error ; but, in order to render the operation as
plain as possible, it becomes necessary to propose a specific example, as
follows : —

Example. — Let AD, the breadth of the house, or span of the roof, be 24
feet ; the length of the lower rafter at the front, AB, 6 feet ; the angle of in-
clination, BAD, 68 degrees ; and the length of the rafter DC stretching from
the ridge to the wall 20 feet ; what must be the length of the intermediate
rafter, BC, when its inclination to the horizon is the same as that of DC ?

Here it is manifest, that, before we can apply the principle of approxima-
tion to the determination of the angle ABC, or its equal, BMC, we must first
calculate the perpendicular B h or MN, and the distance DA,- and for this
purpose, we must have recourse to the right-angled triangle AB ft, where we
have given all the angles and the side AB to find the sides B A and A A. Now,
the natural sine and cosine of 68 degrees, are 0-92718 and 0'37461 respec-
tively to radius unity ; consequently, to radius 6 we get

Bk = 0-92718 x 6 = 5-56308 feet, and A A = 0-37461 x 6 = 2-24766 feet ;

therefore, by subtraction, it is D A = 24 — 2-24766 = 21-75234 feet. Let
these values, B A and D A, together with the value of DC, be substituted in-
stead of them in the general formula, and, for this particular example, it
becomes 40 cos. cp = 21-75234 + 5-56308 cot. cp. Now, in order to apply
this equation to the subject in hand, we must assume some value of the angle
cp, and by a few trials we find that it is less than 49 degrees, and greater than
48 degrees. Taking $ = 48°, of which the cosine and cotangent are 0-66913
and 3-90040 respectively, the equation gives

0-66913 x 40 = 21-75234 + 0-90040 x 5-56308.

On trial, however, this is found not exactly to succeed, the term on the one
side being 26-76520, and that on the other side 26'76133 : here the error is
0-00387 too little on the side of the cotangent ; we must therefore assume a
greater value for cp, because the variation in the differences of the cotangents
is greater than the corresponding variation in the differences of the cosines ;
but, since the error by the last assumption is so very small, we need not take
the next value of cp much in excess ; and by trying with cp = 48° 0' 43", we
find it succeed to the extent of the tables ; this, therefore, is the value of the
angle ADC for the higher pitch ; but it will be sufficiently accurate for every
practical purpose to take the angle to the nearest minute ; we shall therefore
have cp = 48° 1'. Proceeding in the same manner for the lower pitch, we
find the angle ADG = cp = 19° 8' very nearly ; hence the length of the
rafters BC and BG, with the heights CE and GF, can easily be found. Thus,
in the triangles CDE and GDF right-angled at E and F, we have given all

the angles and the sides DC and DG to find the other sides, DE, CS, and
DF, GF ; and for this purpose, the rules of trigonometry give the following

For CE it is rad. : CD : : sin. 48° 1' : CE = 20 x 0-74334 = 14-8668 feet ;
„ DE it is rad. : CD : : cos. 48° 1' : DE = 20 x 0-66891 = 13-3782 feet ;
„ GF it is rad. : GD : : sin. 19" 8' : GF = 20 x 0-32777 = 65554 feet ;
„ DF it is rad. : GD :: cos. 19° 8' : DF = 20 x 0-94476 = 18-8952 feet.

By a preceding calculation, we have found the distance D A to be 21-75234
feet ; hence, by subtraction, we get

EA = EN = 21-75234 •
and FA = FK = 21-75234

13-3782 = 8-37414 feet;
■18-8952 = 2-85714 feet;

therefore, for BC it is

cos. 48° 1' : E A : : rad.

BC = 8-37414 x 1-49496 = 12-517 feet;

for BG it is

cos. 19° 8' : F A : : rad. : BG = 2-85714 x 1-05847 = 3-022 feet.

Such, then, is the process of calculation for roofs of this sort when the data
are proposed in the manner that we have assigned them. The operation,
whether it be performed by construction or calculation, is extremely tedious,
but, by a little exercise with examples differently proposed, the practical
man may render himself so familiar with the subject, and so expert in apply-
ing the principles, that even the most intricate cases may be rendered com-
paratively easy.

If we construct the figure corresponding to the calculation which we have
just completed, it will be seen that the oblique thrust is not the same on both
walls, by reason of the different inclinations of the rafters abutting on them.
This is a circumstance of some importance in Constructive Carpentry ; for, if
it be neglected, the walls may be left without proper supports at the points
of unequal strain, and, in consequence, a failure may take place when least
expected. Let AB, fig. 19, be the width of the house, or span of the roof,
according to the question, viz., 24 feet. At the point A make the angle
BAD equal to 68 degrees, the given inclination of the rafter AB, and at the
point D make the angles ADC and ADG respectively equal to 48° 1' and

Fig. 19.

19° 8', the calculated inclinations of the rafters DC and DG. On D, as a
centre with the distance, DC, equal to 20 feet, describe the circular arc st,
and the point B, (AB being equal to 6 feet,) with the calculated lengths,
1 2-5 17 and 3'022 feet respectively, intersect the arc st in the points C and
G, and draw BC and BG ; then is ABCD the higher pitch, and ABGD the
lower. Produce the extreme rafters, AB, DC, and DG, to meet in the points
P and Q; then it is a well-known principle in the theory of Mechanics, that
if the whole weight of the roof were concentrated in or suspended from the
points of concourse, P and Q, it would produce the same effect upon the
walls in the directions PA and PD, as it does when equally distributed over
the rafters ABCD and ABGD. This is a principle which should Dever be
lost sight of by practical men, as it leads them in such an easy way to the
determination of actual strains that take place in their arrangements.

From the points P and Q let fall the perpendiculars, or verticals, PW and
O. w, and let W and w denote the weights of the roof corresponding to the
higher and the lower pitches. Take PR and Q r proportional to the weights
W and w, and complete the parallelograms PaRJ and Qcr d; then are P a,
Q c the thrusts at A in the direction PA ; and P b, Q. d the thrusts at D, in
the directions PD and QD ; where it will be observed, that the thrust at the
point A is the greatest in both cases : this arises from the circumstance of the
direction of the weights falling nearer to A than to D ; for it is manifest that,
under this condition, both walls do not sustain equal portions of the load,
although it is equally distributed over the upper parts of the roof in both
pitches.

To calculate the magnitude of the strains at A and D, we shall assume
the weight of a superficial foot of roofing, including timbers, &c, at 10 lbs.

218

The March of Art.

[October,

avoirdupois ; then, if the distance between the ribs or frames be 2 feet, the
weight for the higher pitch is (6 + 12517 + 20) x 2 x 10 = 770-34 lbs. ;
and for the lower pitch it is (6 + 3-022 + 20) x 2 x 10 = 580-44 lbs. ■
Now, in the triangle of forces, P a R, the angle a PR is the complement of
PAD, and a RP is the complement of PDA; and in like manner, in the
triangle Qicr, the angle cQr is the complement of QAD, and erQ is the
complement of QDA ; therefore we get

sin. 63° 59' : 770-34 : : sin. 41° 59' : Pa = 573-39 lbs. ;
and sin. 63° 59' : 770-34 : : sin. 22° : P b = 321-12 lbs.
Hence the strains for the higher pitch are 573-39 lbs. in the direction PA,
and 321-12 lbs. in the direction PD. Again, for the lower pitch, it is
sin. 92° 52' : 580-44 : : sin. 70° 52' : Qc = 549-06 lbs. ;
and sin. 92° 52' : 580-44 : : sin. 22 : Q.O" = 21771 lbs. ;
so that the thrust in the direction QA is 549-06 lbs., and that in the direction
QD, 217-71 lbs., the great apparent difference being occasioned by the
directions of the concentrated loads.

Art. II.— THE MARCH OF ART.

At no period in the history of this country have the elegant arts been culti-
vated with a greater devotion than at the present moment, and we do not
believe that, in the arts of painting and sculpture at least, they have ever
before promised a more glorious harvest. England has often been taunted
by foreign nations with an insensibility for the fine arts, though such an
accusation is singularly inapplicable to the country of Shakspeare and Mil-
ton ; but the genius which, under different auspices, would have expanded
into the highest proficiency in painting or sculpture, has been forced by cir-
cumstances into other channels, and has won the popular admiration in some
different form. Of late, however, these influences have been materially
changed ; taste has become as marketable an article as iron or timber, and
is found as necessary to the success of our manufactures ; and we seem likely
for the future to be as rich in painting as we have long been in poetry. The
fact is, the imperfect development of the arts of painting and sculpture in
this country has arisen from the srnall demand for their costly and elaborate
productions, for there are no national edifices, at least of modern date, into
which such works have been admitted ; and in a country such as ours the
public is the only source from which the requisite encouragement is deriv-
able. Private patronage is a mere hot-house warmth, and is but a poor
substitute for those genial influences which spring from a refined public taste
and a wide-spread love of art ; and all that the encouragement of courts and
aristocracies can achieve is but dust in the balance when compared with the
rich harvest that must spring up so soon as art has been fairly enlisted in
the service of manufacture. Ancient Greece had her temples, and Italy in
the middle ages her churches, in which costly works of art could find ready
and liberal purchasers ; but we have no such outlets for the productions of
genius, while persons of moderate means cannot purchase them ; and the
supply of works of art, as of all other commodities, adjusts itself to the de-
mand. By extending design to manufacture, however, the cost of such
design is spread over a large surface, and the purchase of the costliest works
of the artist becomes possible, while the large circulation of the best designs
such a method ensures must chasten and stimulate the public taste, and
awaken aspirations that will lead to a proficiency such as scarce any other
discipline could inspire. It is not by schools of art that great artists are to
be raised, but by creating a demand for works of art— just as great engineers
are raised not by engineering colleges, but by a demand for harbours and
railways. This demand some governments maybe able to create ; and in
our own country, if the government were to lend its aid toward the esta-
blishment of polytechnic halls in all our great towns, one of the functions of
which might be to purchase the best works of living artists for gratuitous
exhibition, we have no doubt an impulse would be given to art equal to that
communicated by the patronage of the popes in the middle ages. But by
bringing the highest efforts of art into the service of manufacture, we anti-
cipate far weightier effects than any patronage could accomplish, and the
profits of artists will be thus augmented, and their power over the minds of
others increased in some such ratio as that reached by the art of printing for
the generation of authors. It is not merely a wider circle that art will thus
attain, but a higher elevation; and, indeed, the one of these conditions
springs in a great measure out of the other ; for art, to rise high, must have
a wide basis. At all the epochs at which art has risen to any sublime ele-
vation we find that a love of art and a just appreciation of its creations pre-
vailed extensively among the people, and all the great masters have had for
contemporaries other masters nearly as great to form the frustrum of the
artists' Parnassus. The genius, therefore, of the greatest artists is not to be
taken as an isolated and abstract thing, or as if no other excellence existed
in their time or country; but its stature is to be measured by the excess of
their proficiency above the current proficiency of the age, and whatever
raises even the lowest degrees of skill will add to the general exaltation.

We are afraid many of our readers will fail to discern much force in these
generalities, and they will naturally ask what the branches of manufacture
are from which we anticipate such important consequences ? We are not

sure that any explanation we can give upon this point will appear satisfac-
tory, as the manufactures to which we have chiefly referred are yet in em-
bryo. The benefits to be derived from the schools of design, and from the
introduction of improved patterns in the manufacture of textile fabrics are
easily estimated, and we do not propose, on the present occasion, to say
anything respecting them ; but we expect to see the most exquisite works of
art published and made accessible to all by the resources of mechanical art,
so that in painting and sculpture, as in the cheap literature of the present
day, the productions of the most eminent men of the age may find their way
into every cottage. By the electrotype process, for example, the most ex-
quisite bronzes are. producible at a very trivial expense ; or flowers and
other fragile objects may be coated with gold and silver, or with any other
metal. Papier-mache, again, is a valuable material in many cases for orna-
mental uses, and an inexpensive one ; and artificial stone can now be made
of greater strength and durability than the natural stone. It would not be
difficult, too, we think, to make works in marble artificially. Marble, as is
well known, is a carbonate of lime. The carbonic acid is expelled by heat,
and it is its reabsorption from the atmosphere that gives efficacy to mortar,
by turning the lime into marble. If, therefore, busts or other works of art
were to be cast of pure lime, and then placed in a vessel containing carbonic
acid, they would be turned into marble, and we might thus have copies of
the works of Canova or Michael Angelo, distinguishable in no way from the
original, at a very inconsiderable outlay. The kalsomine paper process,
again, is one of much value, and by its instrumentality we may have paint-
ings in tempera for the walls of our houses that will be both durable and
inexpensive. In all these cases, however, the demand must be such as to
rise to the rate of a manufacture, without which the necessary cheapness
could not be attained ; and the publication of an artist's thoughts in this
way would both remunerate him better and give him a readier market than
he at present possesses, and would at the same time win for him the popular
sympathies aud elevate the taste of the community.

Such, then, are some of the means which we look upon as the most influ-
ential for leading on this country to the same eminence in the arts of paint-
ing and sculpture that she has reached already in oratory and poetry. Aca-
demies of art we look upon as most ineffectual instruments for ministering
to a further progress ; and they are generally mere excrescences, which in-
dicate the decay of taste, and the want of public appreciation. Art is not
to be improved by hoisting flags of distress, or by providing asylums f6r
destitute mediocrity ; but, like every other branch of production, it is carried
rapidly towards perfection by a brisk demand and a liberal remuneration.
And if we have no temples or churches to adorn, we have paper hangings to
manufacture, and houses to furnish and decorate ; and it is only by making
the fine arts subservient to the wants of the time that we can give them
vitality.

The public baths which are about to be erected in so many towns afford a
good occasion for the introduction of fresco or kalsomine decorations; but,
as we have already mentioned, our principal towns ought to have each a
National Gallery on the small scale, or Polytechnic, for the purchase and
sale of works of art, which might be open at all times to the public without
expense ; and which might answer the same end as the religious edifices of
the ancients in inflaming and refining the taste of the community.

It would be curious, and not uninstructive, to investigate the causes out
of which the present activity in most of the fine arts has arisen ; and if this
were done, we believe it would be found that much of it is due to the French
revolution. The connexion between political conditions and events, and
the tone and quality of the literature of the times, is more conspicuous and
direct than the connexion between politics and the fine arts ; yet, even in the
latter case, the connexion holds very surely ; and if it be the fact that we
owe Shakspeare and Bacon and Taylor to the Reformation, and Campbell,
Byron, and the rest of the giant race of poets, now well-nigh extinct, to the
French revolution, there cannot be much absurdity in the supposition that
to the same influences we may owe most of what is valuable in other de-
partments of art; or that the great political commotion to which we have
adverted is now producing fruits which, from various technical obstructions,
it requires a longer time to ripen.

The decoration of the new Houses of Parliament has been the signal for
this pent-up spirit to burst forth into activity, but it has been accumulating
for many years ; and the disposition to decorate public edifices which this
case displays is itself a consequence, and not a cause, of the general aspir-
ation.

We have neither time nor space, however, to enter upon this inquiry, and
must now, without further prelude, proceed to say something respecting the
several modes of mural decoration.

Different Modes of Mural Decoration. — Setting aside oil-painting, there
are three methods of mural decoration that have been practised extensively,
Fresco, Tempera, and Encaustic. The method of fresco consists in painting
upon a wet wall, by which means the colours sink into the lime ; and as the
lime becomes converted into carbonate of lime, or marble, by the absorp-
tion of carbonic acid from the atmosphere, the colours thus become fixed,
and cannot be effaced without much difficulty. Fresco painting is the kind
proposed for the decoration of the new Houses of Parliament ; and the de-
tails of the method have been so often given that we shall not here repeat
them. With the other methods, however, the public is not so familiar ; and
we shall, therefore, here transcribe some remarks of Mr. Eastlake's upon
the subject : —

1841.]

The March of Art.

219

Tempera Painting. — Tempera s so commonly practised that it can hardly
be necessary to enter into a minute description of its process. It has, however,
an interest from its antiquity, and from its having been more generally in use
in Italy than any other method, immediately before the introduction of oil-
painting. This circumstance, and certain difficulties in its practice, appear,
in some cases, to have led to a union of the two methods. Tempera is ap-
plicable to the surface of smooth dry stucco, or to any similar levigated
ground, which has either been incorporated or covered with a due propor-
tion of size or glue. It does not, like fresco, necessarily require to be exe-
cuted at once ; and admits of the use of all colours which are not prejudi-
cial to each other. White lead is, however, excluded ; because, being un-
protected in tempera from the action of certain gases, it soon loses its
brightness. The white used is principally gesso rnarcio, to which white
earths are sometimes added. The binding vehicle may be formed of animal
glutens, such as size, yolk of egg, &c. ; or of viscous fluids and gums, pro-
cured from the vegetable world, such as the milky juice of certain trees and
plants, solutions of gum arabic, gum tragacanth, &c. The practice of tem-
pera painting may be said to be carried to perfection in modern scene-paint-
ing, in which imitation is chiefly confined to large effects. But in this ap-
plication of the art the difficulty of blending tints to the extent required in
figure-painting, so as to equal the completeness and finish of oil-painting, is
not encountered. The thinness of the vehicle, and the almost immediate
change of the tints in passing from the wet to the dry state renders a certain
abruptness of execution unavoidable. This peculiarity is compatible with
great truth of imitation when the work is seen at a sufficient distance, and
the crispness of execution which is the result, is, with the moderns, the cha-
racteristic of tempera. The early Italian masters, when they painted altar-
pieces in this method on cloth, endeavoured to attain the requisite finish by
continually damping the back of the painting. This enabled them to com-
plete a given portion while in the wet state, and to give it any degree of
softness that was desired. But this was only applicable to pictures executed
on a thin and porous substance; tempera pictures on wood or on walls, in
which finish is aimed at, cannotbe so treated, without some modification of
the vehicle, or by continually moistening the surface in front. Some of the
early Florentines and painters of the neighbouring schools adopted a more
laborious method, but less satisfactory in its result. They attained the com-
pleteness they sought by minute hatchings. A tempera picture in the Na-
tional Gallery, attributed to Perugino, is a specimen of this laboured pro-
cess. The varieties of practice in the early examples of tempera, are also
partly to be attributed to the varieties of the vehicle. The Greek illumina-
tions in MSS. immediately preceding the thirteenth century, are generally
painted in tempera with a very thick vehicle ; and this system was adopted
by the Italians, even for paintings of a much larger size, up to the time of
Giotto. He appears to have been the first to introduce a thinner medium.
In his works, while the tints are blended, the minute handling, which is
almost unavoidable with the older practice, is not apparent. The thinner
vehicle was composed of yolk of egg diluted with water, and combined with
the milky juice of shoots of the fig-tree. It may seem extraordinary that
this last material should have been detected by chemical analysis in an early
Florentine picture ; the result was, however, verified by the analysis of the
milky juice of the fig-tree while fresh. A painting executed with this vehicle
is not very easily affected by water or by oil ; a varnish produces no other
change than that of giving additional depth and lustre to the tints, and the
colours do not dry so rapidly as in the ordinary practice of tempera. The
fact that the more tenacious vehicle, with all its inconvenience, was revived
or adhered to without change by other painters much later than Giotto, is
not an uncommon instance in the history of art, of attachment to habits,
however defective, which time may have recommended. The Italian artists
of the sixteenth century had generally abandoned the practice of tempera
as an independent art, and the examples of it are rare, especially when
applied to the decoration of walls. An instance occurs at Trascorre, near
Bergamo, in the private chapel of the Suardi family. The artist was Lo-
renzo Lotto. It appears from various passages in the lives of the Flemish
painters, that tempera-painting was commonly practised among them. On
all occasions of great public festivals this rapid art was put in requisition ;
and the tapestries which were executed in such abundance in Artois and
Brabant, and which were wrought from cartoons coloured in tempera, had
also greatly the effect of encouraging its practice. The schools of tempera-
painting were to the Flemish artists what the Feria, or market of Seville, was
to Murillo and his contemporaries. For (though the latter uniformly painted
in oil) such demands had the effect of promoting facility of execution and a
large style of imitation, the influence of which may be traced in the more
complete works of the respective schools, different as their tendency was in
other respects. The rage for temporary decorations in the cities of Flan-
ders, to do honour to distinguished individuals, had the additional effect of
promoting a taste for allegory. The most extravagant combinations and
allusions were excused in ephemeral productions, till by degrees the public
were accustomed to such inventions ; and the greatest artists — aware of the
value of such materials as conducing to picturesque effect, ventured to in-
troduce them in more permanent works, and recommended them by their
talents. The vehicles employed in tempera were sufficient to bind it when
the colours were used in moderate thickness, but the danger of cracking
prevented the application in much body. When, therefore, pictures in tem-
pera appear to be executed with unusual substance, it may be suspected that
other ingredients were added so as to give it sufficient tenacity, by which

means it held a middle place between water-colour and oil-painting ; the
rapid drying which precluded the possibility of giving the work the requisite
softness and completeness was at the same time prevented. The colours
prepared for painting in this method mav be mixed either with water or oil.
There is every appearance, in some unfinished pictures of the Venetian and
other schools of the north of Italy, that the tempera adopted by them was
of this description ; and it is also apparent, from such pictures, that the
method was sometimes employed as a preparation for oil-painting. Va-
rious modes of this kind may be considered and described in an inquiry into
the early process of oil-painting ; but lest too much importance should be
attached to such preparations in tempera, it may be remembered that the.
practice of Rubens, Vandyke, and Rembrandt supposes no such system.
The tempera-painting of the ancients (although from passages in their
writers evidently a distinct art from encaustic) appears to have been pro-
tected by a coat of wax ; and thus may not be easily distinguished, in actual
remains, from encaustic painting. But it is probable that in every case
where a finished tempera painting was thus varnished, the surface was first
covered with some glutinous application before the liquid wax was added.
Without this precaution, the mutual relation or keeping of the tints would
be in danger of being altered. Modern chemists, however, have discovered
better means for the preservation of tempera paintings than were known to
the ancients; and of these one of the best is that known as the kalsomine
process, which consists in washing over the picture with a solution of alum,
which turns the glue into leather. The painting may then be washed with-
out injury, as the compound resulting from the union of the alum with the
glue is insoluble in water. As an account of this novel process is given in
considerable detail in the present number of the Artizan, it is needless here
to describe it farther.

Encaustic Painting. — In encaustic painting, wax was an ingredient from
first to last. The precise process of this art among the ancients has been
the subject of much controversy, but the actual remains of antique painting
at Pompeii and Herculaneum, as well as numerous allusions in the writings
of the ancients, prove that it was common among the Greeks and Romans.
It was also occasionally employed during the middle ages ; and it is even
asserted that it is still practised, however rudely, by Greek painters of the
present day. The inquiries and experiments hitherto undertaken, seem to
prove that two methods are practicable. In one, the wax is dissolved by a
lixivium, and is then worked with water. In the other, it is mixed with a
resin dissolved in spirit. In the first process a final coat of wax is essential
to protect the painting. In the other method this varnish may or may not
be used. In the ancient encaustic, whatever were the ingredients, heat (as
the term encaustic implies) was employed either during or after the process
of painting. In the attempted revival of this art, in the last century, the
application of heat was also considered indispensable. The method practised
was to apply a cauterium — a portable furnace, hot iron, or any similar in-
strument, so as gently to melt the coating of wax spread over the finished
paintipg. The heat was sufficient at the same time to affect the wax incor-
porated with the colours, and thus a union was produced throughout the
mass. If afterwards rubbed with a cloth the surface acquired a slight polish.
In the other process which, in its improved state, is more modern, heat is
considered unnecessary, and the art is therefore properly called wax-painting,
not encaustic-painting. The application of heat might still serve to consoli-
date and give transparency to an external coat of pure wax, but the presence
of resinous substances in the vehicle, and with the colours, is supposed to
render such application superfluous as regards the consolidation of the paint-
ing itself. The solution of wax by means of alkaline lixivia was probably
not unknown to the ancients. This was the method of Bachelier, Walter,
Requeno, and others; but the specimens executed according to their system
have not been considered successful as regards durability. The following
communication from Mr. King, of Bristol, may be considered an improve-
ment on the process in question. " The conversion of wax into a substance
soluble in water is effected by the vegetable alkali known by the name of
potash being combined with tartaric acid. This is the Sale di Tartaro of the
Italians, and is sold by all the chemists and druggists in this country, under
the proper name, Tartrate of Potash, and more commonly salt of tartar, or
soluble tartar. When the acid predominates it is called supertartrate of pot-
ash, or cream of tartar. This is the best substance to be employed in my
process, and in the following manner : — An indefinite quantity, say half a
pound, of this salt being placed upon an iron shovel, and exposed to the
action of fire, becomes a black substance resembling coal, a sort of slag. It
is to be thrown while hot into a vessel holding about six quarts of pure
water, that is, filtered rain-water or distilled water. Shortly after it is
quenched, it is to be ascertained that the fluid is saturated with the alkali
by its taste, or, better, by its effect upon the colour of test-paper. No
quantity of water can hold more alkali in solution than that which is suffi-
cient to saturate the water at the same temperature. The undissolved por-
tion is separated by filtering, and the residue will serve to saturate another
quantity of water. By filtering, the saturated fluid is sufficiently freed from
the dark colour which was caused by the burnt alkali. This saturated fluid
is called a lixivium, and in it the purified wax js to be boiled until it is con-
verted into soluble soap, and wholly dissolved so as not to separate from the
fluid when cooled. According to the proportion of the quantity of wax to
that of the water the fluid will appear like milk when the proportion of wax
is small, like cream or butter when it is greater; and even of the consistence
of soft cheese when the wax is in excess. The consistence of cream is best

220

The March of Art.

[October

suited for grinding the medium with more or less finely pulverised dry pig-
ment body colours, such as ochres, raw or burnt terra sienna, raw and burnt
umber. Cobalt, smalt, light red, red, and white, and black chalk, stone
coal or anthracite, &c, answer best for dead colouring, and become brighter
in the subsequent fusion and fixing by the use of the cauterium. Metallic
colours, which are artificial oxydes of metals, like vermilion or cinnabar,
which is a sulphuret of mercury, red and white lead, chrome yellow, and
others, are differently affected in the burning in, and the changes which they
undergo are to be ascertained by previous trials. The latter class of pig-
ments are more adapted to the finishing of pictures. Pigments of a vegetable
nature, such as lakes, madders, &c, are altogether to be avoided, or very
sparingly used, and not at all in masses. The connexion of the medium
(soluble wax), by grinding it with every pigment, is best performed in stone
or earthenware (Wedgwood's) mortars, and with pestles of the same mate-
rials ; and the colours thus prepared are to be kept for immediate use in
glasses or common gallipots. Instead of a wooden palette, a plate-glass or
stone-slab is required for large masses, and a spatula of hard wood or horn.
The surface to be painted on must be a solid dry coat of stucco grounded
with a mixture of such colours as will give a suitable tone of colour and
depth. The first coat or ground is to be fixed by the cauterium with a mo-
derate degree of fusion. The subject may be sketched on this ground with
chalk or charcoal; and precise outlines, especially of minute forms, can be
traced or sketched in with a metallic point or etching needle. The cauterium
or salamander is not to be used again until the whole surface is covered and
the effect advanced to a certain degree. It is clear that the manipulation of
these materials, differing greatly from painting in oil, will succeed more
readily in the hands of an artist who has had some practice in fresco or in
distemper ; and as the surface is in most cases perpendicular, some care is
required to prevent the colour from running down. When the inustion by
the cauterium is finished, and the whole surface of the picture cooled, it may
be polished by friction with cloth or hard cushions, covered with some more
or less rough texture, or with some of the implements used in polishing
wood." Those who recommend, in preference, the solution of wax in
spirit, and the addition of resins, do not profess to have discovered the pre-
cise process of the Greeks, but they have not failed to remark that the
ancient writers speak of resins as entering into the ingredients of painting.
The credit of having suggested the present systems of wax-painting, which
are adopted with various modifications at Paris and Munich, is generally
attributed to Montabert, who, in the eighth volume of his comprehensive
Traite complet de la Peinture, extols this art above that of oil painting. In
consequence of the difficulty of reviving the study of fresco-painting in
France, the attention of many artists and chemists has been turned to the
employment of wax- painting, and various churches and public buildings in
Paris have been already decorated in this mode. In Munich, also, consider-
able works are in progress, executed in a method analogous to that of Mon-
tabert. The advantage of wax as a vehicle is its durability. A wall painted
white, partly with wax and partly with oil, exhibits the same tint for some
days, but by degrees the oil-colour darkens, and after some months the two
portions are quite distinct ; that which was painted in wax retaining all its
brilliancy. To this advantage is opposed, besides the difficulty of manipula-
tion, the dull effect of dark shadows in pictures executed in wax. This is
owing to the semi-opaque nature of the material, and is unavoidable as long
as the absence of gloss on the surface is considered indispensable ; but the
colours become much more vivid after the surface is polished, and the ad-
mixture of resins tends to give clearness to the deeper shades. Some of the
French artists have gone further ; they have added a portion of oil to the
cero-resinous medium, and by this means attain any degree of richness they
please. In this last system the mat quality, or absence of gloss, is in a great
measure abandoned, and the method is only to be considered a means of
lessening the quantity of oil, and consequently of avoiding the danger of a
horny and darkened surface. Some German artists, again, have considered
it essential that the resinous ingredients should predominate, and have re-
commended only a thirtieth part of wax, the rest consisting entirely of liquid
resin (balsam). Wax-painting, properly so called, from its not admitting
of much force (while its lights are assumed to be unchangeably bright),
would suggest a particular style and choice of subjects ; and as all colours
(according to the French chemists) may be employed in it, it is considered
to be particularly fitted for poetical subjects adapted to the lighter kinds
of decoration. It is for such purposes that it has been chiefly employed in
Munich.

In the practical detail of mural decoration, different painters of course
adopt different resources : the precautions and expedients attended to at Paris
and Munich, are as follows : — -A wall which is to be painted in wax (and the
same principle is applicable to all mural pictures) should not be quite per-
pendicular, but should incline inwards, with reference to the room, in its
upper part. By this means the work is better seen, and dust is less apt to
collect on it. The surface should be levigated ; it is then to be thoroughly
dried by heat, and lastly to be saturated with the following mixture ; 10 parts
of white wax, 2 parts of resin, and 40 parts of spirit of turpentine. This
liquid is made to penetrate the wall or stucco by means of heat, and the ap-
plication is repeated till the surface ceases to absorb. Holes or irregularities
are to be stopped with a mastic composed of wax, resin, and whiting. Over
this preparation a coat or two of wax colour is to be spread as a ground for
the paiuting. The wax used in painting should be bleached, and perfectly
free from extraneous matter. The resin recommended by Montabert is that

.

called elemi ; this, combined with wax and an essential oil, is the vehicle in
which the colours are ground, and which serves to work them. The propor-
tions are, 1 part of resin, and 4 parts of wax, dissolved over a water-bath in
lb' parts of essence of spike-lavender. The colours are ground in this gluten,
diluted as may be required during the operation of grinding by the addition
of the essence. They are then preserved in glass or earthenware vessels, and
if they get hard (which can only happen after a considerable time) they may
be dissolved with the essence, or ground again, and are always fit for use.
Instead of elemi, copal may be used by those who prefer a hard resin. The
solution of wax alone is effected by the same essence, and this preparation is
available when the artist wishes to increase the proportion of wax. The
paste may be thinned with water, by grinding it thoroughly with a muller, and
gradually adding water to the amount of four times the weight of wax. This
is called the milk of wax, and serves as a varnish for pictures executed by
this method. The solution of elemi or other resins in the essence, without
wax, may also be employed when the resinous ingredient is required in
greater abundance. To these materials may be added the essential oil of wax
(procured from wax by distillation) which evaporates more slowly than that
of lavender, and may sometimes be of use in the practice of this art. A pro-
cess introduced in Munich by Professor Fernbach, is not yet made known,
but it is supposed to consist merely in the addition of liquid resin (balsam) to
the wax, instead of artificial solutions of hard resinous substances. Balsams,
as is well known, are compounds of resins with essential oil ; and the pre-
sence of an essential oil appears to give a greater toughness and durability
than when the resin is merely dissolved in spirit.

The following recipes show the methods of painting in encaustic at present
practised in Germany : — " For large paintings it is desirable that the ground
should be somewhat rough. In Munich it is prepared as follows : — A mortar,
composed of three parts of sand, and one of lime, is spread on the wall.
When this is done, the whole surface, while moist, is rubbed with a linen
cloth : the result is, a granulated ground, like rough paper. For small
works, ornaments, &c, the ground requires to be smooth ; and, in such cases,
finely-pounded white marble should be mixed with the lime instead of sand :
the mortar so composed being then carefully spread and made even. The
encaustic vehicle is prepared as follows : — To one pound of rectified spirit of
turpentine add half a pound of Damara resin, and a quarter of a pound of wax.
The resin should be pounded to powder, and the wax cut up in small pieces.
Both are then to be put into an earthenware or copper vessel, and the spirit
of turpentine poured on them. Place the vessel on a moderate charcoal
fire, so that the solution may take place slowly. When the ingredients
are dissolved, the vehicle is ready for use, and should be kept in a glass
bottle well stopped, to prevent the volatile oil from escaping. Should
the mixture become too thick in time, spirit of turpentine may be added.
The colours are ground in such a quantity of this vehicle as is necessary
to saturate them. If, during the grinding, the pigment tends to set
(dry), spirit of turpentine should be added. For extensive paintings, the
colours are kept in glass vessels. For smaller works they may be tied up
in bladders like colours for oil-painting. The same colours which are em-
ployed in oil may also be used in encaustic painting. It is essential that the
ground on which the painting is to be executed should be quite dry. Then
the whole surface to be painted is to be washed over with milk. When this
is dry, a ground of encaustic colour is to be spread on the wall, the artist
selecting any tone he pleases. This being done, the surface is suffered to
dry well, which will require some days, as it is important that the colour
should be in no danger of being dissolved by subsequent operations. The
artist can then begin to paint. In executing ornaments on a coloured ground,
the ground must be composed of two or three coats (not too thick), each of
which should be allowed to dry separately. The time required for drying
varies according to the state of the weather. As soon as the pigment used
for the ground is no longer easily dissolved,-— a degree of hardness which it
often attains in the course of a day, the painter may begin to work. When
the painting, whether consisting of ornaments or other subjects, is finished
and sufficiently dry, the whole is to be thinly passed over with the encaustic
vehicle applied with a large brush ; and after a day or two this varnish is to
be heated with a charcoal fire, to such a degree, however, as not to injure the
colours. The result is, an equal but moderate shine over the whole sur-
face."

Art. III.— A WORD ON THE MATHEMATICS.

" A thing of beauty is a joy for ever." — Keats.

And would you think there were any beauties in the mathematics ? They
are commonly thought to be but dry, insipid studies; but is youth and
strength to be deterred by alleged insipidity ? Search them, ye who deem
them distasteful, but do it as ye ought, and do not affright yourselves with
the work, the price paid for their acquirement. Nothing is so sweet as that
which is won by labour. Would Hercules, think you, have been famed, or
could his active mind have rested happy, had the robbers and pests he de-
stroyed been trifling pickpockets, and spiders or lizards ? Besides, is it
manly to sheer off, like Hassan in the desert, bemoaning your curst fate, in
having left some " Schiraz," just as the dangers thicken, just as it becomes
worth going on ? The difficulties in the pursuit of truth and knowledge, espe-

1844.]

Pendulum Floats.

221

cially in the mathematics, are, and always have been, too much exaggerated.
It is too late in the day to prate of their importance ; England owes too
much to them for that ; but Plato's opinion may, perhaps, interest some.
He wrote over the portico of the Academy, " Let none enter here who are
not skilled in Geometry :" sufficiently arbitrary, no doubt, but valuable, as
showing Plato's estimation of this power-giving science. To attain this
science in full, or a portion, the same elements are wanting — attention ; con-
tinual, however trifling, advances ; and due care not to proceed too rapidly,
— ascertaining, as you go on, that the points passed over are firmly set in the
mind. You must not skip the Mathematics. Seek to attain excellence
rather than eminence, and the latter will come sooner than you are aware.
Many sacrifice the means to the end, " Pant for the prize, but strive not in
the race ;" and it is a strife well worthy a young man's strength ; and if he
has a taste to discover the " Beautiful," he will assuredly find it there : and
for pleasure — that which arises when, after arduous exertion and patience, we
find the secret of an algebraic equation, and discover, to our entire satisfac-
tion, that both its sides are incontestably equal, by the aid of the value of the
unknown power, is simple, but very delicious. There is so much internal
harmony in Algebra, and its applications to science are so limitless, that it is
an inexhaustible store of amusement, if we carry it no farther, and may be
equally so of instruction. Let a young man be told, on taking up Euclid,
that the sum of the squares on the two short sides of a right-angled triangle,
are equal to the square on the longest side ; will not his mind burn with im-
patient curiosity to know how this can be proved ? He longs to master its
secret, to ascend up to it, for it seems a terrible height from him. Well,
there lies the impassive book, waiting to have its signs unfolded, ready to
communicate its secrets to him, ready to yield the gold if he will give the
labour. No obstacles are thrown in the way by that inanimate type— no
monopoly exists in it ; — there it lies, open to the influence of his under-
standing ; — shall lie or it be the conqueror ? What, my young hero, allow
an inanimate thing to conquer your animation, — an open, clear mind written
down there, to baffle your wiles ? To it, with a trustful endeavour, — be not
hasty, — advance gradually ; as besiegers do, draw thy parallels, and slowly
sap the walls ; — that seemingly impregnable fortress is so to be taken ; but
never by headlong assault. Work under it, into it, around it, and work
" defying augury," and it is yours ; but do not attempt to force it. Arch-
bishop Whately, I believe, says that the Mathematics are likt a long flight of
steps, to ascend which it tries the breath and perseverance, alone, — the steps
being there to tread on, for any one who has courage to set his foot on them.
And so it is : he who stores the definitions, or the chief of them, in his mind,
has trod on the first step : let him hold himself proudly for the achievement,
but let him not rest — " Not to advance, is to retire," says Bacon, — so
up another. Conquer the First Book, for the sake of manhood ! Oh, it is so
pleasant to know about those triangles — then to parallelograms — continually
mounting, until the 47th is mastered — then you may pause awhile : look
back, but do not stay pillar-of-salt-wise, content to look back. Face about,
and with joy exalting you, and triumph awaiting, vigorously attack Book the
Second. How delicious is the walk taken after this study ! how beautiful is
(at least it was to me) the melody of verse read, after the cold triangle and
negative sign are dismissed ! Mathematics is the material — Poetry the spi-
ritual : both are sublime in their place : one leads to the stars, and aids man
in innumerable victories over the physical world ; the other is pure intellect,
its victory is over passion and sensation, over feeling and thought. I say
nothing of the uses of the Mathematics, and urge their study on the ground
of the pleasures to be derived from conquering their stubbornness. I should
like to see all learning and study made their own " exceeding great reward,"
as Coleridge said Poetry had been to him. I think little good comes of it
among men, if they be not so. Mathematics have been so engrossing and
self-sufficing to some men, that one said, they stood to him instead of a wife ;
and another, that he had no time to marry.* The latter, indeed, spent his
whole life in their study. A greater example of single-hearted devotion to
one science does not exist. He gained a rich reward. The results of his
life are the pillars of our knowledge, even as the laws of gravitation, he dis-
covered, sustain the universe. Thus the Mathematics may be a joy for ever
to those who penetrate their mysteries. What they drink from them is pure
as it is passionless — a chaste, cold simplicity — neither coy nor bashful, but
demanding labour only to possess it. I have felt great delight, and my pro-
gress has been but little, more powerful circumstances having led me from
them for a time ; but thankful to him who first led me to their pure fountains
am I, and hope ever to remain so. I write this short paper, because I have
experienced pleasure and profit in going through a few books on Geometry
and Algebra ; and long that others may feel similar, who are perhaps unaware
that they exist.

JOVENIS.

Art. IV.— THE ROYAL EXCHANGE.

The opening of the Royal Exchange by the Queen has been the most pro-
minent event of the month in the domain of architecture, and has occasioned
no small excitement in the City, and, indeed, throughout London. For a
week before the day tickets were posted up in most of the houses before which

TOL. II.

* Sir P.ichard Ihillips ai>d Sir Isaac Newton.

the procession was to pass, announcing that seats to see the sight were to be
let ; and on the Saturday preceding the event, the streets were much more
crowded than usual ; and, indeed, in Cheapside and Fleet-street, it was diffi-
cult to make one's way. Of the pageant itself, it is, of course, beyond our
province to say anything, for we are not the chroniclers of Royal progresses ;
but we may here set down a few remarks illustrative of the history and main
architectural features of this building, which has become what the ancients
believed Delphi to be — the centre of the world.

The first Royal Exchange was founded, as is well known, by Sir Thomas
Gresham, a merchant of London, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, who,
during a residence of some years at Antwerp, had experienced the advantages
which the Bourse of that city gave to its merchants, and was anxious that
the commerce of his own country should not be without such an auxiliary.
At that time Lombard-street was the place where the merchants and bankers
assembled ; but the place was inconvenient, and Sir Thomas Gresham offered,
if a site were provided, to erect an Exchange at his own expense. In conse-
quence of this a subscription was opened, and the present site was pur-
chased, though smaller in extent than at present, for the sum of 3,532/. The
foundation-stone of the first edifice was laid by Sir Thomas Gresham, in 1566,
and by the next year it was completed. This building was in the Flemish,
style, and was executed by Flemish workmen. In 1571, Queen Elizabeth
paid a visit to the Exchange, having first dined with Sir Thomas Gresham, at
his house in Bishopsgate-street ; and after having viewed the building, she
caused it to be christened, by herald, by the name of the Royal Exchange.

Sir Thomas Gresham's building was destroyed in the fire of London ; and
Sir Christopher Wren thereupon formed a plan for rearing a new Exchange,
from which all the streets should radiate ;* but this plan was defeated, and
another Exchange was built, which was the one superseded by the present
building. This second Exchange was completed in 1669, at an expense of
59,000/. Between the years 1820 and 1826, extensive reparations were
effected, and a new stone tower was added. In 1838 this structure was
burnt down, and in 1842 the first stone of the present building was laid by
Prince Albert.

We have already passed some remarks upon the architectural character of
this edifice in the Apprentice, and these remarks it would be superfluous to
repeat here ; and we shall therefore content ourselves with enumerating some
of the principal dimensions. Length from the columns of the portico on the
west to the pilasters on the east side, 293 feet 6 inches ; general width, 160
feet; extreme width, 175 feet; width of portico, 89£ feet; width at the
centre of the building, 144 feet. The central court or Exchange proper is
reached by an entrance on each of the four sides of the building. The portico
is 26 feet wide, and 16 feet higher than that of St. Martin's church : the
height of the columns is 74J feet. The eastern end is decorated with a tower
surmounted by a grasshopper, as in the old building — an object adopted
from Sir Thomas Gresham's crest, and which has figured prominently on all
the Exchanges that have occupied this site.

Art. V.— PENDULUM FLOATS.

The following has been supplied to us by the Rev. R. Wilson, A.M.,
Greenock.

Experiment I. — A cord was made to pass from a spring in such a manner
as to cause the power to bear equally on each of two wheels placed on the
boat, to revolve, independently of each other, like wheels on a common cart.
The one wheel was made with fixed, and the other with revolving, floats. On
trial, it was found that the wheel with the revolving floats turned the boat to
the opposite side : the wheels being exchanged, the result was the same : thus
showing that the revolving floats possessed the greatest propelling power.

Experiment II. — Paddle-wheels were constructed, and placed on the
boat in the usual way : revolving floats were put on : the boat was prevented
from moving forward ; and it was found (the power of the spring being ap-
plied) that the wheels made exactly 13 revolutions while a pendulum made
20 vibrations. The revolving floats were then exchanged for common floats,
of such a surface that the wheels, with them, (the same motion-power being
applied, and the boat still being prevented from moving forwards,) made ex-
actly 13 revolutions while the same pendulum made 20 vibrations. It was
then found (the boat being allowed to sail) that, while 13 revolutions of the
wheels, with the common floats, moved the boat forward twelve feet; 13
revolutions of the same wheels, with the revolving floats, propelled it fifteen
feet.

Experiment III. — The same floats were used — first, revolving, and then
fixed — when it was found that the revolving floats carried the boat forward
10 feet in the same time that, when fixed, they carried the boat forward
9 feet.

" The reason why so short a distance was reached in the last experiment, is, that
the larger spring, which I had broken ; and having a shorter one in my possession,
I was forced to use it."

* This plan was given in the last Number of the Artizan.
F F

Questions and Answers interesting to Naval Officers and Steam-Boat Engineers. [October,

" Fig. 1 represents a side view of a paddle-wheel, showing the vertical position
of the floats. The lines AB exhibit the water-line, and the arrows the direction in
which the wheel is revolving. The sides of the dotted triangles show the surface
of water pressed downwards, backwards, and upwards, by the common float, while
the wheel is moving.

" Pig. 2 is a view of the end of the paddle-wheel, representing the shape of the
floats, and how they are hung, between the three rings of which the wheel is con-
structed, by a long iron bolt passing through holes formed for the purpose.

" To construct the float so as to make it always keep a vertical position, wliile
immersed in the water, two things are necessary — the under half must be heavier
than the upper half, and the upper half must have, in a certain proportion, a larger
surface than the under half. The former of these things may be accomplished by
making the upper half of wood, and the under half of iron. The wood, being spe-
cifically lighter than water, will naturally rise ; and the iron, being specifically
heavier, will as naturally sink, and so keep the float in a perpendicular position.
If the float be formed entirely of iron, the upper half may be made hollow, so as
to contain air, or it may be left open above the centre, as represented by the third
float of fig. 3.

" The under side of the float is pointed, both to allow it to enter the water more
easily, and to throw the weight farther from the centre.

" The reason for the upper half of the float requiring a greater surface than the
under half, will he obvious by looking at the dotted circular lines, abed, of
fig. 1 : a passes to 6 while c is passing to d. But the line c d is much longer than
the line ah ; therefore the side d of the float bd passing move speedily through the
water than the side 6, meets with greater resistance, and requires proportionahly
less surface than the side b, to make the resistance on each side of the centre equal.
The water being, however, the farther from the surface, must be also considered.

" The readiest and most simple way of finding the proper centre of the float, is,
to take a rod, the exact length of the radius of the wheel intended, and suspend it,
like a pendulum, over water of a sufficient depth to admit a float to be regulated
hy moving the rod backwards and forwards; and when once one float is adjusted,
it will form a perfect model for the rest."

Akt. VI. — QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS INTERESTING TO
NAVAL OFFICERS AND STEAM-BOAT ENGINEERS.— No. II.

What are the advantages of tubular boilers ?

That they take up less room, are less weighty, and may be worked at a
higher pressure of steam with impunity.

And what are their disadvantages ?

The chief disadvantage is, that, in consequence of carrying less water, the
water-level is subject to more sudden fluctuations ; they are also more liable
to prime : yet these defects rather attach to the greater part of the tubular
boilers that have been already made than to the principle ; and in some tubu-
lar boilers no trouble is experienced from either of these causes. I would
instance the boiler of the " Braganza," figured in a former number of the
Artizan, as being free from these defects ; while the boilers of the " Tagus,"
and some other boilers, also figured in the Artizan, suffer from them
severely.

Do you know anything of the comparative merits of the boilers of the
" Tagus" and " Braganza" from experience?

Yes; the boilers of the "Tagus "have the defects which the Artizan
predicted they would have before they had been yet tried. On the first voyage
they were found to be short of steam ; they primed very seriously, and the water
rose and fell very suddenly and capriciously within the boiler. The evil of
priming has been materially assuaged by the addition of a second steam-chest
to each boiler on the top of the first ; and blast-pipes, one inch in diameter,
have been introduced into the chimneys, to quicken the draught by a jet of

steam, after the same fashion as that practised in'locomotives. By these
means the boilers of the "Tagus" have been made to do their work, but
they are not satisfactory boilers in any way. The boilers of the " Braganza 'r
have as yet only had a very brief trial, yet that trial has sufficed to show that
they give an abundance of steam, do not prime, nor does the water-level rise
and fall with inconvenient rapidity. They have an excellent draught, more-
over, without the introduction of any blast-pipe into the chimney, are of a
strong form ; and, indeed, in so far as relates to the plan of the boiler, appear
to be nearly perfect. In point of workmanship, the boilers of the " Tagus "
are the best ; but in every other point, except that they are something larger,
the boilers f»f the " Braganza" are by far the preferable of the two. The
first point ;>o- tubular boilers, however, as in boilers of every kind, is effi-
ciency, ani\ c'ne next is smallness of size ; and the boilers of the " Tagus" are,
in my opinion, too small to be efficient for engines with 62-inch cylinders.

How many boilers are there for supplying the two engines of the " Tagus'r
with steam, and what is their proportion of surface ?

There are four boilers for supplying the engines of the " Tagus" with,
steam, and the smoke from them is carried off by means of two chimneys.
The computation of the surface of these and a multitude of other boilers,
some of them tubular, and some not, is given in the " Treatise on the
Steam-Engine, by the Artizan Club," and to it I must beg leave to-
refer for such points of information.

Is there any method you can suggest for maintaining the level of the water
in the boiler at a uniform height ?

Yes ; every vessel fitted with tubular boilers should be fitted with a small
engine for maintaining the water-level; and, in combination with this, it
would be a good way to have a small cistern fixed upon the boiler-front at
the water-level, and so put into connexion with the feed-pump and the water
within the boiler, that at every stroke of the pump the cistern would receive
an accession of water, which, on being put into connexion with the boiler,
would transfer itself thereto. But the quantity of water entering the cistern
would depend upon the height of the water within the boiler ; for the water
in the boiler and cistern would stand at the same level when the connexion
between them is opened ; and when it is shut, the water from the feed-pump
can only enter the cistern by compressing the steam shut within it ; and of
course that compression must become less, and the quantity of water entering
the cistern must become less also, when the quantity of steam shut within the
cistern is diminished by the rise of the water-level.

What is the usual proportion of surface in land-boilers ?

A square yard of effective flue and furnace-surface per horse-power, and a
square foot of grate-bars per horse-power. These proportions are very much
varied, however, in the practice of different engine-makers, and sometimes
the effective flue-surface is twice greater per horse-power, and the proportion
of fire-bars one half less. Taking all things into account, the proportion of a
square yard of effective flue-surface and a square foot of fire-bars per horse-
power appears to be the best.

What do you mean by effective flue-surface ?

By effective flue-surface is meant the whole of the furnace-surface, the
whole of the top of the flues, and one half of the sides ; — the bottom of the
flues and the other half of the sides being counted as of no effect.

Does this method of estimation apply to tubular boilers ?

I should say not so far as the tubes themselves are concerned ; but the rule
is altogether a conventional one, and much depends upon the area of the
flues. The practice of placing a hanging bridge in deep flues to dam back
the hot current, makes a larger proportion of the surface of the flue effective
than if the flue were without such an application. A flame-bridge situated
at the entrance of the flues, and so constructed as to spread the hot air in a
thin sheet over the flue-surface, has a similarly beneficial effect. In marine
boilers, however, no such thing as a flame-bridge is known, though such an
expedient would be of much advantage in some cases.

To what cause is the internal corrosion of boilers attributable ?

Questions and Answers interesting to Naval Officers and Steam-Boat Engineers.

1844.]

It is difficult to say, and, indeed, the subject is one of the least understood
in the whole range of engineering. I have observed, however, that boilers in
which scale has been suffered to accumulate are generally more affected by
internal corrosion than those that are kept free from such deposits ; and in
such cases I attribute much of the injury to the presence of muriatic acid in
the steam, consequent on the decomposition of the muriate of magnesia con-
tained in saline incrustations, when subjected to a high temperature. All
parts of the boiler, however, even then, are not worn away equally, but some
parts only are attacked, while other parts remain uninjured; and those parts
which are the first attacked in some boilers seem to enjoy an exemption in
others. Generally speaking, however, the insides of steam-chests, particu-
larly in that part where the steam is taken away, are the most rapidly dete-
riorated ; though in some cases the corrosion appears disposed to attack the
insides of boiler-shells in preference. A good deal of corrosion also takes
place about the water-line ; and the felting of boilers externally has been sup-
posed to increase 1iie internal corrosion.

In what situations is it that the wearing of boilers chiefly takes place ?

Internally, about the mouth of the steam-pipe and waste-steam pipe, and
all round the shell on the level of the water-line ; and, externally, on the top
of the steam-chest and around the funnel, in consequence of the dripping of
water from the deck, and about the bottoms of the ash-pits, from the saline
deposit occasioned by the quenching of fires. The bottoms of boilers are
now usually very completely protected from corrosion by imbedding them in
putty or mastic, so that the bottoms are not exposed to the action of the bilge-
water. In some cases the steam-pipes are made of malleable iron, and then
they not merely wear away very quickly, but flakes of hard rust are detached
from the inside, and are carried on to the cylinders and valve-faces, where
. they often do much damage.

Then copper steam -pipes are preferable ?

Yes, so far as the steam-pipes themselves are concerned ; but they are
supposed to commit injury by exciting a galvanic action in the valve-faces,
which wears them away very quickly. Where the steam strikes the valve on
entering the valve-casing, the iron will be turned into plumbago much sooner
if the steam has passed through a copper pipe ; and, on the application of the
microscope, particles of the copper will be discoverable imbedded in the
iron.

Is there any other method of preventing the deposition of scale in boilers
than by blowing off?

The formation of scale may be almost entirely prevented by 'the use of col-
lecting vessels placed within the boilers, and then a very moderate degree
of blowing off will suffice.

What is a collecting vessel ?

It is a box of sheet-iron situated within the boiler, and made close on every
side with the exception of a small upright neck upon the top. The agitation
caused by the ebullition within the boiler keeps the particles of extraneous
matter suspended in the water ; but within the box there is no agitation, and
the particles above the neck therefore subside, without being again thrown
upwards. The consequence of this action is, that the box very quickly be-
comes filled with a deposition resembling mortar, which, had it settled on the
flues, would have been turned into scale. By attaching an agitator and blow-
off pipe to the box, the sediment within it may be stirred up and blown off,
and the apparatus thus completed is called a collecting vessel, or boiler
cleanser. The plan is particularly useful where muddy water is used, and it
is an excellent preventive of priming in such cases.

Is the plan applicable to marine boilers ?

Yes, and it has been successfully applied to marine boilers in some cases,
but it is in land boilers that it is chiefly used. In Manchester, and the sur-
rounding districts, this plan is employed very extensively, and with very
beneficial effects.

Whether is a large or a small power the most economical in the case
of sea-going steamers ?

A large power is the most economical to have, and a small power the most
economical to use. If a vessel require 400 horses' power, it is better to
have engines of 500 horses, and work them expansively to such an extent
that they will only exert 400 horses' power. By adopting this plan you will
not merely have less expense, but also less weight ; for though the engines
are necessarily heavier, this extra weight will be more than counterbalanced
by the diminished weight of a supply of coal for the same length of voyage.
In fine weather and in fair winds, it is the best way to work the engines very
expansively, and be content with a moderate rate of speed ; whereas, under
adverse circumstances of wind and water, you may put on the full power,
which, if there be no nautical consideration to prevent it, is the best eco-
nomy. It is impossible, indeed, sometimes, to put on the full power, as, for
example, in the case of a heavy head-sea, for the vessel would bury herself in
the waves if the full power of the engines were exerted. But in the case of
strong adverse winds, where the sea has not yet risen, or of currents, and
other similar retardations, it is obviously the most expedient plan to use all
the power you can exert, as it is only the difference between the propelling
power of the engines and the retarding power of the winds or currents, of
which you have the benefit ; and this difference will be nothing, if only a
moderate propelling power be employed. In still water, however, a mode-
rate power and moderate speed is by much the cheapest, as must be obvious
from the consideration that the resistance of a body moving in water in-
creases as the square of the velocity. If, therefore, you double the speed of a
steamer, you encounter a fourfold resistance ; and the area of your piston,

223

and the consumption of steam and fuel, must, other things being the same,
be four times greater in the same time, and twice greater in the same dis-
tance. But the engine must also travel at double the speed, and the expense
is again doubled from this cause ; so that if the speed of a steamer be doubled,
the expense of power will become eight times greater for the same time, and
four times greater for the same distance.

What are the means you would recommend as the most effectual for saying
fuel in steam-vessels ?

If I were desired to construct machinery for a steam vessel that would
realize the greatest possible efficiency with the greatest possible saving of
fuel, I would proceed as follows : — The boilers I would make tubular, with
the tubes upright, and the fire-place circular. The fire-grate I would cause
to revolve, and to feed itself by some such mechanism as Boulton and Watt
have applied to the furnaces in the Bank of England. There would thus be
a much more effectual system of firing attained than can be realised by hand,
especially in rough weather, and the service of a number of firemen might be
dispensed with. These boilers I would not make very large, and I would
introduce a sufficiency of them to provide the steam requisite for the engines.
The tubes of the boilers I would make of iron, with the smoke passing
through them — their lower ends being fixed into a plate extending over the
furnace, and made slightly elevated in the centre, and their upper ends at-
tached to a similar plate in the steam space. By this arrangement it is plain
that only the lower portion of the tubes would be immerged in the water,
while the upper portion would merely pass through the steam ; the effects of
which would be to dry the steam very effectually, and make it more fit for
economical application in the cylinders. The engines I would make with a
very long stroke, and would permit the piston to travel at a greater rate of
speed than usual, so as to save the weight of machinery incidental to a slow
piston, and to enable the engines to be worked to a high pitch of expansion
without occasioning the shocks and strains which engines with a large area of
piston suffer when steam of a high pressure is suddenly let in upon them.
The best engine for realizing the advantage of a long stroke without towering
needlessly above the deck, appears to be that contrived by Mr. Hastie, and
described in the last Number of the Artizan ; and if the cylinder be made
of a small diameter, as it would be, and tall, the cranks would not be sepa-
rated by the cross-head to an inconvenient extent, and round air-pumps in-
stead of square ones, as was suggested, might be got between the cylinders.
The steam I would work at a pressure of about 20 lbs. on the inch, and would
cut it off when the piston has completed -£th or £th of its stroke ; nor would
there be much danger attending the use of steam of this pressure, if the
boilers were cylindrical and of small diameter ; and, indeed, this pressure
very little exceeds that already used in some of the existing tubular boilers,
which are, neither from their shape nor dimensions, nearly so well calculated
to withstand it.

Would not much of the heat in a boiler such as you propose be apt to go
up the chimney ?

Not more than in ordinary boilers, in so far as regards the position of the
tubes immediately over the fire, provided the tubes were so proportioned as
to be of adequate smallness and length, but something more on account of
the higher temperature of the steam than in common boilers, for the steam
would be to a certain extent surcharged steam ; in other words, its tempera-
ture would be higher than that due to its elastic force. In boilers, however,
that have been made upon this plan — and several of these are figured in the
Club's Treatise on the Steam- Engine for the present month — the tem-
perature of the chimney has not been found to be at all high, so that any
considerable loss of heat from this cause is not to be apprehended. More-
over, I would make the hot air, after having emerged from the tubes, to pass
through a water-casing into which the feed-water was delivered.

Would not there be some difficulty in arranging these small boilers in a
vessel so as to afford adequate firing space without a great consumption
of room ?

Not if the grates were made on the revolving and self -feeding plan ; for, in
that case, large firing spaces would not be necessary. Four rows of boilers
could be placed across the ship, with a central athwartship passage between
them of sufficient width to enable the fires to be lighted conveniently ; and
after that had been done, the furnace-doors would not require to be again
opened except to draw the fires, for the furnaces would be fed from a hopper
on the top of the boiler, the coal falling through a perpendicular slit left in.
the boiler for that purpose.

How would boilers on this plan answer for factory purposes ?

I think they would answer very well, as they would be very effectual
boilers, and might be made very cheap. The whole of the shell might be
made in the riveting machine with a great economy of labour ; and the drawn
malleable iron tubing which composes the flues need not be an expensive
material. Boilers of this kind need no brickwork. It appears to me,
that, if once they were established as an article of manufacture, they might
be made cheaper than even the common wagon boiler.

By the arrangement you have described you would obtain all the advan-
tages of the Cornish method of producing and using steam — complete com-
bustion, and the full benefit of expansion?

I would not say the full benefit of expansion, because the benefit of ex-
pansion has a limit so far removed from practical attainment that you can
never say you have got it all. By this method, however, the same amount
of benefit may be obtained from expansion that is obtained in Cornwall ; and,
as regards the furnace, you would have, I conceive, a still higher perform-

224

Questions and Answers interesting to Naval Officers and Steam-Boat Engineers.

[October,

ance, as the firing is better accomplishable by mechanism than by hand, and
you avoid the injury of the indraught of cold air by opening the fire-door to
mend the fire.

It would be necessary, in the revolving grate, to allow for the effect of ex-
pansion ?

Undoubtedly ; it would not do to make it a tight fit ; but, to obviate any
leakage of air from this cause, it is usual to have a rim attached to the grate,
which revolves in sand. All this is very clearly represented in the Treatise
on the Steam-Engine ; and what is said there it is needless here to repeat.

Is it your impression that boilers and engines on this plan will come into
general use for steam vessels ?

It is. The beam engine I look upon as virtually given up, and, although
engineers may still bow down before it in secret, it has lost the veneration of
less superstitious worshippers. Those engineers who cling to it too firmly
will only be left behind, for it has disadvantages enough to justify its discon-
tinuance ; and, even if the fact were not so, people will not now be content
with old methods and arrangements, but will have a new fashion even though
it be an inferior one. Most of the direct action engines indeed are very bad,
but there are three of them in my mind superior to the side lever method,
and these are the oscillating, as made by Messrs. Penn ; the double crosshead,
as made by Messrs. Bury ; and that which I have just described as the inven-
tion of Mr. Hastie. Among these that plan must be selected which best
answers the purpose in hand; but for reaching economy of fuel by high pres-
sure steam, and a large measure of expansion, Mr. Hastie's plan appears to
be the best, inasmuch, as it imposes no limitation of the stroke, as is the case
in the other examples.

You think, then, that a long stroke is indispensable to the developement of
the expansive principle ?

Theoretically speaking, the efficacy is the same, whether the expansion is
accomplished in a long cylinder or a short one, provided you have the same
amount of expansion in both cases ; but in practice if you employ high pres-
sure steam, you must either work with two cylinders, as in Woolf's arrange-
ment, or employ a long cylinder, else you will require to make the parts of the
engine extremely strong to resist the force of the steam acting on a large area of
piston, and the engine moreover will not in such a case work equally and plea-
santly. It appears to me, therefore, that the natural course of steam improve-
ment leads to the elongation of the stroke, as being the preferable of the alter-
natives presented, and that plan of engine will therefore be preferred which,
without protruding above the deck inconveniently, or giving rise to any
other similar disadvantage, will enable the stroke to be extended.

Is the kind of engine you recommend suitable for driving the screw pro-
peller ?

If gearing be used, I should say it was suitable; but if the engine be cou-
pled at once to the shaft, I think the oscillating engine is preferable, as in
that case it is not a long stroke you want, but a quick piston with a short
stroke.

Is there not a difficulty in connecting the engine immediately to the screw
shaft ?

There is ; for it is necessary to have something to withstand the thrust of
the screw forward, and the cranks in the shaft hinder the application of a step
for the end of the shaft to press upon, as is employed when the screw is driven
by gearing. The cranks might, indeed, be made in one piece with the
shaft, as in the case of locomotive axles, and they might then perhaps be able
to withstand the forward thrust, which in the Rattler is equal to a weight of
four tons, a pivot being in such case placed at the end of the shaft, and out-
side of the cranks, to sustain the pressure. Messrs. Maudslay, in a little ves-
sel-lately completed by them, called The Water Lily, receive the thrust of the
screw on a number of rings or collars that encircle the shaft, and to which
a pair of brasses with corresponding indentations are fitted. Messrs. Ren-
nie, on the other hand, propose to place a disc upon the shaft, against which
two other discs revolving at right angles are made to press, and the journals
of these last discs sustain the thrust.

Which of these plans do you consider the best ?

Upon the whole I should be disposed to give the preference to the method
of placing a pivot at the end of the screw shaft, and so making the cranks
that they could sustain, without injury or deflection, the forward thrust.
There is no doubt that this could easily be done ; and although it may be
a less elegant expedient than either of the others, I believe it would be
found more satisfactory in practice.

The Rattler, it is said, has completed her experiments, and is now getting
ready for sea. Do you happen to know the results of those experiments ?

The Club, I believe, is preparing an elaborate paper upon the subject,
which it would not be well to anticipate. I may, however, state that Mr.
Smith's screw has been found to be better than any of the others, though
indeed, the others are only his with some trivial alteration for the worse. I
wonder that the Admiralty lend any countenance to a set of shameless pirates,
who, after Mr. Smith has brought his plan to bear in the face of difficulties
such as energy and perseverance almost superhuman, could only have sur-
mounted, start up with some flimsy evasion to rob the man of his fame and
profit " who has borne the burden and heat of the day." The Admiralty,
however, it is said, cannot assume the functions of the judges of the land,
and determine whose plan is the true and original one, and whose is a piracy,
though there can be little doubt that all the other screws are infringements
of Mr. Smith's, for he first brought the screw to bear, in opposition to the
opinion of nearly all the engineers, and he it is who has brought it to its

present perfection. There cannot be a doubt, therefore, that he is the first
beneficial inventor, and it would be a discouragement to the whole inventive
genius of the country, if such hard-won successes were to be robbed of their
reward. The relative performances of some of the latest trials have been
put forth as follows : —

Table of Screw Experiments with H.M.S. Rattler.

Average

Average

Speed in

Speed of

1844.

knots per
hour.

Engine per
minute.

Remarks.

Mr. Woodcroft's

8-159

24-15

Propeller with four blades.

Oct. 4.

Mr. Smith's

9-659

25-25

Vessel masted ; propeller
reduced to 15 inches in
length, and 10 ft. dia-
meter, and of slight
make, adapted to rivers
merely.

10.

Mr. Sunderland's

8-380

17-49

12.

Mr. Steinman's 1
(Blaxman's) J

9-538

25-06

Propellers of sea-going

strength.

15.

Mr. Sunderland's

8-346

18-1

17.

Mr. Smith's

9-893

27-01

New screw, similar to the
former, but much stron-
ger.

Is it your impression that the screw propeller will supersede the paddle-
wheel ?

Yes, I am clearly of that opinion, for there is an inevitable loss in the pad-
dle-wheel from the different horizontal velocities of the floats in the water ;
and when the float is much immerged this loss becomes very serious, whereas
in the screw there is no loss from this cause, and as the slip is very trifling,
the loss from oblique action is inconsiderable.

But you probably think a better method of giving motion to the screw is
necessary for complete success ?

A good rotatory engine is the thing wanted, and I think this desideratum
will be reached before long. Indeed, the Club has the plan of a rotatory
engine, which, it appears to me, will accomplish the end desired; it is cheap,
simple, has but little friction, and may be made to travel either fast or slow,
without detriment or inconvenience. It is impossible, however, to explain
the plan without a drawing, but it appears to me that it will do.

In speaking of boilers, you did not state what thickness of plate you
would make them of, with a pressure of 20 lbs. on the square inch. Will
you state that ?

I would make the shells, which I presume is the part to which the ques-
tion applies, half an inch thick, not so much for strength as economy. In
the present state of boiler making, a thicker plate than half an inch cannot
be soundly riveted by hand, but by the riveting machine there is no such
limitation. A thinner plate than a quarter, on the other hand cannot be
effectually caulked, so that the thickness of three-eighths appears for ordinary
purposes, and in the present state of boiler manufacture, to be more eligible
than any other. The boilers, however, I proposed would be riveted by the
riveting machine ; and to make them last the longer, I would make the shells
of good thick iron. It would be a good plan too, I think, to zinc the shell
by means of the electrotype process, which if a systematic plan of manu-
facture were adopted could be easily accomplished.

Would you recommend the grate bars to be of cast or malleable iron ?

Malleable iron, I think, would be the best, as they are more durable, and
might be made thinner, which is a great advantage. It is very desirable, in
order to promote as complete combustion as possible with the furnace, that
the air should have the power of ascending through the fire grate freely ; and
with this view, I would make the fire bars not more than three quarters of an
inch thick, tapering to one quarter on the under side, and I would round the
upper edge a little to facilitate the diffusion of the air over the grate.

What width would you have between the bars ?

About three-eighths of an inch ; but this is a point which must be made to-
suit the size or smallness of the coals.

Is not Mr. David Napier's plan of boiler very similar to that which you
have commended ?

Yes, with this difference, that in his plan it is the water that goes through
the tubes, and in this plan it is the flame. By his plan the steam cannot be
surcharged with heat, and the boiler is liable to prime. Sometimes too, a
tube will get stopped up by the ascending current drawing into its inferior
orifice, a chip, a bit of tow, or other extraneous substance, which has found
its way accidentally into the boiler, and then the tube will get red hot and.
burn out. Indeed, the balls which are produced in many boilers, and which
seem to be a compound in many instances of mud and grease wrought into
a kind of putty, will sometimes have the effect of stopping one or two of the
tubes, and damage is sure to be the consequence of such a casualty.

1844.]

Railway Projects.

225

Art. VII.— KALSOMINE PAPER-HANGINGS.

This is an invention that we are persuaded will rise to great importance,
and which is well deserving of the favourable attention of the public. It
consists in coagulating the size with which the colours of paper-hangings are
mixed by the aid of a solution of alum, by which means it is made insoluble ;
and the surface of the paper may then be washed with as little damage as if
it were covered with oil paint. A papering for rooms may thus be intro-
duced of a greatly superior kind to that now in use, and with an equal eco-
nomy ; for the greater first cost will be made up by a greater durability.
There is no glare upon the paper of any kind, but its surface is just the same
as if it had never undergone any preparation ; and in some of the specimens
we have seen, the appearance bore a very close resemblance to that of fresco.
Rooms may be decorated with great elegance with this paper, by making
use of appropriate borders and centre pieces ; and the effect is at least equal
to that produced by fresco painting. The following are the details of the
kalsomine process, as given by the inventor : —

" Tempera may be said to possess (resistance to water excepted) all the advan-
tages of other modes of painting, without many of their disadvantages. It is not
acted on chemically by smoke, as oil paint is ; its foundation white is an earth which
is neither blackened nor in any way changed by any gas that may occur in the
atmosphere, like the white lead that is the basis of oil paint, which is liable to be
discoloured by the sulphuretted hydrogen constantly escaping from drains and coal
fires. Size (the vehicle used in tempera) has no chemical action on the metallic
oxides ; it reflects light, instead of absorbing it like oil. But it cannot be washed ;
itself a water-colour, water will remove that which it will put on. Remove this
difficulty, and the artist possesses everything he can desire, — purity and perma-
nency of colour, breadth and facility of handling, and durability. This, we believe,
our invention fully accomplishes. The patent kalsomine is, in fact, a washable
tempera. It is, like ordinary tempera, applied to a surface by the medium of size.
It differs only in the care with which the size has been prepared, and the greater
quantity employed. When painted, it would wash off again, like any other tem-
pera, hut for an after-process, in which the great novelty of our invention consists.
As this after-process may he applied with equal success to other substances besides
size, equally susceptible of being employed as vehicles for painting, we will briefly
state the nature of the invention ; and, in the present account, limit ourselves to
giving those particulars most necessary to explain its application to the higher
branches of decorative art, or to the purposes of the artist. Its treatment, when
applied to plain house-painting, is much more simple. The invention consists in
using, as vehicles for painting, certain substances soluble in water ; which, by the
after-application of chemical agents or re-agents, can be rendered insoluble in water.
Thus, the paintings so treated are susceptible of being cleaned by washing. It is
well known that many chemical agents, when brought into contact with albumen
or gelatine in solution, form, with them, insoluble compounds. Moreover, a soap
of wax, or of certain resinous substances, being an alkaline compound, would be
decomposed by an acid or earthy re-agent, and the wax or resin restored to its ori-
ginally insoluble state. As this effect is produced by alum, or by the acetate of
alumina, in solution, and as these also form an insoluble compound with albumen,
and with size of a certain quality, all these vehicles may be used together, in the
same picture, according to the quality of the surface or mode of working which the
artist may require for producing a satisfactory effect. Clear, lustrous, and opaque
lights, not liable to darken or sink; transparent shadows and dark colours, easily
spread and glazed on, free from gloss and reflection ; these are the qualities it is
most desirable to combine, if possible, in all paintings intended for decoration. These
effects may be obtained by the following treatment : —

" Size being the best vehicle for all body colours and lights, from not changing
colour, and from its being naturally tough, not liable to crack or peel, and from its
not absorbing light, we recommend that the white paint, and all light bright body
colours, be mixed with size. For the shadows and dark colours a transparent
vehicle is best, that they may be rich and deep in tone, and recede from the eye.
It is, therefore, desirable to grind up the brown, red, green, and dark blue colours
in the soap of wax, as oil colours are in linseed-oil. Besides this, to thin the co-
lours so prepared for working, a vehicle is required to be used, as spirits of turpen-
tine are used in oil-painting, for the purpose of giving fluidity to the size colour in
finishing up, or for laying on semi-opaque washes of body colour. ' The white of
egg, beaten up with an equal weight of water, is the best thinning vehicle. It
forms, with the re-agent, a particularly intractable coagulum, which, being very
opaque, will be found as good for the light colours as it is useful in neutralizing
whatever gloss the soap of wax might give the deep colours, according to the pro-
portions in which these vehicles are combined. This must be left to the judgment
of the artist. If the lights and white are thus mixed with size, and the darks and
colours with soap of wax, every gradation of opacity will be obtained by the simple
mixing of the colours. The shadows will recede and the lights will come forward
by the optical properties of the vehicles — an advantage of great value in the hands
of an intelligent artist, which cannot be wholly and permanently obtained in oil, in
fresco or in tempera. For in oil the lights sink from the action of the oil on the
white, and become discoloured from the action of the atmosphere on the oil and
driers, while the rich dark tints become ding)'. In fresco, the absence of gloss in
all tints alike is accompanied by a dulness and meagreness of tone and texture which
puts fine colouring and effect out of the question, besides the difficulties of mani-
pulation and risks of the process. And though in tempera a greater richness and
depth of tone and effect may be aimed at, with all the rapidity of execution and
breadth of fresco, it cannot be cleaned ; and in the climate of England it is soon
destroyed by damp, which destroys and decomposes the size used as a vehicle. But
when our process has been applied to a picture so painted, it is no longer susceptible
of this decomposition. The painting, when finished, is washed over with a solution

of alum, or the acetate of alumina. This renders the size (as well as the other
vehicles) insoluble in water. It is converted into a kind of horn, or tanned, much
in the same way as sheepskins are converted into ' whitleather.' We have said
that a certain care is necessary in the selection of the size. It is a fact known to
chemists, and perhaps only to them, that there are two varieties of size, possessing
exactly the same external qualities, but differing in this, that the one kind is not
coagulated by alum, and the other is. The former has the name of gelatine, the
latter that of chondrine. Fish-glue, or size made from isinglass, is an example of
the gelatine variety ; and tempera made with this will not be rendered washable by
being subsequently treated with alum.

" Size that will coagulate is procured from the tendons of animals, and, conse-
quently, abundantly from such parts of their skins as have many tendons inserted
into them. The parts about the head are well fitted to make size proper for our
purpose. A simple method of ascertaining whether size is fit or not is to warm a
little of it, just to the melting point, but no more, as it would injure the fixing pro-
perty, and pour into.it a little strong alum-water. If the size immediately coagu-
late, it is fit for our purpose. As chondrine, by keeping, gradually changes into
gelatine, and becomes unfit for our purpose, because it cannot then be fixed, it is
quite necessary to use it very fresh, to mix up only as much white paint as will last
three or four days, and in summer to keep it in a cool place. Another important
precaution is to use only such colours, with size or with albumen, as do not decom-
pose, effervesce, or dissolve, in the ' fixing solution or re-agent.' Their fitness is
easily tested, like the size, by pouring a little of the solution on a sample of the
colour. All the carbonates of earths and metals are unsuitable ; all the vegetable
lakes made with chalk ; but as the latter are exceedingly fugitive, their unfitness is
no loss. The white we prefer to use as a basis is porcelain clay, a compound of pure
alumina and silica. It possesses none of that dry meagre whiteness common to
chalk or barytes, but a certain silky lustre not easy to describe ; yet most agreeable
to the eye. Besides this, clay retains water with much tenacity, and therefore
tempera executed with it does not dry so inconveniently fast. It is also less absor-
bent in use than other whites. We beat it up witli water into a paste to the con-
sistency of butter, and add from half to two-thirds of the weight of the paste, of
strong double size. The whole must be well mixed, and passed through a muslin;
it must then be set aside to cool till it begins to set or gelatinize, and then beaten up
with a spatula. As it is desirable to use as much as possible, that the paint may be
solid when fixed ; and as size alone is inconvenient to use, from its setting, when
the paint is made so strong, we recommend the previous preparation of the size in
the following manner, to make it work more soft and dry less rapidly: — If a solu-
tion of white tallow soap in sixteen times its weight of water be prepared by long
boiling, and kept for use, about two ounces of this solution to every pound of size,
with a table-spoonful of drying oil, stirred in when the size is just melted, will he
found a great improvement. The size will then work easily, give more body to the
colour; and further, the fixing solution will act on this mixture in such a manner,
that after its application the surface will be impervious to water or damp. Or, a
little white wax may be incorporated with the soap by means of heat, and then
brought to the consistence of lard, by adding water instead of the oil. But as a
general rule, wewould suggest, that as the coagulated size and albumen are the most
simple and unalterable vehicles, we make a point of being as sparing in the use of
any addition as possible. The best fixing solutions are alum, and the acetate of
alumina or mordant of the colico printers. For all choice and delicate work we
prefer the latter. The strength of the solution should be such that a pint of water
shall contain about an ounce of alum, as a maximum. If, after dissolving the alum
in warm water, about one-tenth of its weight of chalk be added, and when the ef-
fervescence has ceased, about three-quarters of its weight of acetate of lead, sulphate
of lead will be precipitated, and the acetate remain in solution fit for use. This
fixing solution is applied with a large brush, taking care (if the painting be on a
wall) that no more be applied than the paint will absorb, without letting any run
down along the painting. If, after the picture is quite dry, it be washed a second
time with a lather of soap, the latter will combine with the excess of alum left by the
first wash, and fill up the pores of the fixed distemperwith a soap of alumina that re-
sists the further introduction of water or damp. This is in case the soap should not
have been combined with the size in mixing, which nevertheless we recommend in
preference. Lastly, we must caution those who use size combined in the manner we
recommend, with fatty substances in very minute proportions — to be not the less
scrupulous in using their size quite fresh, and not keeping much paint mixed at a
time. For, although size so combined would not turn sour, or smell, or appear in
the least decomposed, its fixing property is not the less destroyed in about the same
time that it would be without this mixture. And although a little sulphate of zinc
added to the size will preserve it fit for our purpose several weeks, size so treated
will not work with albumen, because the sulphate of zinc coagulates the latter."

Art. VIIL— RAILWAY PROJECTS.

During the whole course of the history of railways, there never, perhaps,
was a time in which the desire for investment in such undertakings was so
general and so urgent. Similar periods have occurred, when a universal
mania pervaded the whole country for railway enterprise ; and many, who
were carried away by that excitement, had reason to deplore their precipita-
tion. At the present time, however, notwithstanding the caution which
former disappointments might reasonably be supposed to have engendered,
capitalists and annuitants, both large and small, seem to vie with one another
in an eager desire to become railway proprietors ; and seem incurious, so that
they have a share in some railway, what its prospects may be. Scores of
new railways, and very many duplicate or triplicate lines, are projected ;
and the columns of the daily and of the railway journals are filled with the

226

Report on the New Building Act.

[October,

prospectuses of these new undertakings, while statements and counter-state-
ments are handed ahout by those interested in rival schemes.

Nor is this revival of railway speculation confined to our own country —
our neighbours on the Continent seem to have caught the infection ; and rail-
way enterprise, throughout all Europe, has received an impulse which, we
are willing to believe, cannot fail to produce much benefit to those king-
doms.

The innovations of modern science are even threatening to make their
way among the most degraded of the continental nations ; and railways in
Portugal, Spain, and even Italy, are seriously talked of as fields for railway
enterprise. In the latter, a formidable opposition has been raised by the
Holy See ; and the pontifical government, which only very lately could be
prevailed upon to sanction the running of a diligence, has refused its consent
to a proposed line of railway. Capitalists are not, however, daunted by this
resistance ; and it is said that measures are being taken to secure the suc-
cess of another similar enterprise, by conciliating influential members of the
Holy College.

Under such circumstances, when railways are spreading themselves over
the whole civilised world, and when capital is eagerly directed into that
channel, it is not to be wondered at that many inventors, of various
degrees of pretensions, have sprung up, professing their competency to im-
prove the existing system of railway propulsion and construction ; and
urging, with a wearisome pertinacity, their claims to be considered as im-
provers of old, or even as originators of new systems.

Among the crowd of these pretenders there are several who are the repre-
sentatives of the mechanical ingenuity of France ; and, if the stock were to
be judged of by those samples, our opinion of French engineering skill
would not be by any means elevated. While some of these are contented
with attempts at effecting improvements on existing systems of construction,
there are others who have aspired to the honour of being founders of a sys-
tem ; and, among them, we may mention the attempts, as yet unsuccessful,
of M.Andraud, to introduce locomotives having a motive power of com-
pressed air instead of steam, as at present. This method, which has no no-
velty, has not, in M. Andraud's hands, surmounted those difficulties which
have beset the path of preceding mechanicians. Various trials have been
made on the Versailles line ; and we are told gravely, that the method has
equalled the expectations of the inventor, because it has been satisfactorily
proved by these trials that such a locomotive can run and be easily ma-
naged— a piece of information which might have been acquired in this coun-
try without the trouble and expense attending these frequent and fruitless
experiments.

Analogous to this scheme, both in its want of success and of originality,
is that of M. Selligue, who proposes to supersede steam by the explosion of
gases. Very many experiments have been made in this country on the same
principle, and for the same object, but no satisfactory result has yet been
realised, and the labours of M. Selligue have not advanced us much farther
in the attainment of the desired end ; and they appear to have been so rudely
conducted, and so indefinite in their results, that no confidence is to be
placed in the deductions drawn from them.

Another French inventor is M. Arnoux, whose invention has been re-
ported upon to the Peers by the Minister of Public Works. The principal
feature consists in having the axles movable on a central pivot, in a similar
manner to that of a carriage on common roads, by which means there is less
danger and difficulty in traversing quick curves. For the same purpose, the
carriages composing a train are coupled together in such a way as to permit
them to accommodate themselves to the sinuosities of the line, without that
injurious grinding of the wheels which is alleged to take place to so great an
extent at present. Although not disposed to acquiesce fully in the eulo-
giums lavished in the report to which we have alluded, we are willing to
acknowledge that the modification is not wholly devoid of merit, albeit of a
less lofty character than fond admirers are pleased to imagine.

The next we shall notice are the multifarious inventions of the Marquis
de Jouffroi, who, while retaining the present locomotive and carriages,
makes them undergo a transformation well-nigh equivalent to a total change
of system.

The most prominent features of his plan consist in the introduction of a
central fluted rail, upon which the driving wheel works. In order to in-
crease the adhesion of the latter, it is made with a wooden periphery and
iron flanges, which embrace the central rail. The bearing wheels are di-
vested of flanges, and the carriages are retained upon the rails by means of
guards attached to their outsides : and sliding outside a flange which rises
from the rails within the line of the wheel-track. To afford further secu-
rity from accidents, the centre of gravity is greatly lowered, the bearing
axles passing through the bodies of the carriages, the wheels of which are
made of moi e than ordinary diameter. The carriages are each supported on
two wheels, and are connected to one another by means of a swivel joint,
which admits of free lateral motion, for the easy passage of curves. A
powerful brake, applied to the shaft of the driving wheel, completes this
articulation of clumsy contrivance.

Prosser's project of wooden railways is perhaps the most simple and ex-
cellent of the present crop of railway schemes, although those interested in
its success have not failed to trumpet its advantages too loudly and long.
It consists in the application of bevel wheels to wooden rails, with the axles
of those wheels placed at an angle of 45°, so that an angular groove,
turned in their periphery, runs upon the interior and upper edge of the

rail, which is proposed to be prepared according to Payne's process for
metallising wood. All the ordinary wheels are divested of their flanges, and
the carriages are retained on the line by the operation of these bevel wheels,
which come into play whenever any lateral motion of the carriage takes
place. An obvious fault of this method is the unequal velocities of different
portions of the groove, which must occasion an abrasion of the edge of
the rail.

This is avoided in Kollman's method, in which the axles are vertical, and
the guide pullies, without grooves, revolve in contact with a central rail.
The retention of the central rail is unnecessary, and may be obviated by
causing the pullies to bear against the outer rails; and in that case the ho-
rizontal flange, projecting from the side of the rail, and beneath which the
guide wheels revolve, would be more efficacious in resisting any tendency to>
an overturn. These guide wheels are secured in a framework which admits
of a motion independent of the carriage, and resembles that of M. Arnoux,,
which we have formerly described. To facilitate the surmounting of steep
gradients, an additional and higher rail is laid outside the ordinary one, upon,
which there works a corresponding wheel, upon the axle of the driving
wheel ; and, of course, of smaller dimensions, by which meaas an increase
of power is attained. This is a needless complication, as the same end is
attainable by a variation in the degree of expansion.

Mr. Kollman's scheme is one of much pretension, and of very slender merit :
the only good part of it is that which accomplishes the guiding of the train on
the rails by means of horizontal wheels pressing upon the side rails. But this
is an arrangement that would occur to any one, though we do not find it
mentioned in Mr. Kollman's circular ; but it was suggested by ourselves, a
few weeks ago, in the Apprentice, and we understand he is about to adopt
the suggestion.

The invention of M. Seguier is a curious modification of a portion of Mr.
Kollman's plan. It consists in retaining the horizontal guide wheels, and con-
verting them into driving wheels. By this arrangement the degree of ad-
hesion requisite for the propulsion of a locomotive and its train is obtained
by the pressure of powerful springs, instead of the usual mode by the weight
of the train itself. Various advantages are alleged by M. Seguier to proceed
from this arrangement, which are enumerated at length in a very bombastic
letter, which he has published on the subject.

These are some of the principal schemes which have lately been submitted
to the public ; and, after making the allowance for the interested partisanship
of some, and the enthusiastic blindness of others, there is nothing in them,
to give any strong grounds for supposing them calculated to effect a
change of any importance in our present railway system. That these and
similar projects have some tendency to elicit further and more valuable im-
provements we do not doubt ; and that consideration reconciles us to much
of the preposterous praise bestowed on them, even by men who, like M.
Arago, ought to be superior to the contemptible prejudices of nationality ;
but who, in French inventions, can see nothing but perfection.

Art. IX.— REPORT ON THE NEW BUILDING ACT.

REPORT OF A COMMITTEE APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL SESSION 0
THE PEACE, AUGUST 15, 1844.

1. To examine and consider into what districts the new portion of an area
pointed out by the Act within the jurisdiction of the Court might be con-
veniently divided, and whether any, and what, alterations might be expe-
dient in the districts subsisting and appointed under the former Building
Act ; and to communicate with the Home Office, and all other authorities,
on the subject, at their discretion ; and report thereon to the Court, who I
might then consider such matter and report — and forthwith determine
thereon. And

2. To revise the present standing orders of the Court as to District Sur-
veyors, and to consider ivhat arrangements might be most conveniently made
for obtaining the consents required by the- Act from the Home Office ; and

to submit such revised rules to the Court, at their next meeting, for consi-
deration and for adoption, if approved by the Court.

The committee so appointed perceived —

1. That the new Act, as to the districts and officers to be appointed in.
pursuance thereof, was to come into operation on September 1 ; and, as to
buildings and other matters, on January 1, 1845 (s. 1).

2. That (s. 3) the operation in regard to localities was to be extended be-
yond the boundaries of the former Act (limited to the bills of mortality and
the parishes of St. Marylebone, St. Pancras, and St. Luke, Chelsea) to an.
area including all places lying on the north side or left bank of the river |
Thames, within the exterior boundaries of the parishes of Fulham, Hammer-
smith, Kensington, Paddington, Hampstead, Hornsey, Tottenham, St. Pan- i
eras, Islington, Stoke Newington, Hackney, Stratford-le-Bow, Bromley,
Poplar, and Shadwell ; and to all such part of the parish of Chelsea as lies |
north of the parish of Kensington ; and to all places lying within 200 yards
from the exterior boundary of the district thereby defined, except the eastern,
part of the boundary bounded by the river Lea : so that the enlarged area
would extend to the parishes of

1844.]

Report of the New Building Act.

227

Fulham, Hampstead, Stoke Newingtony

Hammersmith, Hornsey, and

Kensington, Tottenham, Bromley,

not being included in the former Act, and as to which, therefore, no dis-
tricts or district surveyors had been heretofore appointed.

3. That it should he lawful for the justices of the peace for this county and
the city and liberties of Westminster, at their General Quarter Sessions, re-
spectively, or any adjournment thereof, with reference to their county and
city and liberties, and they are thereby empowered, but subject nevertheless to
the consent of one of her Majesty's Secretaries of State, to appoint the dis-
tricts to which the respective places within their jurisdiction should belong for
the purposes of this Act ; and to unite, enlarge, and alter such districts for
the more convenient distribution of the business (s. 64). And that it should
be lawful for the said justices, in their General Quarter Sessions respectively,
or any adjournment thereof, with reference to their respective counties, and
they are required, but subject nevertheless to the consent of one of her Ma-
jesty's principal Secretaries of State, to nominate and appoint as surveyors
such and so many discreet persons, of the full age of thirty years, and properly
educated and skilled in the art and practice of building, as the said justices
should think fit. But that the present surveyors (s. 70) should be continued
in office ; and that all surveyors thereafter appointed should be subject to a
previous examination as to their practical qualifications by a Board of Exa-
miners nominated by the Commissioners of Woods and Forests (s. 66), and
should produce to the clerk of the peace a certificate of qualification from such
Board of Examiners one week before an election of any such surveyor. And
that every surveyor hereafter appointed should make a declaration of official
fidelity, to be administered by the justices in their General Quarter Sessions,
before any such surveyor should be competent to act.

4. That, in case of any vacancy by death or removal, the justices should,
within one month, at their General Quarter Sessions, or an adjournment
thereof, appoint a successor (s. 74) ; and that in the meantime the official
referees appointed under the Act might appoint a competent person to per-
form the duties of the vacant district ; and that such official referees (s. 75)
may also represent to the justices any opinion they may form that a district
is too extensive for any surveyor, and may appoint a competent person to
assist any surveyor who cannot promptly and efficiently discharge the duties
of his office. And,

5. That an appellant jurisdiction (s. 57) is given to the justices for the
county of Middlesex, and for the city and liberties of Westminster, at their
Quarter Sessions respectively, as to certain convictions affecting nuisances
situate within their respective county or city and liberties.

To these provisions of the New Metropolitan Building Act your Commit-
tee have referred, that their proceedings and opinions may be rendered more
generally intelligible to the Court. And they would therefore also state, that
some difficulties were presented by the provisions of " The New Act (7 & 8
Vict. c. 71) for the better Administration of Criminal Justice in Middlesex,"
and which passed three days before the former mentioned Act. These diffi-
culties were, that, by the llth section of the Middlesex Act, it is provided
that Sessions of the Peace in and for the city and liberty of Westminster
should cease to be holden, and the Sessions to be held in and for the county

of Middlesex, mentioned in the 2nd section, should be holden by adjourn-
ment toithin the said city and liberty, and should have full jurisdiction over
all things cognisable by the Sessions for the said city and liberty ■ while, by
the 57th section of the Metropolitan Building Act (and which passed after
the Middlesex Act), appeals as to premises in the city and liberties of West-
minster are to be heard at the Quarter Sessions thereof; and, by the 64th
section, the justices for the city and liberties of Westminster, at their Gene-
ral Quarter Sessions, or any adjournment thereof; are to appoint the
districts to which the places in that jurisdiction should belong, and unite,
enlarge, and vary the same, and, by the 65th section, are to nominate and
appoint the district surveyors — and which occasioned doubts as to the course
which the Middlesex magistrates might hereafter take as to the places within
the city and liberties of Westminster, and the appointment of surveyors for
those places. But as, with respect to those doubts, your Committee have
been favoured with the opinion of The Registrar of Buildings under the
Metropolitan Building Act, and of the legal adviser of the Commissioners
of Woods and Forests, " That the magistrates for Middlesex sitting by
adjournment at Westminster would have all powers as to appeals, districts,
and the appointment of surveyors in and for the city and liberties of West-
minster which the Sessions for Westminster might have exercised had not
their Sessions been discontinued by the llth section of the Middlesex Act;"
and as no practical question need at present arise on that matter, since no
variations, or new districts, or appointment of new surveyors are immediately
occurring in the city or liberties of Westminster, your Committee proceed to
advert successively to the following topics referred to them by the Court :
— being

1. The existing districts under the former Building Act, and the pro-
priety of variations in them.

2. The districts into which the new enlarged area, within the county
of Middlesex, should be distributed.

3. The measures to be now taken by the Court for carrying the Act into
effect. And,

4. The standing orders as to district surveyors which it might be expe-
dient for the Court forthwith to adopt.

As to all these subjects your committee may generally state, that, depen-
dent as all their recommendations must eventually be on the opinions and
concurrence of the high official authorities invested by the Act with a con-
trolling power, they deemed it expedient, after collecting needful informa-
tion from all accessible sources, to communicate with the Right Honourable
the Earl of Lincoln, and, by his suggestion, with the official referees and
the Registrar of Buildings ; and that your committee, acknowledging the
most prompt and courteous attention from them, have the satisfaction to
apprise the Court that they have reason to believe that their suggestions are
perfectly approved, and that no difficulties in the way of the accomplishment
will arise.

As to the First Topic, or the Existing Districts. — Your committee present
you a statement, which, from official returns and parliamentary papers, they
have been able to prepare, and which will supply information that it will
obviously be desirous to possess and preserve.

EXISTING DISTRICTS.

MIDDLESEX AND "WESTMINSTER. NOT AT PRESENT TO BE VARIED.

DISTRICT.

St. Mary, Stratford-le-Bow "I

All Saints, Poplar J

St. George-in-the-East "I

St. Botolph without Aldgate J

St. John, Wapping "1

St. Anne, Limehouse I

St. Katherine f

Ratcliffe J

Mile-End, Old Town ; . .

St. John, Hackney ,

St. Matthew, Bethnal Green

Mile-End, New Town "1

Christ Church and Shadwell J

Whitechapel

St. Leonard, Shoreditch "1

Norton Folgate J

St. Luke, Old-street 1

Glass-house-yard J

St. Mary, Islington, and . . . . 1

St. Sepulchre Without J

Surveyor, and Date of Appointment.

J. H. Good, November 1, 1838

Henry Flower, November 10, 1836.. . .

Edmund Woodthorpe, July 11, 1839 ..

John Davies, July 11, 1839

Thomas H. Wyatt, April 12, 1832

Edward N. Clifton, April 18, 1844

Charles Hamor Hill, January 16, 1817
William Grellier, November 1, 1838 ..
Matthew Wharton, July 15, 1802

Richard C. Carpenter, April 4, 1837 ..

George Edwards, July 15, 1802

Number

of
Houses.

Income
1842.

in

Whether Emolu-
ments be in a
declining, station-
ary, or progressive
State.

£

s.

d.

4,285

235

14

0

Declining.

about "1
7,000 J

210

17

0

Progressive.

3,477

112

11

0

Declining.

8,200
7,294

13,500

363
372

122

14
15

5

0
9

2

Progressive.
Progressive.
f Declining, but
< probably will
L improve.

5,253

53

5

0

Declining.

4,661

108

18

0

Declining.

14,409

541

18

6

Declining.

6,608

83

1

0

Stationary.

8,750

556

0

0

Progressive.

228

Report of the New Building Act.

[October,

EXISTING DISTRICTS, &c, continued.

DISTRICT.

Clerkenwell

Saffron-hill Liberty

St. Clement Danes ...."]

St. Mary-le- Strand, and ^Middlesex

The Savoy J

St. George the Martyr

St. Andrew, Holborn, above Bars. . . .

Liberty of the Rolls

St. Giles-in-the-Fields

St. George, Bloomsbury

St. Pancras

St. Mary-le-Bone

Paddington

St. Luke, Chelsea

St. Margaret and St. John, Westminster.

St. Martin-in-the-Fields

St. Anne, Westminster

St. George, Hanover-square

St. James

St. Paul, Covent-garden

St. Clement Danes, and St. Mary-le- Strand,
Westminster

Surveyor, and Date of Appointment.

Robert Sibley, April 16, 1829

Samuel Angell, April 14, 1831

George Legg, January 18, 1844 ,

George Pownall, January 16, 1840

Henry Baker, July 7, 1825

John White, July 2, 1807

George Gutch, May 12, 1825

Samuel Beachcroft, May 12, 1825

William Pilkington, July 1, 1784

Henry Ed. Kendall, April 15, 1823 ....

Edward M. Foxhall, November 3, 1827.
James Gray Mayhew, November 1, 1823

Edward C. Hakewell, January, 1823 ...

Number

of
Houses.

7,000
1,491

2,943

4,557

15,000
14,280

3,746
about 1
6,000 j

5,618

.3,933

7,567
3,774

1,823

Income in
1842.

£ s. d.
276 11 0

69 1 0

44 0 0

160 15 0

1,104 0
943 6
752 17

363 7

168 15

170 4

Average
650 0 0
172 10 0
In 1838 it

average
100 0 0

Whether Emolu-
ment be in a
declining, station-
ary, or progressive
State.

Declining.
Stationary.

Declining.

Declining.

Progressive.
Progressive.
Progressive.

Progressive.

Declining.

Stationary.

Declining,
was stated to

With respect to these districts, your committee, after much and anxious
inquiry and consideration, cannot recommend any immediate alteration. No
public convenience would result adequate to the individual injury that would
be inflicted by a diminution of emoluments and districts on the present sur-
veyors— who by the Act are continued ; and especially as the provisions of
the Act which enable the official referees to appoint assistants where needful
will induce punctuality and exertion, and careful fulfilment of duty by the
present surveyors : while the increased powers of the Court to fine or dismiss
surveyors will also secure all parties affected by their conduct from any causes
for well-founded complaint.

But though your committee do not advise any immediate interference in
the subsisting districts, they would unhesitatingly suggest the following
alterations as vacancies occur by removal or death.

To divide each of the under-named parishes into two districts, viz., Isling-
ton, St. Mary-le-bone, Paddington, St. Pancras.

To separate the parish of St. Sepulchre Without from Islington, and add
it to the district of Saffron-hill Liberty, St. Clement Danes, St. Mary-le-
Strand, and the Savoy. And

To separate the parish of Shadwell from Spitalfields and Mile-End New
Town, and add it to the district of St. Catharine's, Wapping, Ratcliff, and
Limehouse.

The extent of the four parishes enumerated, and the information collected
respecting them, induce your committee to recommend the division of each of
them into two districts, the limits of which can be determined by the Court
when a vacancy shall occur ; and as Clerkenwell intervenes between Islington
and St. Sepulchre Without, and Whitechapel and St. George's-in-the-East
between Spitalfields and Mile-End New Town and Shadwell, your committee
presume that the propriety of the alteration proposed can admit of no doubt.

As to the Second Topic, or the New Districts proposed. — Your committee
feel sanctioned by the universal concurrence of those who have long and pro-
fessionally considered the subject, and submit to the Court the adoption of the
parochial system, or the establishment of each parish into a separate district,
as most intelligible and generally convenient. In the case of Kensington only
would they deviate from that practice ; and the peculiar localities of that ex-
tended parish, now rapidly increasing on the northern and southern extremi-
ties, and which may readily be divided into north and south districts by the
great western road, thus effecting a nearly equal division with regard to the
actual duties and prospective improvements, your committee trust will induce
the Court to approve that deviation from the general rule. And for their in-
formation as to the new districts they would introduce a table, which careful
investigation has enabled them to supply.

PROPOSED NEW DISTRICTS.

All on the Parochial System, except as to Kensington : that to be divided by
the Great Western Road into two districts — North and South Kensington.

Names of Districts.

Fulham

Hammersmith

„ . . /North

Kensington.. |South

Hampstead
Hornsey ...

Tottenham

Stoke Newington

Bromley.

Number

of
Houses.

600
2,503

1,543
2,601

1,434

924

1,519
705

1,135

As to the probable Increase of
Buildings.

About thirty houses now in progress of
building.

There will be a greater number of houses
erected in the three next years than there
were in the three last years.

The number of houses will be increased
very considerably in both districts, and
especially in the North.

There will shortly be an increase in the
number of houses.

On the Eastern side, near Newington-
green, new houses are likely to increase ;
as to the other parts of the parish, there
is no probability that buildings will much
increase, which may arise from the pro-
perty being copyhold.

There is a quantity of ground to let on
building leases in eligible situations.

The number of new houses likely to be built
may be fairly averaged by those of the
three last years, which have averaged ten
a year ; but, though that district appears
small, there are four candidates for that
appointment.

The new houses likely to be built by this
time next year, including those now
building, may amount to 200.

1844]

Iron Steamers.

229

Kensington should comprehend that part of Chelsea which is north of Ken-
sington ; also a portion of St. Margaret, Westminster, which is detached from
that parish, and nearly surrounded by Kensington.

Hornsey should comprehend an outlying portion of Clerkenwell at Mus-
well-hill, and abutting on the Coneyhatch-road.

And all, according to the Act, to include all places attached to each district
lying within 200 yards of the exterior boundary of the whole area pointed out
in the Metropolitan Building-Act.

As to the Third Topic, or the Measures to be now taken by the Court for
carrying the Act into effect. — Your committee would suggest, that, on the
county day of the present Quarter Sessions (Oct. 17), the Court may appoint
the new districts before enumerated, and also order that the election of a sur-
veyor to each of such districts shall take place on November the 28a!A, being
the county day of the Middlesex General Sessions of the Peace, and which, as
being the second Sessions in November (under sect. 2 of the Middlesex Act),
would have the power of Quarter Sessions, at which surveyors are to be ap-
pointed. Your committee presume that it will be understood that all the
elections will take place on that day, and that all the justices may vote for
each district separately, and for any qualified person who shall have conformed
to the rules of the Court, and who shall have declared himself a candidate for
such separate district. By the adoption of such course, the districts will
all be established, the surveyors to each will be nominated, and the Act
may, as provided, come into full operation on the first day of the ensuing
year.

As to the Fourth Topic, or the Revised Standing orders as to Districts and
District Surveyors. — They would : 1. Declare the old and new districts, as
mentioned in the report of the committee.

2. Approve the alterations suggested in Islington, Marylebone, Paddington,
Pancras, St. Sepulchre, and Shadwell, when vacancies occur.

3. Order, that as to the election of new and future district surveyors, no
person be admitted a candidate unless duly qualified under the New Metro-
politan Building Act (7 and 8 Vict, c 84), nor who shall be a builder, or
engaged directly or indirectly in building in any department, or who shall be
a dealer in building materials, or shall be surveyor or agent to any estate
within the district for which he may be a candidate.

4. That, ten days before the day appointed for the election of any district
surveyor, every person proposing to become a candidate shall personally attend
before the Committee for General Purposes, and produce satisfactory evidence
that he is of the full age of thirty years, and also a certificate from the Board
of Examiners, appointed under the Act, of their approval, and such other evi-
dence of qualification as the committee may require, and then be authorized
by the committee to be admitted as a candidate.

5. That the committee forthwith transmit to her Majesty's Secretary of
State for the Home Department a list of all persons admitted as candidates,
with duplicates of any necessary documents presented to the committee, so as
to facilitate the obtaining the concurrence of the Secretary of State in the
election of any candidate, and his making the declaration before the Court re-
quired by the Act.

6. That the names of all the candidates so admitted as qualified by the Com-
mittee for General Purposes be transmitted to the justices of the peace for the
county three days, at the least, previous to the election ; and that the election
for such admitted candidates do take place at the appointed Court day in the
usual manner.

7. That all the surveyors appointed shall hold their appointments only
during the pleasure of the Court, and subject to the provisions of the Act, and
to such alterations in their respective districts as the Court may order from
time to time.

8. That no surveyor appointed by this Court shall at any time be directly
or indirectly concerned in building in any department, nor shall deal in any
building materials, nor act as surveyor or agent of any estate within his dis-
trict ; and that any person so offending shall thereupon become disqualified
for his office of district surveyor ; and that such office shall be forthwith
vacant by the Court, and a successor appointed as in case of death.

9. That every surveyor to any district appointed by this Court shall from
time to time, within seven days after the first day of every month, deliver to
the clerk of the peace, signed by him, a duplicate of the return by the 78th
section of the Act required to be made by him to the registrar of metropolitan
buildings ; and that the same shall be duly filed and preserved by the clerk of
the peace for this county.

10. That, as the Court are required to appoint a successor within one
month after a vacancy shall occur by the death or removal of a surveyor, the
clerk of the peace shall, unless as to districts in which a notice shall be given
of an intention to alter such district, forthwith advertise such vacancy in four
morning and two evening papers, and give notice that the election of a quali-
fied successor will take place at the next practicable county day after such
notice shall be given ; and that al candidates must obtain the certificate of
the Board of Examiners, and attend personally ten days before the time of
such election before the Committee for General Purposes, who shall adopt the
appointed proceedings thereupon.

11. That on the Court days of the Easter and Michaelmas Quarter Sessions
the clerk of the peace shall present and read to the Court the lists of all the
district surveyors, and of their respective residences, and of their offices within
their districts, as approved from time to time by the Court ; and that such
list shall be so periodically printed and transmitted to the magistrates for the
county.

VOL. II.

On these provisions your committee will not dilate. They believe that they
are suggested by experience, and that they will be practically serviceable.
They know that they will meet the wishes of official persons, with whom it is
desirable to co-operate when no principles or paramount duties forbid co-
operation ; and they are assured that they will facilitate that acquiescence in
the acts and appointments by the Court which it is expedient to promote.
And whilst upon that matter and the other subjects of their report, they offer
their assurances, that they have devoted much laborious attention to the duty
entrusted to their fulfilment, they will feel abundantly compensated if their
labours should prove useful, and if their suggestions should be generally
honoured by the approval and concurrence of the Court.

John Wilks, Chairman.

October 7th, 1844.

[This report was received on the 17th inst., and was ordered to be
adopted.]

Art. X.— EXPLOSIONS IN COAL-MINES.

Two disastrous explosions in coal-mines have followed one another in rapid
succession, and have attracted public attention to the condition of the col-
lieries, in many of which there is every reason to believe there is a most
criminal neglect of the measures of precaution necessary for the safety of the
miner. We never yet knew of any accident of this nature without the great
bulk of the mine-owners joining in the allegation, that against such a
casualty no human foresight could have provided ; and as the public is in
general very ignorant of such technical matters, it is compelled to accept this
interested dictum. It strikes us, however, that if, when an explosion occurs
in a mine, it were to be confiscated, or a very heavy fine imposed — leaving
it in the power of the Government, however, to remit the penalty on strong
grounds being adduced for such a concession — we should hear very little
more of mine-explosions, for they can very weil be obviated if a sufficient
number of air-shafts be sunk ; and it would be very little hardship upon the
mine- owners to be compelled to sink such shafts, provided the compulsion
extended to all equally. We know very well that the quantity of fire-damp
emitted in mines varies with the barometric pressure, and we are also aware
that there may be a sudden rush of fire-damp into the mine by the falling of
a part of the roof, or by an accidental penetration into old workings. But
these accidents may all be resolved into want of care ; and if such excuses
be admitted, it will be impossible to touch mine-owners, whatever amount
of life they may sacrifice. Old workings need not be penetrated if a map of
them be laid down, and the mine be worked under scientific direction ; and
though it may sometimes be impossible to obtain the information necessary
for the construction of such a map, yet it is rarely indeed that miners are
ignorant whether or not there are old workings in the neighbourhood, and,
if there are, the operations of the mine should of course be conducted with
corresponding precaution. And, as regards the falling of the roof, the ob-
vious answer is, that it should not be allowed to get into such a condition as
to endanger its falling ; and, besides, it may be expected by a bulging out,
or some other such symptom, to give timely notice of accident. At present
the interest of the mine-owners is on the side of running such risks, for
there would be some expense involved in taking the necessary precautions
against accident, whereas it cost them nothing though a few hundreds of
their men should be massacred every year by the fruits of their cruel parsi-
mony. The only way to uproot the evil is for the Government to inter-
fere, and we trust to find it doing so during the approaching session of
parliament.

Art. XL— IRON STEAMERS.

In our last Number we gave the specification of some iron steamers about
to be constructed for the Peninsular and Oriental Steam-packet Company.
Of these vessels, Mr. Wigram, of Blackwall, is to build two, Mr. Fairbairn
one, and Messrs. Bury, Curtis, and Kennedy, one ; and of the engines,
Messrs. Miller, Ravenbill, and Co., are to make three pairs, on the oscillat-
ing plan, as we understand, and Messrs. Bury and Co. one pair on the plan
of their patent. Messrs. Bury and Co., it seems, have been very busy of
late in the construction of iron steamers — the most of tbem for foreign
powers. The LiverpoolJournal lately gave an account of their performances
in this way, some parts of which we may lay before our readers. We have
struck out all the flowers of rhetoric in which newspapers delight to deal
and the prodigies they so often retail to excite the wonder of the ignorant ;
for we hardly think our readers would be greatly edified by such relations
as that steamers are actually fastened together by driving great rivets into
them red hot. The following is the mutilated newspaper version : —

" The data furnished in answer to the inquiries of the government agent, as to
the capabilities of Liverpool to supply steamers convertible to purposes of warfare
have been considered highly satisfactory ; and we understand that the Admiralty
contemplate having four new iron war steamers built here speedily, should the con-
tract be such as to present no obstacle on the score of economy — a contingency by
no means likely to occur, considering the great experience our iron shipwrights

G G

230

New Paddle-Wheel of the " Great Western."

[October,

have now had, and the peculiar advantages our port presents in this department of
nautical architecture. Vast as is the actual naval steam force Liverpool could sup-
ply in case of hostilities hreaking out at the present moment, the power now in the
course of being created here, and which may he called into existence within a
twelvemonth, is hardly inferior, while in point of positive utility it would he fully
equal. Messrs. Vernon and Sons, of Barrack-street, North Shore — the eminent
iron shipbuilders, whose construction of the " Nimrod," and the extraordinary success
that has attended that vessel since she commenced sailing in November last between
Liverpool and Cork, have given an impetus to the building of iron steamers, have
on the stocks, and in so forward a state that their launch may be expected to take
place at Christmas, two steamers whose dimensions and construction would be suf-
ficient to challenge attention if their destined purpose did not suffice to do so in a
still more marked manner. One is almost an exact counterpart of the other —
the only discrepancy being a slight difference iu the construction of the engines,
which are made by Messrs. Bury, Curtis, and Kennedy, of the Clarence Foundry,
and will no doubt sustain the reputation those gentlemen acquired in the construc-
tion of the engines for the fastest of the West India mail boats, and various other
diefscTosuvre of engineering skill. Each vessel is of 750 tons burden, and 350
horses power. The one is named the Wladimir, belonging to the Russian govern-
ment, and the other the Der Preussische Adier, belonging to Prussia. They are
to be under the joint patronage of both governments, and to be employed in the
service of both in conveying the mails from Stettin to St. Petershurgh — a distance
of about 1000 miles, and are expected to commence running early next spring.
They are being constructed so as to permit of carrying sufficient coal of the ordi-
nary quality for the whole of the voyage, and six guns of very heavy calibre, three
fore and three aft. They are to be completed in Liverpool, before going on the
station, in every particular, from the keel to the minutest article of cabin furni-
ture; and nothing that the utmost ingenuity, which long-tried judgment can war-
rant, or professional ambition prompt, will, we may take for granted, be neglected
to make them models of elegant taste and enduring nautical skill. The dimen-
sions of each are, between the perpendiculars, 185 feet; breadth of beam, 29 feet;
and depth of hold, 17 feet 6 inches. The cabin accommodations will be for about
100 passengers; but owing to the necessity of preserving the character of war
steamers, and their being built low, there will not be any state rooms on the scale
of magnitude that might be looked for in vessels of such proportions. There will,
however, be a house on the deck of the Wladimir for the Emperor, whenever he
may go on hoard, and on the other for his Prussian Majesty, when similarly dis-
posed— and those apartments, we take for granted, will be replete with every acces-
sary of regal and imperial magnificence and comfort. The iron is of a peculiar
strength, undergoing a novel process in its manufacture, and Messrs. Vernon have
only just taken out a patent for applying it in side frames and deck beams, in a
manner that unites the maximum of resistance with the minimum of bulk.

" Among the other novelties to be employed on board these Russian and Prus-
sian mail-boats, is the application of a small steam-engine, placed on deck, to the
windlass that lifts the anchor. The boilers to the engines are to be what are called
tubular boilers, being the first time of their adoption in steamers — the engines
being on the direct action plan, and embracing the latest improvements. Like the
Iron Duke, and several other vessels of late build, these are to be divided into
water-tight compartments — five bulkheads in each — so that no collision can endan-
ger their safety ; but still there is to be a number of Smith's paddlebox boats to
contain the whole of the passengers and crew, should it be desirable to remove
them in any unforeseen emergency. So small is the space occupied by the motive
power of each vessel, and the coals necessary for the whole voyage, that it is sup-
posed there will be stowage- room for nearly 500 tons of cargo. It is hardly neces-
sary to say that the rigging aad all the other appurtenances, from the most impor-
tant to the most trivial, will be the best and most appropriate that can by any
possibility be procured. Several Russian and Prussian officials in this country are,
we believe, watching the progress of these vessels — -the largest of iron ever built by
or for any foreign power — with great interest ; and we hear that had they been in a
greater state of forwardness when the Emperor Nicholas was in England, it was the
settled intention of the Czar of all the Russias to have personally inspected these
vessels, which are being built by his own immediate orders."

Art. XII.— WOOD PAVING.

Wood paving appears to be falling into disrepute ; and the Marylebone ves-
try has decided that no more shall be put down for the present in that parish.
It is said to wear away very quickly, and to involve a heavy expense in keep-
ing it in repair.

We do not think the arguments in its disparagement, supported though they
be with facts that are calculated to shake the faith of the unsteadfast, by any
means convincing ; and our impression is that even yet wood paving has not had
a fair trial ; or rather, that a good wood paving has not yet had any trial at all.
The kind of paving adopted by the Metropolitan Company is, in our judg-
ment, altogether unsuited for a heavy traffic, both on account of the smallness
of the blocks, and the more rapid wear caused by the want of a vertical grain;
and because no method of indurating the wood by artificial means, so as to
make it capable of enduring a great traffic, has been adopted. If wooden
blooks wear quickly.it is an easy thing to make them last much longer by im-
pregnating the wood with sulphate of iron ; and if they sink, and the surface
becomes irregular, it is easy enough to tie them so together that this will be
impossible. The fact is, wood paving has never yet had the advantage of
skilful supervision in those samples of it by which it is only known to the
people of this country ; and the reasoning of the opponents of wood paving is
to the effect, that because those samples are bad, the system must be Uto-

pian. Engineers, however, will not be likely to arrive at that conclusion ;
for they must be conscious enough of the imperfections in the execution with
which the method has had to contend, and will be able to discern through
the cloud raised by these accidents the intrinsic capabilities of the material.
We do not blame the Marylebone vestry for refusing to pave a greater num-
ber of streets with wood paving, until the system has been brought to greater
perfection ; but they should be careful, we think, not to let their just caution
raise the idea that wood paving cannot be made to do ; for all improvement
shows that success has been achieved through early failures ; and the imper-
fections of the existing wood pavement only show that the system has not yet
been matured.

Art. XIII.— IMPROVEMENTS IN INSTRUMENTS OF WARFARE.

" The Society of Practical Science, and Private Military School of a New
and Noble Science of Warfare.'"

Under this title a number of individuals have lately associated themselves
with the very laudable object of " advancing science, and establishing uni-
versal peace." It is a glorious end certainly to propose, but to attain it
their expedient is at least something extraordinary. A glance at their pro-
spectus, however, on a moment's consideration, will, we think, make this
apparent. — They hope to enjoy the desired blessings by placing " at the com-
mand of the Sovereign such a tremendous and destructive machinery of war-
fare as to enable her to maintain universal peace through fear, — that she may
be able to overrule any nation disturbing our present tranquillity, and say,
' Be still — redress your grievance in some more peaceful way, but to war you
shall not ; the power is in my hands, and if war be your determination, the
destruction of your fleet and army is certain.' " This is certainly very magni-
ficent, and very philanthropic, but we fear it is very visionary too.

In furtherance of the proposed object, however, they gave, a few days since,
the first of an intended series of experiments. The exhibition took place in
the grounds of Mulgrave House, Fulham, which was taken by them for these
purposes. The first experiment was with a bomb-shell, the ignition of which
was not to be seen. From the dampness of the ground this experiment
failed. The design was with it to destroy a pursuing army. A second ex-
periment was made with a similar shell, but with a visible explosion, from a
pole to which it was suspended ; it was made to descend at a given signal
upon a strongly constructed wooden hut, which it instantly shattered into
pieces, the fragments flying to an immense distance. To show how much
under command the missive was, in the second experiment it was not allowed
to explode till the second time of falling. The peculiarity of this improve-
ment lies iri the percussion-cap used. An ordinary one cannot ignite the
shell. The next exhibition was of hand-rockets, thrown from a mast head,
to show how a merchant vessel could protect herself from pirates and other
hostile parties. For several experiments with these the weather was too un- !
favourable, and they were abandoned. Next were fired some self-exploding
rockets, without sticks, and an exploding rocket from a cannon, which can be
made of almost any strength, and to any calibre. It was directed against a
strong iron-cased target, which it instantly shattered. What excited greatest i
interest was a gun upon the non-recoil principle, which was fired several
times with a large charge of powder, without a quarter of an inch of a recoil.
The principle, it is said, is applicable to any calibre. A telescope is attached,
which makes the aim of unerring precision. The Duke of Normandy is the
inventor.

Art. XIV.

-PLAN OF TANK ADOPTED IN THE STEAMER
" TAY."

We gave at Plate XXVIII., in our last number, an account of the accident
which befel this vessel by striking a rock in the West Indies, and explained i
at that time the nature of the expedient by which the vessel had been brought
home in safety to England. We now give a drawing of the plan which, with j
the aid from former explanation, will be intelligible enough without any long
description. The plan, in fact, consists just in boxing off the part of the
ship which had the hole in it, by which means the vessel was of course I
staunched.

Art. XV.— NEW PADDLE-WHEEL OF THE " GREAT
WESTERN."

Plate XXJX. represents a new kind of paddle-wheel applied by Mr. Guppy |
to the " Great Western," and which, we think, is the very best wheel that
has come under our observation. The original wheels were secured by means
of bolts, but the bolts were perpetually getting loose, and the wheels were a
constant source of trouble. Every alternate arm goes to support the middle
ring, so that there are three rings, though only two centres. The method of
fixing the ends of the arms to the rims is by palms and rivets, much prefer-
able, in our opinion, to the method of securing them with screw-bolts, which
are constantly becoming loose.

1844.]

Marvels of the Day.

231

Art. XVI.— THE SMOKE NUISANCE.

Report from the Select Committee on Smoke Prevention, together with

Minutes of Evidence, Appendix, and Index. — 1843.
This is in our eyes but a poor report ; or rather, the evidence attached to
it is meagre and unsatisfactory, and by no means such as is demanded by a
subject of so much importance. This result, indeed, a glance at the names
of the witnesses would have led us to anticipate, for the most of them are
mere hypothetical gentry; — some of them are patentees of smoke-burning
furnaces, who, of course, come forward for the express purpose of lauding
their own projects ; and the rest chemists and men of science, who, however
competent they may be to explain the chemical conditions of combustion,
can hardly be supposed to be the best judges of what schemes are the most
eligible in practice. Indeed there does not appear throughout this mass of
evidence, to be any great preponderance of that fair and discriminating com-
parison of the advantages of different projects which is necessary to arrive
at a just result ; but the rule seems to be for every one to praise his own
scheme, or the scheme of the person by whom he has been retained, and to
consider no plan as a subject for remark except such as have been brought
before the Committee by conflicting projectors. We think it very right in
an inquiry of this kind to have the advantage of the evidence of such men
as Professor Faraday and Mr. Hood ; but we do not think that sufficient,
and we do not understand why the evidence of such men as Mr. Farey, Mr.
Field, Mr. Brown, Mr. Barnes, and other engineers, was not obtained, for
they could speak not merely to the scientific merits of a plan, but to its
practical eligibility ; and in a matter of this kind would certainly be much
safer guides than chemical philosophers, or red-hot patentees. The want of
some such evidence, in our eyes at least, gives an equivocal character to the
report, and the fact is, we should be sorry to rest much faith on anything
there brought forward. There is, of course, a vast deal in the evidence
that is absurd and contradictory, and this defect necessarily applies to all
productions of this description. But in other cases there is generally a thread
of rectifying good sense which counteracts the folly, and attracts the reader
by a hidden sympathy ; and although we by no means say that there may
not be good sense in this report also, yet there is much difficulty in know-
ing where to find it.

We have in the Part of the Steem Engine for the present month given
an account of the various kinds of smoke-burning furnaces that have at-
tracted the most attention, and we cannot repeat here what we have there
said. We may, however, remark, that the most promising plan in the case
of steam-engine furnaces is, in our opinion, that in which the grate is made
to revolve, and to feed itself in so doing. We think this plan might be ap-
plied to all kinds with much advantage, and we are persuaded the application
will be gradually made.

Art. XVII.— MARVELS OF THE DAY.

The Steamer Braganza. — This vessel has just been tried, after having been fitted
with new boilers, on the tubular plan, by Messrs. Bury, Curtis, and Kennedy ; and
this application of tubular boilers appears to have been perfectly successful. Most
of the tubular boilers hitherto constructed have been short of steam, and are much
addicted to priming, but in this case no such evils have been experienced ;
there is, on the contrary, a profusion of steam, and no appreciable agitation of the
Water beyond what exists in boilers of every kind. The diameter of the cylinders
of the Braganza is sixty-two inches ; and the boilers, of which there are four, have
proved themselves fully adequate to supply a pair of engines of that size with steam
without any laborious exertion. We do not know of any of any better specimen
of tubular boiler ; and those who^ish for a good example to follow cannot, in our
judgment, do better than adopt this one. A drawing of these boilers has been given
in a preceding number of the ArtizXn.

Screw Rudder. — A small steamer-, \the workmanship of Mr. Penn, of Green-
wich, has been recently completed, anddias made several trips. This vessel is fitted
with the screw, and has a very peculiararrangement, which dispenses with the use
of a rudder. This consists in giving tup screw a circular movement, similar to
that of the ordinary rudder ; by which means the screw describes an arc of a circle,
so as to vary the angles which its axis makes with the direction of the vessel's
length. We have not seen this little vessel, which is called " The Mystery," but
we are informed that it has been successful.

Altona and Vriel Railroad. — This road has recently been opened to the public.
The trials, up to the present time, prove that the road, the carriages, and engines
are of a good quality ; and what is especially praiseworthy, the comfort of the
passengers is insured by the easy motion, forming a striking contrast to some of the
German, Belgian, and French railways, which greatly distress the passengers by
their jolting and springing motion.

Batlisfor the Working Classes. — A meeting has been held in London of some
of the leading merchants and bankers during the last month to forward the esta-
blishment of baths and washhouses for the working classes, and it appears highly
probable that this great improvement will very speedily be carried into effect. The
Literary Gazette suggests that a person should be attached to each washhouse to
take care of the children brought thither by the mothers, and proposes that a school
might be formed of the children so congregated. This measure is only one of
many symptoms that the working classes are fast rising to a higher position in the
social scale, and we are confident it is by them that the keys of political power
must speedily be held — a consideration which ought to stimulate the higher classes
to endeavour to make them worthier of so momentous a trust.

The early Closing ofSliops. — We were lately present at a numerously attended
meeting, held in Exeter Hall, with the view of lending aid to the system of closing
shops at an early hour, instead of keeping them open to the late hours observed at
present. We are glad to observe a very strong feeling springing up, both among
purchasers and sellers, against this practice : it is one that adds nothing to the
shopkeepers' profit, but rather the reverse, for there is nothing more bought at shops
than people want, though they keep them open till midnight, and tliat they are
sure to obtain, however short the hours may be. We do not expect, however, that
the late-hour system will be entirely relinquished in all situations until a large
proportion of the public agree only to buy their commodities in those shops that
close early, and we recommend every friend to the amelioration of the condition of
a large and interesting section of the community to give their patronage to those
shopkeepers only who close their shops at an early hour.

Canal across the Isthmus of Suez through Syria. — The Pasha of Egypt holds in
his hand the transit through Egypt to India. It is badly conducted, but he will
net relax his grasp, and insists upon having the monopoly in his own possession, to
the great injury of the traffic. It therefore becomes a question, whether a route
may not be had to India by some other way, and a canal from the Mediterranean
to the Red Sea, passing through Syria instead of Egypt, suggests itself as the most
feasible expedient. We think such a project would do.

Fire at New Cross. — The locomotive establishment of the Dovor, Brighton, and
Croydon Railways, has been almost totally destroyed. The fire originated from the
spontaneous combustion of some vegetable black in the paint room, from which
it spread rapidly to the rest of the buildings, destroying property to the amount of
nearly 20,000/. It broke out while some preparations were in progress for the
reception of the King of the French, who arrived during its fiercest period. The
valuable tools and machinery of the workshops were rendered useless, and six
engines with three tenders were also destroyed. The value of the latter alone will
probably be above 8,000/.

Royal Carriage. — A splendid carriage has been constructed by the London and
Southampton Railway Company, for the conveyance of her Majesty and the Royal
Family. Exclusive of the magnificence of the fittings and decorations there is
little of novelty, with the slight exception of crowns in the ceiling, which are only
screens to lamps, and may be removed when passing through tunnels, or at any
other time when light is required. There is a layer of the patent composition of
cork and India rubber between the body and framework of the carriage to prevent
vibration, and the wheels are of wood, the patent of Mr. Beattie, who superintended
the construction of the carriage.

FROM OUR OWN CORRESPONDENT.

Calcutta.. — Oriental Steam Navigation. — Since I last wrote the General Indian
Steam Navigation Company has made but little progress. A meeting of the share-
holders is to be held nine days hence, to elect the officers of the company, and then
I suppose business will be commenced in earnest. The candidates, as first adver-
tised, amounted to three for the appointment of managing director, five for that of
secretary, and one offered to fill both these situations. Since this, the last-men-
tioned party, who is the editor of the Englishman newspaper here, has received an
opponent. He had offered himself as managing director, at a salary of 100/. per
month, until the placing of the first boat, after which it was to be 200/. per mensem ;
but he has now come forward, and has since stated his readiness to be both manag-
ing director and secretary at a salary of 60/., to be doubled after the first boat has
been placed on its station.

The " Fire Queen." — The last overland mail brought accounts of the " Fire
Queen" steamer having had to put back, in consequence of an accident, but as it
was said only to be a trivial oue, she is expected to arrive here soon. The company
who have ordered her out — the Eastern Steam Company — intend that she should ply
between Calcutta, Penang, Malacca, and Singapore. The capital of the company is
40,000/., being 400 shares of 100/. each. Three-fifths, or 60/. per share, is now to
be paid up, and this amount, 24,000/., is said to be equal to the total cost of the
" Fire Queen," including the purchase of 357 tons of coals, and comprising all extra
stores, outfit, and agency charges, here and in England. The vessel is said to carry,
in addition to 12 days' fuel, 250 tons of cargo and 40 passengers, if necessary. The
registered new measurement, 579 tons, including the engine-room, has two engines
of 90 horse-power each, and is fitted up with 17 cabins. It is supposed that she will
make for certainty nine voyages in the year, and here are calculations as to the ex-
pected profits : —

INCOME.

20 Passengers each trip, say 10 there and 10 back —

at 30/. = 600/. x 9 = ,£5,400
Freight, 250 tons, estimated, per trip, 1,100/. x 9 = 9,900

£15,300

LESS ANNUAL CHARGES.

For coals, victualling, insurance, and all other expenses . . 10,900

Yielding 18 per cent, on outlay . . £4,400

This large per centage will not, I suspect, be realized, although I doubt not, that,
with prudent management, satisfactory profits will be reached. The company, too,
will probably find it to their advantage to reduce the charge for passengers,
although It is the same as is now charged in the East India Company's ships. It
remains to be seen whether the arrangements of the Peninsular and Oriental Com-
pany, with respect to steamers between, China and India, will interfere with this
company ; but, in the meantime, the arrival and departure of the " Fire Queen"
(when she is placed on the station) will be so timed as to correspond with those of
the steamers from Suez. The affairs of the Eastern Steam Company are to be
managed here by an agency house, who are to receive as remuneration for their
trouble 2£ per cent, upon the total payments.

232

Marvels of the Day.

Steam-Tag Company. — In my last I referred to two new steam-tug companies
which were about to he started ; in the one, the Hooghly Company, the shares, I
believe, are nearly all bought up. This company calculated the expense for working
two tugs for 180 days per annum at 6,760/., including 7 per cent, for wear and
tear, &c, and 501. per month for agency and management ; and if the charge be 35/.
per day, the outturn is estimated at 26 per cent. ; but if it be only 30/., 18 per cent,
is looked for. The other company, the Union, is already incorporated, with a capital
of 220 shares, at 100Z. each. Their two tugs are not ready yet, however. The one
is to be of ISO horses-power, and the other of 1 00 horses-power. Strange to look hack
to 1833, when we had only one steamer, and that a very small one, the " Diana,"
built in one of the docks here.

Coal Monopoly in Calcutta. — A formidable monopoly has lately sprung up — a
coal monopoly, which has been formed by the junction of the two proprietors of the
coal districts in Burdwan, who have hitherto been cutting each other's throats,
hut who have now amicably joined hands. This will in all likelihood affect the
new Tug Company which I have just been talking about, as the old Tug Company
is in the hands of the parties who have undisturbed reign over the colliery districts,
and of course can charge for coal any price they please. It is not likely to affect a
company working upon so extensive a scale as the Peninsular and Oriental Com-
pany, who, supposing they found the Burdwan coal suitable for their purpose — in
quality, but not in price — could, at little or no inconvenience, open pits of their
own. The monopoly may, however, affect the new India General Steam Navigation
Company, not only as regards the cost of fuel, but in another light, not at first
sight so clearly obvious. The person to whom I have referred at the commence-
ment of this letter, as having magnanimously offered his services at the outset as
managing director and secretary of the new company, is a FRIEND (give it large
Roman letters, ye printer's devils) of the parties who manage not only the old Tug
Company, but the collieries of Bengal, and who are moving heaven and earth to get
their protege appointed to the head of the new company. If he is, then they will
have the providing of fuel, victualling, &c ; and if a very atom of jobbery insinuates
itself into the smallest crevice in the works of the India General Steam Navigation
Company, may God preserve it ! for certainly no human aid can save it from de-
struction. Should our new company be damned, and follow in the wake of the
Steam Ferry-Bridge Company, the Tea Company, the Salt Company, the " Pre-
cursor" Company, the " India" Company, then will Calcutta rear its front over all
modern cities for jobbing, badly managed and bubble speculations. This coal mo-
nopoly may, however, he productive, in one respect, of great benefit. Coal has been
known to exist in Assam, but the people here are too apathetic to exert themselves
in the matter, although, in all likelihood, the junction of the Burdwan collieries
may have the effect of rousing the energy of some who will work the Assam coal in
the expectation of profiting by the enterprise. The chief coal-beds, in Assam yet
discovered are the Tipum coal-beds, close to Jutpore, a civil and military station
and on the left bank of a small stream, the Booree Dehing, a tributary of the Brah-
mapootra. The mineral is said to be good, and equal, if not superior, to that of
Burdwan. Its mean specific gravity is 1,288, and it contains of
Mean volatile and other matter . 45'4

Carbon 50-4

Ash 4-2

100-

All the southern side of the valley of Assam is said to consist of a carboniferous,
formation, of great extent. I have only seen one specimen of this coal, and that
was a very inferior one ; it was brought, however, from a place considerably to the
northward of Jutpore. The Assam coal lies almost close to the surface, so that the
expense of quarrying would be comparatively trifling. In this respect, indeed, it
has a decided advantage over the Burdwan district, where the vein is at present
worked at from 70 to 100 feet below the surface. The new Burdwan Company
have a paid-up capital of 110,000/. in 1,100 shares, of 100/. each. Their coal
beds extend over a district of thirty miles, along the Damoodah and Banaka
streams; and, indeed, is the only considerable and easily accessible tract of coal yet
discovered in Bengal.

A-propos of coal. I observe, from the Custom-house reports, that 103 tons of
patent fuel have arrived by a vessel from Liverpool. I suspect it will not pay to
send it out here : indeed, I think it has hut little chance of doing well. I under-
stand that the Peninsular and Oriental Company have some on the way out ; but
that they can afford to do, the more especially as they can stow away in the craft
they may employ, any other stores with which they may require to provide their
steamers.

Wet Docks. — Our late Governor-General, Lord Ellenborough, has recommended
as a parting legacy to our city of palaces, that a committee should be formed to
consider upon and design Wet Docks, which should be capable of containing all the
ships in the river, and which should be surrounded with warehouses capable of
stowing all their cargoes. A committee has accordingly been formed, of engineers
and merchants. It is, indeed, a disgrace to a city of such commercial importance
as Calcutta, that she should have no Wot Docks, or, indeed, until very lately, no
decent-sized dry dock, capable of holding one of our large steamers ; — that she
should have neither wharfs nor quays — nay, not even a single jetty, alongside of
which vessels may anchor and discharge their cargoes.

A Ship Canal. — An old proposal of General Kyd's, has lately been brought
forward ; it was to obviate the necessity of ships coming into the dangerous
Hooghly at all, as it was found that one of the eastern rivers, in the Sunderbund (the
Roymutlah, if I mistake not) was a much safer and better channel, and that it
would only require a ship canal of twenty miles in length to complete the com-
munication by this route from Calcutta to the sea. But about this, I may proba-
bly have something farther to write hereafter.

Metcalfe Hall. — A very fair specimen of Calcutta architecture, begun in 1840,

has just been finished, which deserves notice. It glories in the cognomen of the
Metcalfe Hall, and first as to its origin. Previous to the arrival of Lord Auckland,
and when Sir Charles Metcalfe was governor-general, an Act was passed liberating
the press in India from the thraldom in which it had hitherto been held. To com-
memorate this deed, the Metcalfe Hall has been erected, and of course, is to be
adorned with a bust of Sir Charles. The design of the exterior is elegant, and in
good taste. It was designed by one of our magistrates, to whom it does much cre-
dit. It is in the Grecian style, and has the appearance of a temple of one lofty
story. The building is raised on a solid basement of ten feet in height, from which
spring fluted Corinthian columns, thirty in number, and thirty-six feet high. I
believe these columns were to have been carried round the whole building had the
funds admitted it. If tbey too had been in a healthy state, I should imagine
somewhat more of ornament might have been added, without incurring the risk
of being considered meretricious. The building might have had a better site, but
of this, it would be ill to complain, as the ground was a present from government
(mirabile dictu !) whom it cost it is said ,£9009. One of the fronts faces the river
and has a broad flight of steps, sixteen in number, and 65 feet in length, lt&ding to
its portico. This is on the West side, and on the East, there is a covered colonaded
entrance with another and similar flight of steps, which lead up to the lobby and
internal staircase. To a visitor in India, it must appear most outre, when standing
under this covered portico, he looks up and sees naked rafters and joists in full
perspective, instead of the nice ornamented panelling he might observe in such a
building at home. But when he ascends the steps, and walks through the rooms,
he will be more surprised to see the beams hanging down from every ceiling ; but so
it is in every house in India, for if they were covered up they would soon fall into
decay.

Sugar Machinery. — A large sugar-mill of Pontifex's, which has been long adver-
tised for sale, has, I believe, at last found a purchaser in the Dhobah Company, who
have factories in Jessore. The company have sent it up the country ; but as they
have done so before providing even a shed to receive it, it of course will be much
improved by the procedure. The Tirhoot Association has entered with much spirit
into the sugar cultivation, and have begun large factories. I believe they have six
steam-engines, two of which are 20 horse-power, and sets of vacuum pans — all
ordered from England. A Mr. Robinson (a partner, report says, in an engineering
firm in London) was sent last year to put up cattle-mills, and has been very suc-
cessful in making sugar. Some people say that the produce of the season at some of
the Tirhoot factories will clear every expense — the purchase of mills, erection of
buildings, pans, &c. ; but this statement many may be inclined to doubt. Many of
the cattle-mills are worked by coolies, the former being found to be too slow. It is
supposed by good folks at home, that, if sugar-mills be sent out here, they will be
sold off immediately ; but this is quite an erroneous idea. It is absolutely chime-
rical to suppose that the natives will ever be persuaded to purchase steam-mills, or,
indeed, that Europeans can ever hope to compete with the natives in the cheapness
of production of most of the produce of this country. When I tell you that a native
sugar-mill only costs one rupee ! and that it takes almost as little money to feed 25
men and clothe them too as it does to feed a 5 horse-power engine with fuel, you
will easily see the truth of this assertion. It is, besides, impossible to show the
natives how, by expending a few hundred rupees, they may be put in possession of
the means to turn out a finer material, and thus ultimately enrich themselves : this
manner of reasoning they cannot comprehend. I do not, indeed, mean to say, that,
in the case of sugar, Europeans may not succeed in making money, for they can pro-
duce so fine a sugar in Bengal as to enter into serious competition with the finest
West India sugar ; but the good quality of the sugar is not the only reason why
sugar-growers may be successful : the grand reason is this, that (whether it be from
cheapness of land and labour, or any other cause, it matters not) sugar can be actu-
ally manufactured at a fifth of the price obtainable in the Calcutta market, including
all the cost of the conveyance down to Calcutta. This, of course, supposes all things
to go smoothly, for accidents and losses are always liable to happen. Sugar, how-
ever, can not only be manufactured at the above rates by Europeans, hut by natives i
and if it be asked how the latter do not realize enormous profits, it can only he an-
swered, that from the strange constitution of native society, the profits would be
divided between the many middle-men which would be employed, and a large share
would go to the European merchant here, which is not so likely to be the case when
a countryman of the latter is to be the manufacturer, and not the poor native. Some
of the natives use iron pans, but not many of them. As in the case of indigo, the
ryots give the raw material to the planter, who manufactures the product for the
European market, The Otaheite cane is beginning to be extensively used by sugar-
growers. It was first introduced into our Botanical Gardens in 1827 or 8, having
been brought from the Mauritius. At first it was said that the soil, &c, were un-
suitable for its growth, but now it is found to answer admirably. It has this great
advantage over the country cane, that the white ants are very unfond of it; while of
the former kind whole fields are often eaten up. The country cane seldom produces
more than from 1 8 to 20 maunds of sugar per bugah, while from the Otaheite cane
no less than 60 maunds are obtained upon an average : a great argument, indeed, in
favour of the latter.

New Lighthouse at Moulmein. — I observe that a new stone lighthouse is to be
erected close to Moulmein, on Double Island, fifteen miles from Amherst. It is
to be 180 feet high, which, with the height of the island, will make the light 280
feet above the level of the sea. The lighthouse will take about three years to
build ; and it is to be hoped will increase the importance of Moulmein by rendering
the navigation of its coast safer than heretofore. It is a curious fact, that all the
revenue received from the Tenasseim Province (being a tax upon teak-wood, and
a trifling impost upon land,) would not pay the interest of the aggregate amount
of expenditure incurred, since the annexations of these proviuces to the British
Empire.

MAC.

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THE ARTIZAN.

No. XXIIL— NOVEMBER 30th, 1844.

Art. I.— CARPENTRY.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF ROOFS.

In pages 213 to 218, we exhibited a variety of curb or mansard roofs, such
as are frequently met with in the practice of Constructive Carpentry, and to
which many more might be added, depending on the same or similar prin-
ciples. It would, however, be superfluous to multiply cases, and to notice
all the varieties of this kind of roof that are to be traced in modern buildings;
these, indeed, are exceedingly numerous ; and, besides, the rules that we have
already given and exemplified, if properly attended to and well understood,
are, (with a little modification according to circumstances,) amply sufficient to
lead the practical man to the determination of the several particulars in every
other case that is likely to present itself. We therefore dismiss the subject
of mansard roofs, and proceed to consider the principles of construction in
another form, equally common and frequent in its occurrence, especially in
detached villas and cottages, for which species of buildings it is more par-
ticularly adapted, and to such it is almost exclusively appropriated. We
here allude to the hipped, or, as it is sometimes called, the pavilion roof,
being that which is formed by diagonal rafters springing from the angles of
the building, and meeting each other in the ridge-tree, in a point which is
determined by the pitch of the roof and the dimensions of the plan over which
it is erected. This species of roof, from the nature of its construction, is
more uniform in its aspect than that which we have just considered, and, in
consequence of this, it is much more easily discussed ; the only varieties which
it admits of, being that, where instead of a ridge all the hip rafters terminate
in a point, or else in the angles of a rectangular platform over the middle
of the plan.

Since roofs of this sort are best discussed when represented in projection,
or on a plane, it may be proper, before we proceed to consider the thrusts
and strains to which the beams are severally subjected, to lay down a few
principles in respect of that species of projection which more immediately
applies to the determination of the parts of a hipped or pavilion roof ; and we
think that this will be the more acceptable to many of our practical readers,
as the same principles are equally applicable to various other departments of
the Building Arts. The projection here alluded to is that in which all the
points of an object are represented on a horizontal plane by lines drawn
through those points perpendicular to the plane on which the object is repre-
sented. This is known by the name of Ortho-projection, and is of the
greatest use in Carpentry, Masonry, and all other branches of the construc-
tive arts in which the inclinations and the intersections of planes occur : we
shall, in the present instance, however, consider it only in connexion with
the principles of Constructive Carpentry.

If a straight line be anyhow situated in space, its position with respect to
the horizon being known, the ortho-projection of this line, or, as it is techni-
cally called by workmen, its seat on the horizontal plane, will be determined
by drawing througli its extremities straight lines perpendicular to the plane
of projection. Thus, let AB, fig. 20, be a straight line inclined to the hori-
zon in a given angle ; it is required to find the seat or ortho-projection of
AB upon the horizontal plane. Produce BA to any convenient length, as

Fig. 20.

perpendiculars A a and B b, meeting the horizontal line PQ. in the two points
a and b ; then is a b the ortho-projection or seat of the given line, AB, upon
the horizontal plane passing through PQ. Or, if AC be drawn through A
parallel to PO, then is AC the ortho-projection or seat of AB upon the hori-
zontal plane that passes through AC ; but, in this latter case, AC might have
been found at once from the given position of the line in question ; for we
had only to make the angle BAC equal to the given angle of inclination, and
let fall the perpendicular BC, which marks the seat of the line required.
Our practical readers will see at once to what the principle refers ; for if AB
represent one of the rafters of a building, and AC a part of the plan of the
roof, then if B be at the ridge or highest point, BC is its vertical height or rise,
and AC the ortho-projection of the rafter ; so that if AC, half the width or
semi-span of the roof be given, together with the angle of inclination or pitch,
the length of the rafter AB, and the rise BC, can readily be found ; for AB
and BC are respectively the natural secant and tangent of the inclination of the
roof to the radius, AC. Therefore, if a house be 24 feet wide, and the roof 5
degrees below true pitch, the length of the rafter and the height or rise will
be 15-6648 and 100692 feet respectively; for the natural secant of 40 de-
grees is 1-3054, and its natural tangent 0*8391 ; therefore, by multiplication,
we get

AB = 1-3054 x 12 = 15-6648 feet, the length of the rafter,
and BC = 0-8391 x 12 = 10-0692 feet, the height or rise of the roof.

Let DAC, fig. 21, be a known angle, and let the plane in which it subsists
be inclined to the horizon in an angle whose magnitude also is known ; it is
required to determine the ortho-projection of the angle DAC, or its seat

Fig. 21.

AP, and at the point P, from a scale of chords, make the angle BPQ equal
to the given inclination of the line AB above the horizontal plane, which
must obviously pass through the straight line PQ, or some other straight line
parallel thereto. From A and B, the extremities of the given line, let fall the

upon the horizontal plane. Take any point B in the straight line AD, and
from the point B thus assumed demit the perpendicular BF, meeting AC in
the point F. At the point F thus found, and with the line BF, make the
angle BFE equal to the inclination of the containing plane with the horizon,
AC being the line of common intersection of the said planes. With the
point F as a centre, and the distance FB as radius, describe the circular arc
BE intersecting FE in E ; then is FE equal to FB. Through the point E,
whose position has just been determined, draw the line E b parallel to AC,
meeting BF at right angle in the point b, and through 4 draw the straight
line A b d, so shall the angle d AC be the ortho-projection or seat of the angle
DAC upon the horizontal plane ; the points b and d being the corresponding
projections of B and D.

This is called the projection of an angle ; and although it is a problem of
very great simplicity, it is an important one, and leads us to a vast number
of useful practical results. To give an instance ; let the given angle, and the
inclination of its containing plane with the horizon, be each 45 degrees, or
half a right angle ; then the value of the projected angle is 35° 16' 44",
which is precisely the angle that is made the standard for shade in the theory
of Sciography. This is what many of our architectural readers will be satis-
fied to learn ; for although they may be perfectly aware that the angle above

234

Carpentry.

[NovembeRj

specified is made the standard in a very important department of their pro-
fession, yet it does not follow that they are equally aware of the manner in
which it is obtained : this is what the above operation teaches them ; and to
render the point in question still more satisfactory, we shall conceive the
given angle and the inclination of its containing plane to be as here stated,
and the calculation of the projected angle will then be as follows : —

Since the angle ABF is equal to the angle BAF, the side AF is equal to
the side BF ; for when two angles of a triangle are equal to one another, the
sides which are opposite to those angles are also equal ; but, by construction,
FE is equal to BF, and the angle BFE equal to BAF ; consequently, the
straight lines b E and b F are equal ; but, since the angle F b E is a right
angle, F b and E b are the sides of a square of which FE is the diagonal.
Let AF or FE be assumed equal to unity, or radius ; then is F b the tangent
of the angle FA b to radius AF, or it is the sine of 45 degrees to radius FE.
Now, the sine of 45 degrees to radius unity is equal to i*/2, which is also
the tangent of the projected angle FA b; hence we get F b =0-7071068;
which beiug found in the table of natural tangents, corresponds to 35° 16' 44",
as stated above ; therefore the method of obtaining the angle is manifest.

The process of projection would probably be better understood if the pro-
jected angle were situated on the other side of the straight line AC, for in
that case the figure is much more distinct : in order, therefore, to render the
subject as clear and comprehensive as possible, and to afford every facility to
a perfect understanding of the principles, we shall show the operation in this
way also, but without limiting the inclination of the containing plane to any
particular angle ; this will generalize the operation, and put the reader on
the way of drawing conclusions such as do not show themselves in the reso-
lution of any limited or particular case.

Let DAC, fig. 22, be the angle to be projected, and efg the angle which
the containing plane makes with the horizon, AC being the line of common
intersection. In AD take any point B at pleasure, no matter where situated,

Fig. 22.

and from the point B thus assumed let fall the perpendicular BF, meeting
AC, the line of common intersection, in F. Produce BF to any convenient
distance, and at the point F make the angle EF b equal to efg, the inclina-
tion of the planes ; then on F as a centre, with the distance FB as radius,
describe the circular arc BHE intersecting FE in E ; then is FE equal to FB.
From the point E let fall the perpendicular E b, meeting F b in b, and through
b draw the straight line A d, and CA d will be the projected angle.

The reason of the foregoing operations will be linderstood from the follow-
ing method of composing the figure. Since, by the doctrine of solid geo-
metry, the inclination of any two planes is measured by the angle contained
by two straight lines, which being drawn in either of the planes to the same
point of the line of common intersection, is at right angles to the common
intersection at that point ; it follows, that the angle EF b measures the inclina-
tion of the plane DAC to the plane of the horizon. For, let the plane EF b
be turned about the line F b until it is perpendicular to the plane of the paper,
or the plane CA d ; and in like manner let DAC be turned about the line AC
until the point B coincides with the point E, a coincidence which must mani-
festly take place, since BF, by construction, is equal to FE ; then, if straight
lines be let fall from all the points of AD perpendicular to the plane of the
horizon, they will all terminate in the straight line Ad; and consequently
CA d is the projected angle. The reader will find it to his advantage, if, in
this and all other cases, he will take the trouble to construct the figures on
pasteboard ; then, by cutting half through the substance, in the lines AC and
F b, the figures may be turned up as described above; and by this means the
principles of the projection will become obvious.

The general calculation of the projected angle, as deduced from the fore-
going construction, may be performed in two different ways, according as
AB or AF is made the radius. Thus, if AB be made radius, BF becomes the
sine of the angle DAC, and AF the cosine ; but if AF be made the radius,
AB becomes the secant of the angle DAC, and BF the tangent : now FE, by
construction, is equal to BF ; therefore, FE is equal to the tangent of the

angle to be projected, and is consequently known ; it therefore follows, that,
in the right-angled triangle, F b E, all the angles and the side FE are given to
find the side F b, which is obviously equal to the tangent of the projected
angle CAd to radius AF : hence it is

rad. : tan. DAC : : cos. EF* : tan. d\C = tan. DAC cos. EFi ;

consequently, in order to find the tangent of the projected angle, we have
only to multiply the tangent of the angle to be projected by the cosine of the
inclination of the planes, and the thing is done.

Example. — Let it be required to find the ortho-projection or seat of an
angle of 35 degrees, supposing the plane in which its containing lines are
situated to be inclined to the horizon in an angle of 28 degrees.

The natural tangent of 35 degrees is 0'7002, and the natural cosine of 28
degrees is 0"8829 ; therefore, by multiplication, we get

0-7002 x 0-8829 = 0-6182 = tan. 41° 43' 34",

the projected angle sought.

The reverse operation, or that of determining the magnitude of an angle in a
plane anyhow posited with respect to the horizon, when the ortho-projection
or seat of the angle is given, can easily be performed ; for, let CA d, in the
foregoing figure, be the given seat of the angle, and let it be proposed to assign
its magnitude, when transferred to another plane which is inclined to the plane
of projection, in an angle equal to efg. In A d, one of the containing lines
of the projected angle, take any point b at pleasure, and from the point b
draw b F perpendicular to AC, which may be supposed to be the line of
common intersection between the plane of projection and that to which the
angle is proposed to be transferred. Produce b F directly foreward to any
convenient length, and at the point F make the angle SFE equal to the angle
efg, the given inclination of the planes, and erect AE at right angles to b F,
meeting FE in E ; make FB equal to FE, and draw AD ; then is DAC the
magnitude of the angle whose seat is dA.C. The formula for its determina-
tion is tan. DAC = tan. d AC sec. EF b ; that is, multiply the natural tan-
gent of the given projected angle by the natural secant of the inclination of
the planes, and the product mill give the natural tangent of the angle sought.
Now, the natural tangent of the projected angle, as calculated by the preced-
ing example, is 0-6182 ; and the secant of 28 degrees, the given inclination,
is 1-13257 ; therefore, by multiplication, we have

tan. DAC = 0-6182 x 1-13257 = 0-7002;

and, consequently, the angle DAC is 35 degrees, the same as it was proposed
in the example.

What we have now done is sufficient to show the reader in what manner to
project an angle, when its magnitude and the inclination of the plane in
which the containing lines are situated are given. An accurate knowledge
of this subject is of the greatest importance in the construction of roofs ; for
whenever the projection of the parts can be accurately given, the timbers
may all be cut to their proper sizes at once, without any subsequent fitting
and consequent waste of material. A practical man, when not restrained by
circumstances, would say, what is the necessity of making calculations of this
sort ? there can be no difficulty, in any case, of cutting the timbers so as to
answer the intended purpose. This is all very true, provided there be no
scarcity of timber, either in length or lateral dimensions ; but, when the con-
trary is the case, a ready way of cutting the timbers so as to answer the in-
tended purpose is of the greatest importance ; and we are persuaded that the
very readiest way is to be found in the application of the principle that we
are now considering. This we shall show a little further on.

Let the form, position, and inclination of a triangular plane be given, and
let it be required to determine its ortho-projection or seat upon the horizontal
plane. Suppose ABC, fig. 23, to be a triangular plane of which the angles and
the sides are known ; and let the sides AC and BC make with a b, a line in
the horizontal plane, the angles AC a and BC b, which are also given : it is
required to determine the ortho-projection or seat of the triangular plane,
ABC. From A and B, the angles of the figure, let fall the perpendiculars

Fig. 23.

A a and B b, which produce directly forward to any convenient length, as
a G and b F ; and at the points a and b make, with a G and b F, the angles

1844.]

Carpentry.

235

H a G and E b F respectively equal to efg, the inclination of the given plane
to the plane of the horizon, the line a b being the common intersection of the
planes. Make a H and b E equal respectively to a A and b B, and from the
points H and E let fall the perpendiculars HG and EP, meeting A a and B b
produced in G and F ; draw GC, GF, and FC ; then is GFC the ortho-pro-
jection or seat of the triangular plane ABC ; GC being the seat of AC ; CF
that of BC ; and GF that of AB. In order to determine the parts of the
projected plane by calculation, we must first of all determine the sides ; and
this we are enabled to do by having given the sides of the plane, AC andBC,
with their respective inclinations to the common intersection, a b; thus, in
the right-angled triangle A a C, by having the side AC and the angle AC a
given, the sides A a and C a can easily be found by the rules of trigonometry ;
and in like manner, in the right-angled triangle B b C, by having given the
side BC and the angle BC b, the sides B b and C b are similarly assignable.

By the construction, a H and b E are respectively equal to the perpen-
diculars a A and b B ; and the angles G a H and F b E are each of them equal
to efg, the inclination of the given plane to the plane of the horizon ; conse-
quently, in the right-angled triangles a GH and b FE, there are given all the
angles and the sides a H and b E, so that a G and b F can readily be ascer-
tained : then in each of the right-angled triangles G a C and F b C we have
given the two sides G a ; a C and F b ; b C to find CG and CF, which can
easily be done by the property of the right-angled triangle. The third side,
GF, is also determined by the property just specified; for, produce the per-
pendicular HG until it meets b F in the point I ; then is GIF a right-angled
triangle, whose sides, GI and FI, are known ; GI being equal to the sum of
C a and C o, and FI equal to the difference of b F and a G. The principles
of calculation being thus detailed, we leave the actual operation to be per-
formed by the reader, as we are unwilling to crowd our pages with such long
and prolix calculations as would be required to give a complete solution of
the case in question ; but we are certain that every practical man, who is not
already familiar with all the principles of calculation, will derive immense
advantage by working out the process at full length. It will be seen that the
principles of construction in this case are the same as before, and therefore
the demonstration need not be repeated.

Suppose an isosceles triangular plane to have its base coincident with the
line of common intersection between it and the horizon ; and let it be re-
quired to determine the ortho-projection or seat of the isosceles plane, its
inclination to the plane of the horizon being given. Let ABC, fig. 24, be an
isosceles triangular plane, having its base, AC, coincident with PQ, the line
of common intersection between it and the plane of the horizon, and let the
plane ABC be inclined to the horizon in an angle equal to efg. From B,

Fig. 24.

the vertex of the given plane, let fall the perpendicular B b, bisecting the
base, AC, in the point b, and produce B b directly forward to any convenient
point, as D. At the point b make the angle D b E equal to efg, the given
inclination of the planes, and set off b E equal to B * ; then from the point
E let fall the perpendicular EF, meeting BS produced in F, and draw AF
and CF ; then is AFC the projection or seat of the isosceles plane, ABC,
upon the plane of the horizon ; the area of the projected plane being to that
of the original in the proportion of * F to b B, or in the ratio of radius
to the cosine* of the angle of inclination. The calculation of this case is
very easy; for, since all the sides of the isosceles plane, ABC, are given,
the perpendicular B b can readily be found, which, by construction, is equal
to b E ; then, in the right-angled triangle, b FE, there are given all the
angles and the side b E ; hence, b F, and, in consequence, the area, AFC,
becomes known. The triangle ABC being isosceles, the cosine of the angle
BAC or BCA is expressed by the quotient of half the base divided by one of
the equal sides ; that is, cos. BAC = A b -r- AB ; and the perpendicular B b
is expressed by the sine of the angle BAC drawn into one of the equal sides,
AB ; that is, B * = AB sin. BAC. But b E, by construction, is equal to
B b ; therefore it is b E = AB sin. BAC ; consequently, in the right-angled
triangle o FE there are given all the angles, and the side b E to find b F ; that
jSj j ]? = AB sin. BAC cos. F b E ; but, by the rules of mensuration, the
area of the projected plane, AFC, is equal to half the base A b multiplied by
the perpendicular *B ; that is, area AFC = A b- AB sin. BAC cos. P b E ;
hence this rule -.—Multiply altogether, half the base of the plane, one of its

equal sides, the sine of the angle at the base, and the cosine of its inclination
to the horizon, and the product will be the area of the projected plane.

Example. — The base and equal sides of an isosceles triangular plane are 9
and 6-7 feet respectively ; and the inclination of the plane to the plane of the
horizon, is 72 degrees : what is the projected area of the plane, and what the
magnitude of the projected angles, supposing the base of the plane to be co-
incident with the line of common intersection between it and the horizon ?

A b

The magnitude of the angle BAC is found by the term cos. BAC = •— —

AB

to be 47° 48' 22"; and, by the term B b = AB sin. BAC, the perpendicular
B b, or its equal, b E, is 4'964 feet, very nearly : hence, by the term b F =
AB sin. BAC cos. F b E, the perpendicular, b F, of the projected plane, be-
comes 1-534 feet; consequently, the area is 4-5 x 1-534 = 6-903 square
feet, and the projected angle is 18° 49' 22", which gives 142° 21/ 16" for the
projected angle at the vertex AFC. By the case that we have now resolved,
we are prepared to determine the length of the diagonal or hip rafter for a
building, where the hip or diagonal beams meet each other in a single point
directly over the middle of the plan, the pitch of the roof and the dimensions
of the plan being given.

Example. — Suppose the plan of a roof to be 36 feet long by 22 feet wide,
what must be the length of the principal and hip-rafters, to meet in a point
over the centre of the plan, supposing the angle contained between the plan
and the sloping side of the roof to be 52 degrees ; that is, 7 degrees above
true pitch ?

Let ABCD, fig. 25, be the plan of such a roof as is here specified, where
AB or DC is the length, and AD or BC the width ; bisect the length, AB,

in the point e, and erect the perpendicular e a, the vertex of the roof will lie
in the line e a ; that is, e a passes through the vertex or summit of the roof.
Make e k equal to one half the width of the plan, and erect the perpendicular
h i ; at the central point e, make the angle k e i equal to 52 degrees, the
given inclination or pitch of the roof; then will e i meet the perpendicular
h i in i. On e, as a centre, with the distance e i as a radius, describe the
circular arc i a intersecting the perpendicular e a in the point a ; then is e a
the length of the principal side rafter. Draw A a and B a, which are respec-
tively the hip-rafters, on one side of the roof.

Produce the perpendicular a e directly forward, and it will pass through
the centre of the plan ; then on the point e, with the distance e k, describe
the circular arc h P intersecting a e produced in P ; then is P the centre of
the plan. Draw the diagonals AC and BD, and the figure thus formed will
be the ortho-projection or seat of the roof. Upon AD and BC, the width
of the plan, describe the isosceles triangles A d D and B b C, in which the
equal sides are the same as A a or B a, and let fall the perpendiculars d h and
bf; these are respectively the principal rafters at the ends of the roof.
Transfer the triangle AaBto the position DeC, on the opposite side of the
building ; then will the figure, constituted of the four isosceles triangles re-
present the development of the roof, while that constituted of the rectangular
parallelogram represents the projection.

The principle of calculation in this case is perfectly obvious ; for, since e h
and the angle h e i are given, the hypothenuse e i, which is equal to the prin-
cipal side rafter e a, is found by the term e tc sec. kei; but ek, by the
question, is 11 feet, and the angle Is ei 52 degrees, the natural secant of which
is 1-6243; hence we have ea = 11 x 1-6243 = 17-867 feet. Having thus
determined the length of the perpendicular or principal side rafter e a, the

length of the hip-rafter A a is found by the term

^Ar +

ea ; but Ae,

by the question, is 18 feet, and we have just found that ea is 17*867 feet;

therefore, it is A a = </18'2 + 17-8672 = 25-362 feet, the length of the hip
or diagonal rafter. The length of the principal end rafter, h d, has next to be

assigned ; it is expressed by the term isj ~^ ~/t2 ; that is,

236

Carpentry.

[November,

hd = V25-3622 — ll2 = 22*852 feet. Having assigned the length of the
diagonals and the principal rafters for the sides and ends of the roof, the
length of all the other rafters resting on the hips will readily be found by
proportion, according to the distances at which they are placed.

The next case that claims our attention, is that in which the sides of the
roof are trapezoids, and the ends isosceles triangles. This is, indeed, the
chief case of the problem, since it occurs more frequently than any other, and
presents to the eye of the spectator a more pleasing and symmetrical contour.
The principles of projection for this sort of roof are essentially the same as
those already laid down, and we shall presently see of what importance those
principles are in ascertaining the length of the rafters, when the pitch of the
roof and the dimensions of the plan are known. Let the rectangular paral-
lelogram ABCD, fig. 26, be the floor of the building or plan upon which the
roof is to be constructed ; the length AB or DC being 36 feet ; and the

Fig. 26.

width AD or BC 24 feet ; and let it be required to determine the length of
the principal and hip rafters when the pitch of the roof is 48 degrees, or
3 degrees above true pitch, the length of the ridge-beam being 16 feet. Bi-
sect the plan ABCD by the straight line m n drawn parallel to the longer
dimension AB, and produce mn both ways to any convenient length at
pleasure. At the point B, one corner of the given plan, make the angle
n B i equal to 48 degrees, the given pitch, or rather the angle contained be-
tween the side of the roof and a plane coincident with the top of the walls,
and let B i meet m n produced in i ; then is B i the length of the principal
rafter. Produce CB, the breadth or shorter dimension of the plan, till B k
becomes equal to B i ; then through k draw k I parallel to AB, and k I will
be the line of the ridge. Produce DA to meet k I in I, then will k I be equal
in length to AB or DC ; from the points k and I set off k b and la respec-
tively equal to half the difference between the length of the ridge and the
longer dimension of the plan, and draw A a and B b, either of which will be
the length of the hip-rafter ; and the trapezoid AB b a, is a true representa-
tion of one side of the required roof.

Upon the ends of the plan AD and BC construct the isosceles triangles
Aft) and B c C, of which the sides are equal respectively, to the hip-rafters
A a and B b, and on the other side of the plan DC, construct the trapezoid,
D e d C, equal and similar to A a b B ; then will the two equal trapezoidal
figures on the sides of the plan, and the two equal isosceles triangles on the
ends thereof, be the development of the required roof. From the points a
and b, the extremities of the ridge, draw the straight lines ap and b q respec-
tively perpendicular to AB, and let them be produced to meet mn in the
points g and h ; draw kg, D g, B h, C h, and the figure thus formed within
the plan will be the ortho-projection of the required roof; so that both the
development and projection are represented by the same figure.

The construction being thus effected, the lengths of the rafters A a, ap,
and fm, may be found by measurement with the scale and compasses, to a
degree of accuracy sufficient for every practical purpose. This is the method
generally resorted to by practical men ; but it becomes so from a mistaken
notion that the process of calculation is too difficult and prolix to be rendered
available in general practice : this however, is not the case ; for when the
principles of projection are properly understood, the calculation becomes a
matter of the greatest simplicity, as will be seen from what follows.

In the right-angled plane triangle, B n i, we have given all the angles and
the side B n to find the hypothenuse B i, which, by the construction and the
nature of the problem, is equal in length to the principal rafter, B k. Now,
by the principles of plane trigonometry, the hypothenuse B i is equal to the

side Bn multiplied by the natural secant of the angle nBi, the pitch of the
roof; but by the question, n B i is equal to 48 degrees; and by the trigo-
nometrical tables, its natural secant is 1-49448 to radius unity ; consequently,
to radius Bn = 12, we have Bt = 12x 1-49448 = 17-934 feet very
nearly, for the length of the principal rafter in the side or trapezoidal plane.
Then, in the right-angled plane triangle B k b, there are given the two sides
B k and b k, to find the hypothenuse, or hip-rafter, B b. Now, by the pro-
perty of the right-angled triangle, that the square described upon the hypo-
thenuse is equal to the sum of the squares described upon the other two sides,

we have B ft2 = B k'2 + k b" ; but k b is equal to 10 feet, by the conditions of
the question; and we have just found that B k is equal to 17-934 feet;
therefore, by adopting these numerical values of the sides of the triangle, and

extracting the square root, we get B b = V17-9342 + 102 = 20-533 feet for
the length of the hip-rafter sought.

The principal rafter fm, in the triangular end of the roof, can only be of
the same length as ap in the trapezoidal side, when the distance ap is equal
to A m, half the width of the plan. This, however, is not the case in the
present instance ; for Am is 12 feet, whilst ap is only 10 feet ; and for this
reason fm must be determined by an independent process. Now, in the
right-angled plane triangle A mf there are given the hypothenuse A/, and
the base A m, to find the perpendicular fm ; therefore, by the property of
the right-angled triangle, we get

fm = "v a; — Am2 =. a/20'5332 — 122 = 16-664 feet,

for the length of the principal rafter in the triangular end. We have next to
determine the projected value of the hip-rafter, or its seat A g, on the plan ;
and for this purpose, we must have recourse to the right-angled triangle
Amg, in which there are given the two sides Am and mg, to find the hy-
pothenuse, A^ : the property of the right-angled triangle already referred to

gives Ag

Am2 + mg"; but, by the question, Am = 12 feet, and

mg = 10 feet ; hence we get A g = */\.2'2 + 102 = 15-62 feet, the projected
value or seat of the hip rafter. The projected value or seat of the principal
rafter in the trapezoidal side of the roof being equal to half the width of the
span, needs no calculation ; and the same may be said of that in the trian-
gular end, since it is equal to I a, half the difference between the length of the
ridge and the length of the plan.

If the two trapezoidal planes constructed upon the sides of the plan be
turned upon their bases AB and DC until they meet, the straight lines a b
and e d will then coincide and form the ridge ; and in like manner, if the tri-
angular ends be turned on their bases, so as to meet with the planes formerly
turned up, the figure thus formed will be a true model of the required roof,
representing every part thereof in its true dimensions : it will then be seen
that the pitch or slope of the triangular ends is not the same as the pitch of
the sides ; the thrusts or strains in the direction of the rafters will also be
different. This is a circumstance that must not be overlooked in the con-
struction of roofs of great dimensions, for the extra effect upon the walls may
be attended with very serious consequences ; we must therefore inquire what
is the difference between the slope of the ends and that of the sides ; and for
this purpose we must again refer to fig. 26, where all the necessary data are
exhibited. On m as a centre, with the distance mf, intersect a g in the
point r, and draw m r ; then is r mg the slope or pitch of the triangular ends
AfH and B c C ; but m r and mg are given ; therefore the angle rmg can
easily be found by the rules of trigonometry. Thus we have

mr : mg : : rad. : cos. rmg =-

that is, cos. rmg =

10

16664

= -600096,

which is the natural cosine of 5^° V 24", very nearly ; so that the difference
of pitch between the ends and the sides of the proposed roof, is

53" T 24" — 48° = 5° 7' 24".

Bisect a b in *, and draw A * ; then, if the length of the ridge be not given'
the length of the hip-rafter will admit of all magnitudes between A laud A *;
when it coincides with A I, the roof is a common one, having the triangular
gables A/D and B c C ; but when it coincides with A s, the roof is formed
of four isosceles triangles, meeting in a point directly over the middle of the
plan, as we have shown in fig. 25. It sometimes happens, however, that,
instead of the length of the ridge-tree being given, there is given the angle
a AB, which is made in the side of the roof by the hip-rafter and the direc-
tion of the wall. In this case the solution is something different from the
preceding, but it is nevertheless, exceeding simple, if the foregoing principles
of projection be kept in view ; for having determined the length of the prin-
cipal rafter, as shown above, the length of the hip-rafter is found by simply
multiplying the cosecant of the given angle by the length of the said principal
rafter. Thus, for example, let the length and breadth of the plan be 36 and
24 feet, and the pitch of the side, or trapezoidal plane, 48 degrees, the same
as in the case that we have just illustrated, and let the angle contained be-
tween the hip and direction of the side wall be 60 degrees : required the par-
ticulars of the roof ?

Let ABCD, fig. 27, be the plane over which the roof is required to be
constructed, and let this plan be divided into two equal and similar parts by
the straight line mn running in the direction of the length. At the point B

1844.]

Carpentry.

237

Fig. 27.

/

A

Ai

fc\

B

I1

1

/

11

9

h

i

C

make the angle n B i equal to 48 degrees, the given pitch of the side, or tra-
pezoidal plane, and let Bi meet mn produced in i; then is B i the length of
the principal side rafter. Produce CB till B k becomes equal to B i, and
through the point k draw kl parallel to BA. At the points A and B make
the angles nA6 and b BA respectively equal to 60 degrees, the given angle
in the trapezoidal plane ; then are A a and B b the hip rafters, and a b the
ridge of the roof. From the points a and b let fall the perpendiculars ap
and b q, which produce to meet the bisecting line mn in the points g and h,
and draw A^ and B h ; then is AB hg the projection of the trapezoidal plane
AB b a ; Ag and B h being the seats of the hip rafters A a and B b ; p g and
q h the seats of the principal rafters ap and b q ; and g h the seat of the ridge
a b. To calculate the parts, we have AB equal 36 feet, and BC equal 24
feet; and therefore, Bre equal 12 feet ; consequently, in the right-angled
triangle, B n i, there are given all the angles and the side B n to find the hy-
pothenuse B z and the side n i ; the former being the length of the principal
side rafter, and the latter the perpendicular height or rise of the roof. By
the rules of plane trigonometry we have

B i = B n. sec. 48°, and ni = B re. tan. 48° ; that is,
B t = 12 x 1-49448 = 17-931 feet, and n i = 12 x l-1106i = 13327 feet.

Now, B k by construction, is equal to B j, and ap, b q, are each of them
equal to B k ; therefore ap and b q are respectively equal to Bi; but B i is
the length of the principal rafter in the trapezoidal side of the roof, and it
has just been shown to be equal to 17'934 feet ; therefore ap or b q is like-
wise equal to 17-934 feet. Then, in either of the right-angled plane tri-
angles Ap a and B q b, we have given all the angles and the side ap or b q,
to find the hypothenuse A a or B b, and the base Ap or B q, which, in the
present instance, is equal to one half the hypothenuse, since the opposite
angle is 30 degrees ; we have, therefore, only to calculate the hypothenuse or
hip rafter AaorBJ; and for this purpose, the rules of plane trigonometry
give Ao = ap, cosec. 60°; but the natural cosecant of 60 degrees is 1-1547 ;
hence it is A a = 17-934 x 11547 = 20-708 feet ; and, consequently, Ap
= 10-354 feet ; so that the length of the ridge a b is a b = 36 — 20-708 =
15-292 feet. There are other ways in which the data may be combined in
any particular case, but since they are all calculated by the same or by similar
principles, it is needless to particularise them here, as nothing new or useful
would be elicited from their discussion.

Another variety of the hipped or pavilion roof, is that in which the ends
as well as the sides are trapezoidal planes, the roof being terminated at the
top by a rectangular horizontal platform. This kind of roof is not so com-
mon as that which terminates in a sharp and narrow ridge ; but it is, never-
theless, of sufficient importance in the practice of Carpentry, to entitle it to
a separate consideration. Let ABCD, fig. 28, be the plan of the roof, and

Fig. 28.

r stu the rectangular platform parallel thereto ; and suppose the length and
breadth of the plan, the length and breadth of the parallel platform, and the
rise or vertical height of the roof to be given ; and let it be required to deter-
mine the length of the principal and hip rafters, both in projection and de-
velopment, as well as the pitch or slope of the end and side trapezoidal planes.
The ortho-projection of this kind of roof is very easily effected; for we have
only to take half the difference between the lengths and breadths of the plan
and the platform, and set them off from the angles of the plan in the following
manner, viz., one half the difference of the lengths from A to p, and from B
to q, and one half the difference of the breadths from B to n, and from C to
m; then through the points re, rn, and p, q, draw the straight lines ch, dg,
and af, b e, respectively parallel to the sides and ends of the plan, and the
rectangular parallelogram r stu, thus formed will be the projection of the
platform, and it will be of ihe same dimensions in the projection as it is in
the roof; for, by the principles of the orthographic projection, any plane
figure projected upon a plane parallel to itself, is projected into a figure
similar and equal to itself. Draw the straight lines A r, B s, C t, and D u,
from the angles of the plan to the angles of the projected platform, and the
figure thus formed will be the projection of the entire roof ; B s and the
corresponding diagonals, being the projections of the hips, and q s, n s, the
projections of the principals in the sides and ends of the roof, the lengths of
which are known by the conditions of the question, being respectively equal
to half the difference between the breadths and lengths of the plan and plat-
form. The length of the projected hip-rafter B s, will therefore be found by

the property of the right-angled triangle ; that is, B * = ** h u2 + n s". Now,
supposing the length and breadth of the platform to be 20 and 10 feet re-
spectively, the length and breadth of the plan being 36 and 24 feet, the same

as in the foregoing cases; then we have ns = = 8 feet, and

2

B» =

24 — 10

= 7 feet ; therefore it is Bs = V73 + 82 = 10-63 feet, the

length of the hip or diagonal rafter in the plane of projection.

To determine the corresponding dimensions in development, produce the
end of the plan CB, directly forward to any convenient length at pleasure ;
and on rs, extended beyond n, set off n i equal to the rise or vertical height
of the roof, and draw iB ; then is the angle nB i the pitch or inclination of
the side. On CB produced, take B k equal to B i, and through the point k
draw the straight line kl parallel to BA, the side of the plan, and produce
u r and ts to meet k I in a and b ; draw A a and B b, then will A a b B be a
side of the roof in development. Produce sr and tu, the sides of the pro-
jected platform, and make A h, D g respectively equal to A a, and draw hg ;
then is A h g D the end of the roof in development. Upon DC and BC, the
remaining side and end of the plan, make the trapezoids D/e C and B c d C
respectively equal to A a b B and A h g D, and the figure thus formed will be
the development of the entire roof. To calculate the parts, we must have
recourse to the right-angled triangle B n i, in which both the sides B n and n i
are given to find the hypothenuse B i and the angle n B i, B i being the length
of the principal side rafter, and nB i the pitch or inclination of the side.
Now B», as we have already shown, is equal to 7 feet, being half the differ-
ence between the breadth of the plan and the breauth of the platform ; and if
ni be 8 feet, or any other convenient height at pleasure, we have, by the

property of the right-angled triangle Bi, or its equal Bi, = V72 -r- 82 =
10 63 feet ; hence it appears, that, according to the assumed dimensions, the
principal side rafter in the development is of the same length as the hip or
diagonal rafter in the projection : this however, is merely an accidental cir-
cumstance, and is not be regarded as a condition peculiar to the nature of tie
roof under discussion.

The length of the principal side rafter being now ascertained, the corre-
sponding length of the hip becomes known ; for, in the right- angled triangle
B q b, we have given the sides B q and q b to find the hypothenuse B b ; now
B q by the question, is equal to 8 feet, being equal to half the difference be-
tween the lengths of the plan and platform ; and we have just found that q b

is equal to 10-63 feet; consequently, Bb = V8S + 10632 = 13-304 feet,
the length of the hip-rafttr in development, or its actual length in the roof,
the corresponding length in the projection being 10-63 feet, as found by a
previous calculation.

Again, in the right-angled triangle Bnc, there are given the hypothenuse
Bc = 13-304 feet, and the base B n = 7 feet, to find the perpendicular n c ;

hence it is nc = v'13'3042 — 72 = 1 1-314 feet, the length of the principal
rafter in the end of the roof being longer than the corresponding rafter in the
side by 0 C84 of a foot, or 8-208 inches. We have next to determine the
pitches, or the inclinations of the side and end trapezoidal plaues ; thus, in
the triangle B re i, we have given the sides B n and n i to find the angle re B i,
which is the pitch or inclination of the side. Now the rules of plane trigo-

o

nometry give tan. n B i = n i -=- B n ; that is, tan. n B i = - = 1-142857,

7
the natural tangent of 48° 48' 51", which is therefore the pitch of the side.
Since the rise or vertical height of the roof is the same as half the difference
between the lengths of the plan and the platform, the pitch of the end will he
45 degrees, which corresponds to the true pitch ; this however, will be better
understood as follows : — Upon mn the breadth of the platform, set off nx
equal to 8 feet, the given rise or height of ihe roof, and draw a x ; then will

238

Specifications of a Pair of Gates for the Entrance of the Wet Dock, Montrose.

[November,

s x be equal to n c, the length of the principal end rafter, and the angle nsx
is the pitch or inclination ; but * n is equal to n w by the question ; conse-
quently, the angle ns x is, equal to the angle nx s, and each of them is 45
degrees, because sn x is a right angle ; the end of the roof is therefore formed
to a true pitch.

With respect to the angles in the respective planes comprehended between
the hip-rafters and the directions of the walls, or sides and ends of the plan,
they are easily found ; for, in the triangles B bq and B c re, there are given
all the sides in each to find the angles b B q and c B n ; therefore, by the
rules of plane trigonometry, we have

tan. b B q

_ »<r .

Bq

; and tan. c B n

Bn

; that is,

tan. b B q

= 10'63 = 1-328768, the natural tangent of 53° 2' 8" ;
8

and tan. c B n

11-314

1-616244, the natural tangent of 58° 15' 15".

Here we have found by construction and calculation, the several particulars
that may be required in the formation of a roof under the specified condi-
tions ; and if the steps of the process be carefully considered, it is presumed
that what has now been done will be found sufficient to guide the operator in
determining the corresponding parts in any other roof, in whatsoever manner
the data may be combined.

Art. II.— SPECIFICATION OF A PAIR OF GATES FOR THE
ENTRANCE OF THE WET DOCK, MONTROSE.

General Dimensions. — The entrance is to be 55ft. wide in the clear.
The centre of the heel-posts of the gates is to be one foot in from the face
of the wall, and the distance between the two centres will therefore be 57ft.
The gates are to be framed of cast iron, as shown in the drawings ; they
are to have a pointing of 10ft., and are to be 22ft. 6in. in height, and the
ribs are to have a curvature in the hollow side of 18in.

Heel posts. — The heel posts are to be of cast iron, 1ft. 9in. diameter ;
they are to be quite straight, and accurately turned on a lathe, and are to
be liin. thick at the thinnest part, when finished, but the straight faces are
to be Hin. thick ; and they are to have snugs cast on them for supporting
the ends of the horizontal bars ; the heel posts are to have each a cast iron
socket fitted into the bottom, working on a cast iron gudgeon, lOin. dia-
meter, cast on a sole plate 4ft. 6in. by 1ft. 9in., and 2in. thick, dovetail
sunk, and rusted into the stone, and are to have cast iron covers bolted on
to the top.

Before the gates are framed together in their places, the contractor for
the mason work is to have the use of the heel posts, to get them fitted and
ground into their hollow groins ; and the contractor for the gates is to fur-
nish men to key-up the posts into their places, so as to work fair, and be
fitted close and watertight into the quoin.

Mitre posts. — Mitre posts, 18-Jin. broad and l|in. thick, with snugs for
holding up the bars, and two flanges, l^in. thick, for holding the wooden
mitres.

The holes which are cast in the mitre posts, for getting in to hold again
the rivets of the back row of plates, are to be filled up by pieces of cast
iron fitted in with white lead, and the bolts must be also bedded in white
lead, so as to be watertight.

Horizontal bars. — Eleven horizontal bars to each leaf, 2in. thick, 16in.
broad at the ends, and 18in. at the middle, with two double flanges, 9in.
broad, and respectively 2in. and 1^-in. thick, excepting the lower bar,
which will be cast without the lower half of the 2in. flange.

Cross-ends to the bars, 18in. long, and 2in. thick, with four screwed
bolts to each, l^in. diameter, through the heel and mitre posts.

Clop dll. — Cast iron clap-cill in two pieces, for each leaf, Sin. deep, and
1 Jin. thick, with dovetailed snugs tailed 6in. into the stone.

The joint between the cill and the stone is to be all closely caulked in
with rust, and the face of the cill is to be chipped and filed, if necessary, so
as to make it quite fair for the bottom har to fit upon.

Wooden bottom bar. — This lowermost bar is to be of Oak or African
Teak, in one piece for each leaf, 12in. thick, 17in. broad at the ends, and
19in. at the middle, with a natural curve ; and it is to be fixed up to the
lower cast iron bar by l^in. bolts screwed into the timber. The bolts are
to have their heads bedded in white lead, so as to be watertight.

Wooden mitre. — False mitre also of Oak or African Teak, fitted closely
into the iron posts, and fastened by lin. bolts riveted through the flanges,
and tongtied down into the wooden lower bar.

Lininy of boiler plate. — Both sides of the gates are to be lined with best
Staffordshire crown plates, arranged as shown in the drawings ; the lower
tier averaging about 6ft. in height, is to be fin. thick, and all above that
to be fin. thick; to have 2-Jin. overlaps, and to be fastened by fin. rivets
for the lower plates, and gin. rivets for the upper plates, all of the best
iron, riveted when hot, and made to fill up the holes completely.

The gates must be perfectly watertight on both sides, and must be proved
by being filled up with water inside up to the level of the top bar.

Anchors. — Anchors of cast iron, 3^in. square, dovetail sunk into the top
quoins, and run and batted in with lead. Wrought iron collars of heel
posts, 4 x 2in., keyed into the anchors.

Railway plates. — Cast iron conical roller plates, or railway, lOin. broad,
and l^in. and 4in. thick, sunk and bolted down into the stone, and bedded
on felt and white lead. The upper surface to be chipped and filed fair and
smooth, and to be laid quite horizontal.

Rollers. — Cast iron conical rollers, 18in. diameter and 5in. thick, with
steeled axles turned.

Roller boxes. — Cast iron roller boxes, as shown in the drawing, lfin.
thick, moulded so as to suit the level of the gate, and each fastened by
eight lfin. screw bolts through the flanges of the horizontal bars, and to
have guides cast on for the roller blocks. Cast iron covers for the roller
boxes, lin. thick, each fastened by four lin. screw bolts. Cast iron blocks
for the rollers, as shown in the drawings, sliding within the boxes.

Roller bars. — Wrought iron roller bars, 3in. diameter, to be keyed into
these blocks, and to have each three plummer blocks to steady it, with
covers screwed on ; and there is to be a coupling to each bar, and a square
threaded screw and brass bush at the top.

Brackets/or supporting gate. — Strong cast iron bracket at the top, as
shown in the drawings, for the brass nuts working on, fastened by eight
lfin. screw bolts through both the flanges of the horizontal bar.

Sluice frames. — Two sluice frames, having faces 7in. broad, and lfin.
thick, and cheeks fin. thick, going through the thickness of the gate, with
a flange on the two side cheeks for fastening the boiler plate to. The faces
to have raised margins, planed straight and smooth, and cast iron guides
bolted on.

Sluicei. — The two sluices to be lfin. thick, with flanges on the back, and
raised margins planed and grooved upon the frames, so as to be water-
tight. "

Zinc. — The backs of the sluices and of the guides are to be covered witn
zinc plates, fin. thick, to prevent rusting, and all the screw bolts of the
sluice frames and roller boxes are to have zinc nuts, fin. thick, screwed on
above the iron nuts.

Sluice rods. — Wrought iron sluice rods, 2in. diameter, with one plummer
block each, and coupled, as shown in the drawings ; to have square threaded
screws at the top, and brass nuts working in cast iron boxes, which will
form guides for them, with hinged doors in front.

Gearing for sluices. — A horizontal wheel, 2ft. 6in. diameter, at the top
of each screw, with a pinion and bevelled gear supported by and working
in a cast iron hracketed box, all as shown in the drawings, and two handles
to be provided for turning them.

Gangway brackets. — Six cast iron brackets, 6in. broad, and fin. thick,
with a strengthening flange on one side over each leaf of the gates, for
supporting the wooden gangways ; and they are to have a socket cast in
each end for holding the balusters ; and there is to be also a wrought iron
bracket for supporting the part of the gangway which projects over the
heel post.

Balusters and handrail. — Six cast iron moulded balusters to each leaf of
the gates, keyed into the above-mentioned brackets; and a wrought iron
rounded handrail, 2\ x ^in. turned down at the ends, and bolted through
the gangway planks.

Gangway. — 2in. oak gangway planking, planed and close jointed, to be
3ft. 6in. wide, in three breadths of one length each, with a natural curve,
and to be bolted down to the brackets. Four cross pieces of oak under
each gangway, 6 x 4in. ; and the gangway planks are to be screwed down
to them. Oak skirtings, 5in. by fin., bolted on to the balusters in one
length for each leaf.

Movable stanchions and chains. — There are likewise to be six wrought
iron movable stanchions to each leaf for the other side of the gangway,
and these are to slip into the sockets in the cast iron brackets, and are to
have eyes at the top for taking in a chain ; and there is to be 35ft. of -(%
short linked chain, with a screw for fastening to each leaf.

Brass valves. — There is to be a small brass valve, ground so as to be
quite watertight, in each leaf, for running off the leakage water. These
will be fixed about a foot above the level of low water ; and there is to be
a plate of zinc, fin. thick, and 9in. broad, for the protection of the iron
round each valve bore.

Pumps in heel posts. — There is to be a 2-Jin. pump, with brass chamber
and boxes in each heel post, worked by a wrought iron rocking shaft and
handle, with a l^in. lead pipe down to the bottom of the heel post ; and
there is to be a 1-Jin. hole cast in each bar above the bottom one, to let
the leakage water run down to the pump.

Capstans. — Four double-purchase capstans, as shown in the drawings,
with gearings, &c, as follows : — Wheel, 6ft. ; and pinion, 7in. diameter,
and 4in. broad ; cast iron axles of pinions, 4in. square, and of the wheels
5in. square ; barrels of capstans, 1-jin. thick, with a cast iron ring sunk
into the stone round the foot of each, to keep the chain from getting under ;
strong cast iron framing built into the walls, and plummer blocks and
covers, as shown. There is to be a piece of cast iron, 12in. broad, and
2in. thick, to the bottom ; and two sides of each chain hole sunk and built
into the stone at the mouth of the chain hole, to keep the chain from
wearing the stone.

184k]

The Claims of Labour.

239

Covers for wells. — Cast iron covers for the wells, fin. thick, each in two
pieces, screwed together.

Gate chains. — 280ft. of |in. hest short linked chain, tested to carry 12
tons, and fixed to each mitre post by two eyebolts and a shackle, as shown
in the drawings, and to be fastened by an eyebolt and shackle to the barrel.
Ten oak capstan bars, 6ft. long, to be furnished ; and there are to be four
eyebolts and small chains to each capstan, for keeping in the bar.

Description of timber. — The timber is to be of sound British, French, or
Silesian white Oak, or of African Teak, free from sap, shake, or other
defect.

Description of iron. — All the malleable iron work to be of the best No. 2
cable iron, excepting the covering plates, which are already specified ; and
the collars of the heel posts and the handrail, which are to be of best
scrap ; and all the. castings are to be of best No. 2 pig iron, well moulded,
and cast clean. All dimensions, both of timber and iron, apply to the work
when finished.

Oil, paint, and tar. — All bolts, &c. are to be dipped into hot linseed oil
before being driven ; and all the surfaces of iron, both inside as well as
that shown, to have three coats of oil paint. All the timber is to be coated
with a mixture of coal and vegetable tar, in equal quantities, laid on while
hot.

General Conditions. — The tenders are to include all materials, tools, pat-
terns, tackling, &c, that may be necessary to complete the work. The
contractor for the mason work is bound to do all the stone cutting, sinking
bolt holes, &c, &c.

The Harbour Trustees undertake to keep the chamber clear of water
while the cills are being fitted and fixed, and the gates are being put toge-
ther and fitted, provided they be completed by the time specified ; but the
contractor must pay for all expenses of pumping required by him after that
time.

The Harbour Trustees shall have it in their power to direct any altera-
tions to be made that may appear necessary during the progress of the
works ; and the value of these alterations, whether they be additions or
reductions, shall be calculated at the same rate of prices as those at which
the tender was made up ; and therefore a detailed estimate must be fur-
nished by the contractor before the contract is entered into ; but no altera-
tions are to be made, nor any claim for extras allowed, without written au-
thority from the Engineer, or the Clerk to the Harbour Trustees. The
gates are to be built, hung, and fitted complete with all their requisite ma-
chinery, and made watertight, and otherwise in good working order, by the
1st day of May, 1845, or not later than three months from the time that
the hollow quoins are finished, and the other masonry of the entrance
being so far advanced as to allow of the iron work being proceeded with
without interruption. A payment of £500 will be made whenever it has
been certified by the Engineer of the Harbour Trustees that work has been
executed and delivered at the Dock to that amount ; and another payment
of ^J500 when work has been executed and delivered to the amount of
,£1000 ; and the balance will be paid whenever the whole has been com-
pleted, and certified to have been done in terms of the specification, and
after the Dock has been filled with water, and the tightness of the gates
proved.

The whole to be done in a substantial and workmanlike manner, agree-
ably to the spirit of the drawings and specification, and to the satisfaction
of the Engineer, or of the Inspector acting under him. And should any
dispute or difference of opinion arise regarding the manner of executing the
work, the same shall be referred to the Engineer, whose decision shall be
final and binding on both parties. Sufficient security will be required for
due performance of the contract. The Trustees do not bind themselves to
accept the lowest offer.

Drawings delivered with the Specification. These drawings are given in
the present Number of this Journal.

Art. III.— THE CLAIMS OF LABOUR.

The Claims of Labour : an Essay on the Duties of the Employers to the
Employed. London : Pickering. 1844.

The dignity of labour, its importance in the world, its bearing on a man's
happiness, on his self-respect, is becoming, if it already be not, the great
moralizing feature of the age. We are advancing, not rapidly, it is true
but, we think, surely. The truth, that men who do what are called the
menial and servile offices of the great — the men who provide us with suste-
nance and clothing from day to day — the men who have gradually built
up the present greatness of England by their exertions, under the direction
of the monied power and the spirit of commercial enterprise — are men, and
must be treated as such, is dawning on the governors and employers, and
also the mere consumers, who have neither trade, profession, or calling1,
except lounging and crime. We have still those habits of feudal slavery
among us that tend to undervalue labour ; they are the obstacles, the re-
tarders of our advance. From this we are departing. The thoughtful men
of this age have seen the unjust estimation of the value of humanlife ; they

have turned their mental eye full upon it; and, lo ! the doctrine fades into
the hollow void of past error. Report after report has of late proceeded from,
and been sanctioned with all the authority of Parliament, clearly showing
that our labouring classes need all manner of culture. Men in private life,
who have a real regard for their kind, have been looking to it ; the raising
of the many from ignorance and degradation to intellect and worth, is the
tendency of the creed of " Young England ;" our public journals, or some
of them, are foremost in asserting rights and claims of the sons of toil on
our consideration : they themselves, by the might of poets rising spon-
taneously among them — by the vigour of politicians and excellent men in
private life, who are, or have been of their order — sing and speak the same
noble truth, that man is sacred even in the person of the lowest criminal,
much more in the industrious, honest labourer.

" The Claims of Labour," is an essay written by one of these kind,
thoughtful men. A book breathing more kindness, without alloy of bitter-
ness— more consideration, without haughty interference — more wisdom,
with less quackery, and an indescribably delightful modesty, it has scarcely
ever been our lot to read. But let us describe it in its own words, used
to illustrate the author's meaning of " practical wisdom :" —

" It holds its object neither too near, nor too far off; without exaggerating
trifles, it can see that small things may be essential to the successful application of
great principles; it is moderate in its expectations ; does not imagine that all men
must be full of its projects ; and holds its course with calmness, with hope, and
with humility."

To our liking, the first portion of the book is the best. We mean the
first and second chapters. In them is stated the author's view of society as
regards the relation between master and man, and what he calls social go-
vernment. It is beautiful to see, indeed quite touching, the affection with
which he pleads for the employed, and exhorts the employer to gentler
usage of those who are placed under him. The faults of the labourer are
not screened ; indeed, what could it serve even if such a low motive entered
our calculation ? Men are not to be improved by hiding their real con-
dition from them, but by exposing it : then there is some chance of rec-
tifyingit. This subject, the relation of employers to employed — or, to speak
more widely, the duty of society to the poor labourer — obtains so much in-
terest in the present age, because we are in a transition state, in which
state the poor always suffer most. Feudalism has been clean worn out ;
it is inadequate to supply our wants ; it is not adapted to the spirit
of the age. It is gone ; or, at least, lingers only in law courts. But,
to all intents and purposes of usefulness, it has vanished. And what
have we in its stead ? Nothing great : no leading motive that is equal
to the work to be done. Poor-law prisons, corn-laws, allotment sys-
tems, in alarming abundance, attempting to palm themselves on us for
truths ; but they are doomed. Here, then, is the bearing of these remarks
on the work under consideration, namely, an idea is arising — the dignity of
labour ; and the first thing that draws attention is the subject of this essay
— the duty of the employers to the employed, and vice versa. This, fully
developed, will exhibit in its simple grandeur the dignity of labour in all its
manifold appearances. Labourer has been associated in the minds of men
with vicious, degraded, ignorant man, too long; and this the philosophy of
the time seems to aim at removing. Among such honourers of, and sym-
pathisers with the labourer, is the author of this essay.

This little book is such a compound of good things, and we are tempted
so much by this sentence and that — one showing the tenderness of the
author's feelings ; another, earnest exhortations against despair ; now, some
exquisitely worded truth ; anon, an apt comparison ; all tending to show
his meaning — that we fear, after all, the reader will have but a poor sample
from such ample riches. To take one early in the work : the author has
been speaking of the difficulties attending this subject — the fearful, piteous
distresses of the poor — the despair arising in the mind when contemplating
the mass of evil — when he says : —

" And why should we despair ? A great nation is never in extreme peril until
it has lost its hopeful spirit. If, at this moment, a foreign enemy were on the
point of invading us, how strenuous we should be : what moral energy would in-
stantly pervade us. Faster than the beacon lights could give the intelligence from
headland to headland ; from city to city would spread the national enthusiasm of a
people that would never admit the thought of being conquered. Trust me, these
domestic evils are foes not less worthy of our attention than any foreign invaders.
It seems to me, I must confess, a thing far more to be dreaded, that any consider-
able part of our population should be growing up in a state of absolute ignorance,
than would be the danger, not new to us, of the combined hostility of the civilized
world. Our trials, as a nation, like our individual ones, are perpetually varied as
the world progresses.

' The old order changeth, yielding place to new,
And God fulfils himself in many ways.'

We have not the same evils to contend with as our ancestors had ; but we need
the same stoutness of heart that bore them through the contest. The sudden
growth of things, excellent in themselves, entangles the feet of that generation
amongst whom they spring up. There may be something, too, in the progress of
human affairs like the coming in of the tide, which, for each succeeding wave, often
seems as much of a retreat as an advance : but still the tide comes on."

There is something exquisitely beautiful in this. Another fine thing,
unusual, perhaps, among us, but eminently trustful and noble, is the high

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

240

The Claims of Labour.

[November,

moral stand our author takes. He appeals for the amelioration of the phy-
sical and elevation of the moral heing of the labourer, neither to fear, nor
selfishness, nor gain, nor vanity, hut " inexorable duty." Yes, he thrusts
all meanness in considering this question away :—

" Putting aside, then, such phrases as ' course of events,' and the like, let us
look to men. And whom shall we look to first hut the Masters of Thought?
Surely the true poet will do something to lift the burden of his own age. What is
the use of wondrous gifts of language, if they are employed to enervate, and not to
ennoble, their hearers? What avails it to trim the lights of history, if they are
made to throw no brightness on the present, or open no track into the future ?
And to employ Imagination only in the service of Vanity, or Gain, is as if an as-
tronomer were to use his telescope to magnify the pot-herbs in his kitchen garden."

O reader, if you are young, ponder this well ! —

" Think what a glorious power is that of expression : and what responsibility
follows the man who possesses it. That grace of language which can make even
common-place things beautiful, throwing robes of the poorest texture into forms of
all-attractive loveliness : why does it not expend its genius on materials that would
be worthy of the artist ? The great interests of Man are before it, are crying for
it, ran absorb all its endeavour, are, indeed, the noblest field for it. Think of this
— then think what a waste of high intellectual endowments there has been in all
ages from the meanest of motives. But what wise man would not rather have the
harmless fame, which youths, on a holiday, scratch for themselves upon the leaden
roof of some cathedral tower, than enjoy the undeniable renown of those who, with
whatever power, have written from slight or unworthy motives what may prove a
hindrance, rather than an aid, to the well-being of their fellow-men."

Passing from those real, though often unrecognised rulers, the Masters of
Thought, he turns to the ostensible ones, armed and clad in the panoply
of office. He thinks much of the utility of interference by government to
cure evils arising from bad social regulations, though very nice in his
opinion, in fact, quite indefinite, as to what amount he would tolerate. He
contends, and here we completely agree with him, that the offices of society
are not filled with able men ; and considers social evils would be more
swiftly and perfectly remedied if they were. For our parts, we think that
" able men," true men, are the men whose right it is to govern ; but the
present half feudal, half free government of England, shuts out, for the
most part, able men. The modest style of this author is beautiful : here is
a lesson : —

" We sometimes feel thoroughly impressed by some good thought, or just example,
that we meet with in study or real life, but as if we had no means of applying it.
We cannot at once shape for ourselves a course that shall embrace this nfewly ac-
quired wisdom. Often it seems too grand for the occasions of ordinary life ; and
we fear that we must keep it laid up for some eventful day, as nice housewives
their stateliest furniture. However, if we keep it close to the heart, and make but
the least beginning with it, our infant practice leads to something better, or grows
into something ampler. In real life there are no isolated points."

Philosophy, lofty and profound, was scarcely ever arrayed in such a
transparent vesture of kindness so simple and unadorned as here. That
pathetic lesson of the "small servant," in the " Old Curiosity Shop," is
here repeated, only in other words, and taking in all servants, small or
otherwise. They, too, though ignorant, passionate, perhaps fearing and
false, are human ; and the circumstances of their condition and education are,
with this really benevolent author, sufficient of themselves to enlist our kind-
ness and exertions in their behalf. There is a fine passage on this subject,
though too long to extract ; and, leaving the question of domestic employ-
ments and their relations, obviously of great importance, let us have an
extract showing how high is the position, and, consequently, bow onerous
the duties, of those whose lot it is to employ vast numbers of men : —

" Having spoken of some of the duties of private persons, we come now to the
great employers of labour. Would that they all saw the greatness of their position.
Strange as it may sound, they are the successors of the feudal barons, they it is who
lead thousands to peaceful conquests, and upon whom, in great measure, depends
the happiness of large masses of mankind. As Mr. Carlyle says, ' The Leaders of
Industry, if Industry is ever to be led, are virtually the Captains of the World ; if
there be no nobleuess in them, there will never be an Aristocracy more.' Can a
man, who has this destiny eutrusied to hi«n, imagine that his vocation consists
merely in getting together a large lump of gold, and then being off with it, to enjoy
it, as he fancies, in some other place: as if that, which is but a small part of his
business in life, were all in all to him ; as if, indeed, the parable of the talents were
to be taken literally, and that a man should think that he has done his part when
he has made much gold and silver out of little? If these men saw their position
rightly, what would be their objects, what their pleasures? Their objects would
not consist in foolish vyings with each other about the grandeur or the glitter of
life. But, in dividing the employment of labour, they would find loom fov the
exercise of all the powers of their minds, of their best affections, and of whatever
was worthy in their ambition. Their occupation, so far from being a limited sphere
of action, is one which may give scope to minds of the most various capacity.
While one man may undertake those obvious labours of benevolent superintendence
which are of immediate and pressing necessity, another may devote himself to more
remote and indirect methods of improving the condition of those about him, which
are often not the less valuable because of their indirectness. In shoit, it is evident
that to lead the labour of large masses of people, and to do that, not merely with a
view to the greatest product of commodities, but to the best interests of the pro-

ducers, is a matter which will sufficiently and worthily occupy men of the strongest
minds aided by all the attainments which cultivation can bestow."

The principal object of the work, as staffed by the author, is to urge em-
ployers to do all, showing how much they can do, for their men. And it is
fairly and fearlessly done. In the second ' chapter, the author chivalrously
sets to work to clear away objections urged by men against social reform,
when it is to be wrought out by themselves. Delay, and love of money, are
disposed of, and thus he speaks of an element that supersedes both the others
in its baneful influence : —

" Perhaps the next thing that is likely to divert you from useful endeavours for
the benefit of others is fear of criticism : you do not know what the woild will
say : indeed, they may pronounce you an enthusiast, which word, of itself, is an
icy blast of ridicule to a timid mind. You shudder at doing anything unusual,,
and even hear by anticipation the laugh of your particular friends. You are
especially ashamed at appearing to care for what those about you do not care
for. A laugh at your humanity, or your ' theories,' would disconcert you.
You are fearfully anxious that any project of benevolence you undertake should
succeed, not altogether on its own account, but because your sagacity is embarked
in it, and plentiful will be the gibes at its failure, if it should fail. Put these
fears aside. All that is prominent, all that acts, must lay itself open to shallow
criticism. It has been said that in no case of old age, however extreme, has the
faculty for given advice been known to decay ; depend upon it, that of criticism
flouiishes in the most indolent, the most feeble, the most doting minds. Let not
the wheels of your endeavour be stayed by accumulated rubbish of this kind. We
are afraid of responsibility, afraid of what people may say of us, afraid of being
alone in doing right : in short, the courage which is allied to no passion — -Christian
courage as it may be called— is in all ages, and amongst all people, one of the rarest
possessious.

" The fear of ridicule is the effeminacy of the soul."

This is the finest chapter in the book. Food for deep reflection, home-
thrust reproaches, and moral axioms, uttered with a scriptural conciseness,
abound. One topic in it, and which involves much important duty for the
performance of employers, is too interesting for us to pass it by. It relates
to elections. After saying that rabid political writing is one cause of the
distrust, which certainly does prevail, of public men, (and no wonder, we
think, since the breach of so important a trust as that confided in the Post-
office authorities !) he says —

" Another cause is to be found in the unwise, if not dishonest, conduct of public
men. Look at the mode of proceeding at elections. I put aside bribery, intimida-
tion, and the like, the wrongfulness of which I hope we are all agreed upon ; and I
come to the intellectual part of the business. Extreme opinions are put forth by
the candidates, often in violent and injurious language. Each strives to keep stu-
diously in the background any points of difference between himself and the electing
body. Electors are not treated as rational beings; their prejudices and their anti-
pathies are petted as if they belonged to some despot whom it was treason to con-
tradict. Whereas, if ever there is a time in his life when a man should weigh his
words well, and when he should gird himself up to speak with truth and courage,
it is when he is soliciting the suffrages of an electoral body."

The aristocracy, and men from among the middle classes, must have
greater confidence in humanity than they have to bring about the result de-
sired here, and greater manliness must exist among gentlemen. A curious
remark in the author's discussion of this question in one of its bearings, meets
us here, and we give it, because, though peculiar, we think it true ; and in
confirmation, we may say, the beauty of this work is in the profundity of it.

" And so I am persuaded in addressing the great masses of mankind on other
subjects, you can hardly be too profound, if you contrive to express yourself
without pedantry ; you can hardly put motives of too much generosity before
them, if you do so with complete sincerity and earnestness. All this is very diffi-
cult, but what social remedies are not ? They are things to be toiled and bled for ;
and what is far more, you must run the risk of ridicule, endure want of sym-
pathy, have the courage to utter unpalatable truths, and not unfrequently resist
the temptation of saying such things as are sure to elicit immediate and hearty
approbation. When a statesman has a craving for present applause, it is an evil spirit
always by his side, but which springs up to its utmost height, and overshadows him
with its most baleful influence, at some of the most critical periods of his career."

The following remarks, coming from a man so utterly unlike a m«re par-
tisan as our author shows himself to be, are valuable.

" But of all the things which tend to separate the operatives from the governing
classes, is the suspicion (oh, that we could say that it was altogether an unjust
one !) that laws are framed, or maintained, which benefit those classes at the ex-
pense of their poor r brethren. We think it a marvellous act of malversation
in a trustee, to benefit himself unjustly out of the funds entrusted to his care.
Wrongs of this kind may appear to be diluted when the national prosperity is
the trust-fund, and the legislative body is the trustee. The largeness, however,
of the transaction, does not diminish the injustice of it, although it may soothe
the conscience, or partially excuse the conduct, of any individual member of the
governing class. By governing class, 1 do not merely mean the legislative bodies,
but I include the electing body, who are of course equally guilty when they clamour
for what they deem their own peculiar interest, instead of calling for just laws.
And they may be sure, that when once the great mass of the people are persuaded
that the injustice which I have spoken of is a ruling principle in any govern-
ment; that government, if it lives, is henceforth based upon fear, and not upon,
affection."

1844.]

Specification of the Glasgow 45 Ton Crane.

241

This chapter, on Social Government, is as true as beautiful ; and illus-
trates quite as much the sensibility and thoughtful nature of our author, as
it shows the principles and conduct, which, carried into effect, would exalt
and purify society. We must give three more extracts, and then our allotted
space will be filled. The concluding quotation is the most enthusiastically
penned passage in the whole work, and near the finish of the Essay. The
first is from what may be called aphorisms addressed to employers, which are
equally applicable to the employed. The passage is on Sympathy.

" Do not dwell more than you can help upon the differences of nature between
yourself and those with whom you live. Consider whether your own vanity is not too
requiring. See that others have not the same complaint to make of your unconge-
niality, that you are, perhaps, prone to make of theirs. If you are, indeed, supe-
rior, reckon it as your constant duty to try and sympathise with those beneath you ;
to mix with their pursuits, as far as you can, and thus, insensibly, to elevate them.
Perhaps there is no mind that will not yield some return for your labour : it seems
the dullest, bleakest rock, not earth enough to feed a nettle ; yet up grows, with
culture, the majestic pine.

" A want of sympathy leads to the greatest ignorance in the intellect as well as in
the heart."

Another great proposal of the day, which our author contends for with a
discernible relish, is the allotment system. But here his opinion differs from
most other writers. He thinks that allotments would be more beneficial to
manufacturing, than rural districts. He urges its adoption eloquently, and
then utters this beautifully benevolent appeal : —

" Is all this romantic ? Is it inevitable that the suburbs of a manufacturing
town must consist of dense masses of squalid habitations, unblest by a proper sup-
ply of air, light, or water; undrained, uncleansed, and unswept ; enjoying only that
portion of civilization which the presence of the police declares ; and presenting a
scene which the better orders hurry by with disgust ? Or, on the contrary, may we
not, without giving ourselves up to Utopian dreams, imagine that we might enter
the busy resorts of traffic through extensive suburbs consisting of cottages with their
bits of land, and see, as we came along, symptoms everywhere of housewifely occu-
pations, and of homes which their humble owners might often think of with pleasure
during their day's labour, looking forward to their return at evening with delight?
The richer classes, even those low down in the scale of wealth, mostly struggle to
secure some portion of country air for themselves : surely they might do their best
to provide for the working man something like a change from the atmosphere of the
factory, or workshop, in which he must pass the greatest part of his day throughout
the whole year."

Altogether, we like this man. He thinks nothing of a difficulty ; and
quotes Lord Lyndhurst, who 3aid, " A difficulty is a thing to be overcome."
" Labour in Factories," the title of the chapter whence these quotations are
taken, is divided into many parts, as, "The Mill;" "The School;"
" The Workman's Home ;" &c. It contains some judiciously selected ex-
tracts from Parliamentary Reports, and is, on the whole, a valuable chapter.
One more quotation, and let our readers make their own comments.

" I suppose there are few readers of history who have not occasionally turned
from its pages with disgust, confusion, a craving for any grounds of disbelief, and a
melancholy°darkness of soul. It can hardly be otherwise, when you read, for in-
stance, of the colossal brutalities of the Roman emperors, many of whom indulged
in a sportive cruelty to their fellow-men, which reminds one of children with in-
sects. When you find, again, some mighty master of the world, renowned for
valour and for prudence, one of those emphatically called the 'good' emperors,
kindly presenting hundreds of men to kill each other for the amusement of the
Roman multitude— when you are told that that multitude contained, what may
have been for that age, good men and gentle women — when, passing lower down the
turbid stream of the recorded past, you read of popes and cardinals, inquisitors and
bishops, men who must have heard from time to time some portions of the holy
words of mercy and of love— when you find them, I say, counselling, and plotting,
and executing, the foulest deeds of blood— when, descending lower still, you ap-
proach those days when law became the tyrant's favourite scourge, and you find the
legal slave telling his master how he has interrogated some poor wretch ' in torture,
before torture, after torture, and between torture,' — when you have some insight
into what that thing torture was, by contrasting the hand-writing of the distracted
sufferer before and after his examination— when, to your surprise, you read that
these very victims of persecution were themselves restless and dissatisfied, unless
they could direct the arm of power against another persecuted race— and when,
coming to your own day, you find that men, separated from you by distance, though not
by time, can show the utmost recklessness of human life, if differently coloured from
their own. Pondering over these things, your heart may well seek comfort in the
thought that these tyrants were, or are, rude men, of iron frame, ready to inflict,
ready themselves to suffer. It is not so. A Nero clings to his own life with
abject solicitude. A Louis the Eleventh, who could keep other men in cages,
■wearies Heaven with prayers, and earth with strange devices, to preserve his own
grotesque existence. A James the First, who can sanction, at the least, if not
direct, the torture to be applied to a poor old clergyman, was yet in the main a soft-
hearted man, can feel most tenderly for a broken limb of any favourite, have an
anxious affection for 'Steenie and Baby Charles,' and an undoubted and provident
regard for his own ' sacred' person.. What shall we say, too, of that chancellor of
his, a man, like his master, of a soft heart, full of the widest humanity, and yet,
as far as we know, unconscious of the horror of those ill doings transacted in his
own great presence? Why is it that I recall these things? Why do I bring for-
ward what many of us, forgetting the iron weight with whicli the sentiments of his
age press down even upon the mightiest genius, might look upon as a humiliating
circumstance far greater than it is, in the life of a man we ought all to love so
vol. n.

much ? Is history a thing done away with ? or is not the past for ever in the
present ? And is it not but too probable that we ourselves are occasionally guilty
of things which, for our lights, are as sad aberrations as those which, in reading of
the past, we have dwelt upon with the profoundest pity, and turned away from in
overwhelming amazement ? Are we quite sure that none of the vices of tyranny
rest with us ? and that we, individually or nationally, have not to answer for any
carelessness of human life, or for any indifference to human suffering?

" What is it that has put a stop to many of the obvious atrocities I allude to as
disgracing the page of history? The introduction of some great idea, the recog-
nition, probably, in some distinct form, of the command ' to do unto others as you
would they should do unto you.' And this is what is wanted with regard to the
relation of the employer and the employed. Once let the minds even of a few men
be imbued with an ampler view of this relation, and it is scarcely possible to esti-
mate the good that may follow. Around that just idea what civilization may not
grow up ! You gaze at the lofty cathedral in the midst of narrow streets and
squalid buildings, but all welcome to your sight as the places where miserable men
first found sanctuary ; you pass on and look with pleasure at the rich shops and
comfortable dwellings ; and then you find yourself amongst ample streets, stately
squares, and the palaces of the great, with their columns and their statues : and if
then you turn your thoughts to the complex varieties of modern life, and the pro-
gress of civilization and humanity, may you not see the same thing there ? how
all that is good, and merciful, and holy, is to be traced up to some cathedral
truths — at first little understood, just restraining rude men from bloody deeds, and
then gradually extending into daily life — being woven into our familiar thoughts,
and shedding light, and security, and sanctity, around us ? And, as the traveller's
first impulse, when he rises in the morning after his journey, is to catch a glimpse
of that famous building which must ever be the most worthy of note in the city ;
so, in your travels, would you not first look for these cathedral truths, and delight to
recognize their beneficent influence wherever you may meet with anything that is
good in man ?"

There is one thing to be said, suggested by this work, of vast importance.
The principles that are set forth to regulate the conduct of masters, are
grander when allied to this reflection, that their inevitable operation on
society is to generate self-government. This is the end of all patriotic and.
philosophical endeavours, or should be. Men should govern each other by
the reaction of earnest endeavours on the part of employers and employed,
and in every other relation in life, to act kindly, and strive to abnegate self.
In this view, the work before us contains so much to the purpose, and is
written with such great talent and care, that it deserves the attention of all.
Let working men think of the doctrines taught, and ponder the suggestions
made in this Essay. Let them consult together, to engender true affection,
and manly feeling between them and their employers. We would not have
them be behind, for the honour of their craft, the credit of humanity. We
have perused this clever Essay with positive and rare enjoyment ; and we
hope that the men of that order, in whose favour it is written, will interest
themselves in it, and second any attempt made on their behalf, or march oa
alone.

Art. IV.— SPECIFICATION OF THE GLASGOW 45 TON CRANE.

A new crane has lately been erected at Glasgow by Messrs. Caird and Co.,
which on being tested broke across the cheeks a little below the pinion
spindle, in consequence, as is supposed, of the bolts which bind the cheeks
together at the bottom having given way. The injury has been repaired, and
now the foundations are said to be very shaky. The plan is bad, and we
give it, as something to be avoided. The sizes of the parts are marked on the
drawing. Those sizes with a line beneath the figures are not the sizes as they
are, but as they ought to be.

No. 1. — Mast, or main spindle, for supporting Crane, 3ft. Gin. diameter,
28ft. in length, of the average thickness of about 7in., to be properly se-
cured into the stone seat by two large cast iron crosses, having ten arms
each ; one of these crosses being already placed under the stone seat, and
the other to be placed on the top thereof, and to be securely connected
to each other with twenty long screwbolts, 2in. diameter. The mast, and
all the other parts of the crane which are of cast iron, must be made of
cold blast Welsh iron, say of Nos. 1 and 3, in equal proportions, or any
other proportion that will give them the greatest strength with the smallest
quantity of metal.

Nos. 2 and 3. — Side frames of 12ft. in height ; average breadth, 3ft. 6in. ;
and average thickness, about 4-iin.

Nos. 4 and 5. — Top and bottom pieces of side frames, average thickness,
about 8 inches ; breadth, varying from 2ft. to 3ft. ; and about 5ft. 6in.
long.

No. 6. — Chain barrel, 2ft. diameter ; average thickness, 2Jin. ; and 5ft.
long.

No. 7. — One spur wheel, lift. 2in. diameter; "win. broad; and 2|in.
pitch.

No. 8. — One spur wheel, 7ft. 9Ain. diameter; 5|in. broad; and 2Jin.
pitch.

Nos. 9, 10, and 11. — Three spur pinions, of corresponding pitches, to
suit the above spur wheels, diameters from 10 to llin.

No. 12. — Malleable iron shaft or jib, made of the best quality of Brad-
ley's L.F. plates, to be, at least, iin. thick, and not less than 9ft. long; or,
if possible, to make them so as four lengths would make up the whole

l i

242

Development of the Treliedral Solid as applied to the Constructive Arts.

[November,

length of jib. Medium diameter of jib, about 27in., and 43ft. in length.
The whole outside of jib to be flush, jointed with counter-sunk rivets, and
i.\\ the joints to be neatly fitted, and a piece of good iron put in the inside,
opposite each butt-end joint, of the same thickness as the plates. The
landings or joints running lengthways of the jib, to go direct from end to
end, and to be well riveted to strong T iron, which is to run the whole
length of jib, all in one piece ; the feather of T iron that projects in-
wards to be at least Gin. broad, and fin. thick ; the other feather to be of
sufficient breadth to secure the landings, say 6in., and -Jin. thick. If iron
of this description cannot be got, to take angle iron of Gin. the one way,
and 3in. the other ; and -Jin. thick the broad way, and £in. thick on the
narrowest ; and secure the two pieces together well with rivets, so as to
form the letter T. There must be four pieces of the above description, so
that four breadths of plates will make up the circumference of jib ; no two
butt-end landings to he together, but to be equally divided into four in a
full-length plate. The two extreme ends of jib to be well secured with two
strong malleable iron rings; the rings to be at least 6in. broad, and fin.
thick, to be neatly fitted to the ends of the T iron, and the outside plate
securely riveted to the rings.

Nos 13 and 14. — Two cast iron sockets, for receiving the top and bottom
ends of jib, to the extent of not less than 3ft., and to be strongly hooped
with malleable iron at the open ends thereof, to prevent liability to acci-
dents that otherwise may occur when heavy weights are suspended.

Nos. 15 and l(i. — Malleable iron stays, of the best description of Low-
moor or Bowlin? iron, 4in. diameter, the under ends of which are to be
properly secured to the top of side frames, and sunk flush therein ; top
ends to be also properly secured to the top socket with the large pin or
centre on which the chain-pulley revolves. The above stays to be all of
hammered iron, and, if possible, each of them to be of one piece from the
forge.

Nos. 17 and 18. — Two low bracket* for supporting jib bars; these
brackets to be supported from the jib, as shown in drawing.

Nos. 19 to 26. — Seven pair of brackets, made of malleable and cast iron,
for supporting the chain carrying rollers.

No. 27. — A strong platform of cast iron, with strong feathers on the
underside, but quite flush above, to be connected to the side cheeks with
strong circular snugs, and to traverse upon rollers at the extremity of the
plate. To be of sufficient strength to turn the crane round with 45 tons
suspended at the extremity of the jib, and to carry the machinery for wind-
ing the crane round. The above platform will require to be about 19ft.
diameter, so as to cover the wheel or segment that is to be fixed to the top
of the building.

Nos. 30 and 31. — End section of large spur segment secured to the stone
seat under the large revolving plate.

No. 32. — One spur pinion for working in large spur segments.
No. 33. — Malleable iron spindle for said spur pinion.
No. 34. — One pair of bevil wheels, with malleable iron shafts and cranks ;
the horizontal shaft to lie r. cross the crane (not as shown on plan), so as to
get two cranks applied instead of one. The whole of this small gearing to
be of sufficient strength to turu round the crane with 45 tons suspended at
the extreme end of the jib. This small gearing must also be so constructed
that four men shall be able to turn the crane with the above weight sus-
pended as described.

No. 35. — Cast iron box for enclosing'the machinery of jib in motion,
of crane and sole plate.

Nos. 36 and 42. — Seven cast iron pillars for carrying chain.
No. 43. — Crane chain, of the very best iron, Ifin. diameter.
No. 44. — Represents block, with pulley; the pulley to be at least 2ft.
diameter, and of a width that will allow a If in. chain to pass on it with
ease.

The contractor to have the power to make any part or parts of the crane
stronger than herein specified, if he should think such alteration necessary;
but in no case to make them weaker, or of inferior materials. The crane
is to be fitted up on the seat which has been erected on the south side of the
harbour ; and when fitted up and finished, so as to be fit for working, it
shall be proved, in presence of the Trustees and their Engineer, by raising
a load of 45 tons from the floor of the quay, and depositing it into a vessel
floating in the harbour alongside of the quay. Again, the same load of 45
tons shall he raised by the crane from the vessel, and deposited upon the
quay where it had been taken from- The crane must revolve completely
round with a load of 45 tons.

It is to be understood, that any time during the execution of this crane,
that the Trustees reserve full power to themselves to make, any altera-
tions which they or their Engineer may deem an improvement, in giving
additional strength or power to any part of the machinery of the crane ;
and any extra or additional work which may be executed by the Contractors,
under the authority of the Trustees or their Engineer, in this respect, shall
be paid for according to the valuation of two working engineers; one to be
named by the Trustees, and another by the Contractors, with power to
name a third, should any difference of opinion arise.

As the individual proposing to execute this crane shall be held respon-
sible that it shall carry 45 tons, and be constructed in a strong and work-
manlike manner, it is necessary to observe, and be it understood, that
although a plan has been drawn out of a crane, yet any person proposing
to execute it under such responsibility, may, if he should think proper,

suggest any alterations as to its construction, principle, and strength, or he
may give in a design or plan, with a written description illustrative of bis
ideas regarding it, along with the tender which he may send in for its
execution.

Art. V.— DEVELOPMENT OF THE TREHEDRAL SOLID
AS APPLIED TO THE CONSTRUCTIVE ARTS.

There is no known principle that can be applied to the formation of a simple
roof more generally useful than is the development of the triangular pyramid
or treliedral solid ; and yet there is nothing in the whole range of architecture
and constructive carpentry that is less studied, or more imperfectly under-
stood by practical men. It is difficult to assign a reason for this state of
things, since the subject itself presents nothing that is intricate, or hard to be
overcome ; and in this age of improvement and general thirst for scientific
knowledge, we are convinced that there are but few artizans who cannot trace
and comprehend the description of a geometrical diagram. Perhaps the scar-
city of knowledge that exists in respect of the development here alluded to,
may be attributed to the circumstance, that there are no books in the English
language drawn up expressly oh this part of geometrical science, if we except
the treatise on goniometry by Lieutenant Coles, — a very elegant and inge-
nious, but a scarce and little known performance.

It is true that writings on spherical trigonometry, both ancient and modern,
are very numerous : this, however, is a branch of science comparatively but
little understood ; and those who have been at the pains to expound and de-
monstrate its principles have neglected to show, that besides its uses as applied
to geography, dialing, navigation, astronomy , and other kindred subjects, it
is also of the greatest utility as an instrument of calculation in architecture
and the constructive arts. Indeed, in all cases of practical inquiry in which
the intersections of planes occur, the principles of spherical trigonometry be-
come available. It is not however, necessary, in applying those principles to
mechanical arrangements, to consider the various circles on the sphere, or to
employ the signs, symbols, and terms peculiar to astronomy and its kindred
branches. The fact is, that the fewer of those signs and symbols we employ
the simpler the subject becomes ; and for this reason we shall consider the
development or expansion of the triangular pyramid, without relation to the
departments that we have specified above, viewing it solely as dependent on
the principles and terms peculiar to itself.

Definitions and principles. — A triangular pyramid, or treliedral solid,
is a solid body, comprehended under three triangular planes, whose edges
mutually coincide, and whose vertices meet in the same point. If we omit the
consideration of the base, a trehedral solid may be conceived to consist of six
parts, namely, the mutual inclinations of its edges, taken two and two, and the
mutual inclinations of its constituent planes ; the former of these, that is, the
inclination of the edges, being measured by the angles at the vertices of the
bounding planes ; and the latter, or the mutual inclinations of the planes, by
an angle contained under two straight lines, which being drawn, one in
each of two contiguous planes, to the same point of their common edge or
intersection, are respectively perpendicular to their common intersection, or
the line in which the contiguous edges coincide.

The angle at the vertex of the pyramid, or trehedral solid, formed by the
mutual coincidence of the sides or edges of the triangular planes, is called a
solid angle; and it is a magnitude of such a nature, that any two of its con-
stituent plane angles must together be greater than the third ; and all the three
plane angles taken together must be less than four right angles, or 360 degrees.
The reasons for these limitations is perfectly obvious ; for if the conditions be
violated in either case, a pyramid cannot be formed of the given planes, and
consequently our reasoning cannot be applied to it. But the reader will find
the demonstration of both conditions in the 20th and 21st propositions of the
11th book of Euclid's " Elements of Geometry."

The triangular pyramid, or the trehedral solid, as we have here defined it,
can readily be assimilated to a hipped or pavilion roof in the practice of con-
structive carpentry ; for if we refer to the angle of the building, or the point
in which the hip rafter meets the wall, it manifestly corresponds to the vertex
of the pyramid ; whilst the plan of the roof, together with the side and the end
of its elevation, constitute the bounding planes of the solid. The same assi-
milation may be made, if we refer to the point in which the two hip rafters
meet the ridge. This point corresponds to the vertex of the pyramid, and the
bounding planes are repectively represented by the sides and the end of the
roof, two of the bounding planes in this case being necessarily equal to each
other, an equality that may or may not occur in the case previously men-
tioned.

If we conceive a vertical plane to pass through the hip rafter and its projec-
tion or seat on the plan of the roof, this plane will divide the pyramid first
mentioned into two others, each of which will have two of its bounding planes
at right angles to one another, viz., the common vertical cutting plane, by
which the separation is made, and that portion of the plan on each side of the
cutting plane, or on each side of the projection of the hip rafter.

From what has been said above, it will readily be perceived that all the parts
of the figure that enter into calculation are expressed in angular magnitudes ;
and hence it follows, that when one or other of the parts that are required by
the conditions of the problem has to be represented in linear measures, it is

1844.]

Development of the Treheclral Solid as applied to the Constructive Arts.

243

absolutely necessary that some known dimension of the roof should be ex-
pressed in the same measures, otherwise no comparison can be made between
the things that constitute the data and those that the problem requires to
be found.

Since the three triangular planes that form the solid angle at the vertex
are the sides of the pyramid, it will, in order to avoid verbosity or circumlo-
cution in description, he convenient lo call the angles of the vertices of the
containing planes the sides, and the mutual inclinations of the planes to one
another the angles; but in the case where two of the planes are perpendicu-
lar to each other, the angles at the vertices of the perpendicular planes
may, for distinction's sake, he called the legs, while that at the vertex of
the plane, subtending the right angle, is called the hypothenuse ; and the
figure itself may be distinguished by the name of the right-angled triangular
pyramid, or the rigid-angled trehedral solid.

These several particulars being premised, we shall now proceed to the de-
velopment or expansion of the figure upon a plane ; and, for the purpose of
rendering the subject as plain and intelligible as possible, it will be conve-
nient to begin with the right-angled trehedral solid, or that in which two of
the bounding planes are perpendicular to one another.

Let AVBC, fig. 1, be a trehedral solid, contained under the three triangu-
lar planes AVB, BVC, and AVC, all concurring in the same point V, and

Fig. 1.

having their edges or sides mutually coincident in the straight lines VA
VB, andVC, and let the two planes, AVB and BVC, be perpendicular to one
another ; then will the right angle, or that contained between the said planes
AVB and BVC, be subtended by the third plane or hypothenuse AVC.

Now, according to the foregoing definitions, the angles AVB and BVC, at
the vertices of the two perpendicular planes, are the legs of the pyramid ; and
the anffle AVC, at the vertex of the plane subtending the inclination of the
other two, is the hypothenuse.

The triangular base ABC, it may be remarked, has no place in any of the
calculations arising from the expansion of the figure. It is represented in
the diagram merely for the purpose of defining the solid, and giving the
reader a proper idea of its form and constitution. The case, however, is dif-
ferent with respect to the edges of the planes, or the straight lines AV, BV,
and CV ; for, in every instance where the development of the figures is ap-
plied to the determination of some linear dimension, one or other of those
lines, according to the conditions of the problem, must possess a specific nu-
merical value.

To proceed with the development of the figure, let us suppose that the
angle at the vertex of the plane AVC, or that which subtends the right angle,
is given, together with the angle of its inclination to the plane AVB, and
let it be required to develope or expand the pyramid or trehedral solid upon a
plane. The problem, however, may be stated in other words, viz., Given
the hypothenuse undone of the acute angles to develope the solid.

Draw the straight line VC, fig. 2, to represent the line of common intersec-
tion between the hypothenuse and that leg of the pyramid of which the inclin-
ation is given ; that is, the common section of the planes AVC and BVC ;then,
at the vertex V make the angle AVC equal to the given hypothenuse or plane

Fig. 2.

subtending the right angle of inclination. In VA, one edge of the given
plane, take any point A at pleasure, no matter where situated, ai'd from the
point A thus assumed, draw AC perpendicular to VC, the common section
of the planes AVC and BVC, and extend AC directly forward, as far as ne-
cessary. At the point C make the angle ECB equal to the given angle of
inclination between the planes AVC and BVC ; and on C, as a centre, with
the perpendicular CA as a radius, describe the circular arc AaE, intersecting
CE in E ; then is CE equal to CA. From the point E let fall the perpendi-
cular EB, meeting AC produced in B, and draw BV to the vertex at V ; so
shall BVC be that leg or side of the pyramid that is inclined to the given
plane or hypothenuse AVC, in an angle equal to BCE. At the point B in the
straight line VB erect the perpendicular BO ; and on B as a centre, with BE
as a radius, describe the circular arc E&D, making BD in D ; draw DV to
the centre or vertex V, and BVD will be the other leg or constituent plane
of the solid. From the point C draw the perpendicular CF, meeting VB,
the common section of the planes BVC and BVD, in the point F ; and from F
let fall the perpendicular FG, meeting VD in G. On F as a centre, with the
perpendicular FG as a radius, describe the circular arc GcH, meeting VB in
H, and draw CH ; then is CHF the inclination of the plane BVD to the
given hypothenusal plane AVC ; so that the figure thus formed exhibits the
full development or expansion of the trehedral solid ; the planes BVC and
BVD being those that are perpendicular to each other, their common inter-
section being VB, and their inclination aright angle equal to CBE ; whilst
AVC is the third plane, subtending the inclination of the other two, and the
angles BCE and FHC are the angles of inclination between AVC and the
perpendicular planes BVC and BVD respectively. This very simple and
elegant delineation of the figure conveys to the mind a perfect idea of its
nature, and leads us directly to the composition of the solid, which is effected
in the following manner :

Let the planes AVC and BCE be respectively turned about the lines VC and
BC, until the straight line AC coincides with CE, and the point A with the
point E, a coincidence that will obviously take place, since CE by construc-
tion is equal to AC; then will the plane BCE be perpendicular to the plane
BVC. Again, let the plane BVD be turned about the line VB, until BE coin-
cides with BD, and the point E with the point D, a coincidence that will also
take place, because by construction BD is equal BE ; this, therefore, being
admitted, the lines VA and VD will coincide, for they also are equal by the
construction ; and if the triangle FHC be turned about the line FC, then will
FH coincide with FG, and CH with CI, which is perpendicular to VA ; and,
in consequence of these concidences the truth of the development becomes
manifest. Having thus determined the several parts of the figure by deve-
lopment or construction, it will greatly enhance the utility of the subject to
show how the same things are to be determined by calculation ; and for this
purpose —

Put a = AVC, the angle at the vertex of the hypothenusal plane, or that
subtending the right-angle.

h = BVC, the angle at the vertex of one of the perpendicular planes,

c = BVD, the angle at the vertex of the other perpendicular plane;

B = FHC, the inclination of the planes AVC and BVD, or that sub-
tended by the plane BVC.

C = BCE, the inclination of the planes AVC and BVC, or that sub-
tended by the plane BVD.

The right angle being constant, it does not enter the calculations ; and for
this reason it is not represented.

The calculation may be effected in various ways, dependent on the part that
we. assume as the radius: thus, for instance, if we assume AVas radius, AC
will be the sine of the angle AVC, and VC is cosine ; but if VC be taken as
radius, then AV is the secant of the angle AVC, and AC its tangent. Now
CE, by the construction, is equal to AC ; therefore CE is the sine or tan-
gent of the angle AVC, according as AVor VC is made the radius. In the
first place we shall make AV the radius ; then the values of the several parts
that arise from this assumption will be as marked on the figure ; conse-
quently, to find the leg BVC, or the angle at the vertex of the plane
CVB, we have first to find the value of the line CB which subtends it ; and,
for this purpose, the rules of trigonometry give rad. : CE :: cos. BCE : BC ;
or, by employing the appropriate symbols, it is rad. : sin. a :: cos. C : BC =
sin. a cos. C : then in the right-angled triangle VCB we have given the two
sides VC and BC to find the angle BVC = i. Therefore, by the rules of
trigonometry we have VC : BC :: rad. : tan. BVC ; and restoring the sym-
bols and proper values, we get cos. a : sin. a cos. C :: rad. : tan. 4 = tan. a
cos. C. Hence, to find the leg adjacent to the given angle, or to find that
side of the pyramid whose inclination to the given plane is known, the rule in
words is as follows : —

Rule. — Multiply the natural tangent of the hypothenusal plane by the
natural cosine of its inclination to the required plane, and the pro-
duct will be the natural tangent of the leg sought ; or, add the
logarithms for the logarithic tangent.
Example. — If the angle at the vertex of the hypothenusal plane be 32° 30',
and its inclination to one of the perpendicular planes 62 , what is the mag-
nitude of the angle at the vertex of the plane whose inclination to the hypo-
thenuse is given ?

The natural tangent of 32° 30' is 0'63707, and the natural cosine of 62° is
0-469-17; therefore, by the rule it is 0-63707 x 0-46947 = 0'29907, which is

244

Development of the Trehedral Solid as applied to the Constructive Arts.

[November,

the natural tangent of the angle BVC ; therefore we have 5 = 16° 39' very
nearly, as found from the trigonometrical tables. The logarithmic process,
which should always be employed in cases of this nature, is as follows : —

Angle in the hypothenusal plane 32° 30' = a
Inclination of the given and required planes 62°

. log. tan. 9-8041873
= C'log. cos. 9-6716093

Angle in the required plane 16° 39' = 5 .... log. tan. 9-4757966

In order to determine the angle at the vertex of the plane BVD, that is,
the other leg or side of the pyramid, it becomes necessary to calculate the
value of the perpendicular BD, which by construction is equal to BE ; but
DV is equal to AV ; therefore, in the triangle VBD right-angled at B, the
perpendicular BD is the sine of the angle BVD to radius DV or AV. By the
principles of plane trigonometry, we have rad. : CE :: sin. BCE : BE = BD;
consequently, by restoring- the symbols and proper values of the several
quantities, we have sin. e = sin. a, sin. C, an expression which simply implies
that the. sine of the given hypothenusal plane is to be multiplied by the sine
of the given inclination, to obtain the sine of the angle at the vertex of the
required plane. Now, the natural sine of 32° 30' is 0-53730 ; and that of
62° is 0-8B295 ; therefore, by multiplication we have 0-5373^0-88295 =
0-47429, which is the natural sine of the angle at the vertex of the plane
BVD, so that e = 28° 19' very nearly. When the calculation is performed
logarithmically it stands as below : —

log. sin. 9-7302165
log, sin. 9-9459349

Angle in the hypothenusal plane 32° 30' = a .
Angle opposite to the required plane 62° = C

Angle at the vertex of the required plane 28° 19' = e log. sin. 9"6761514

These operations are as simple and practical as can be wished for, having
simply to multiply two numbers together, or, to avoid the tediousness of mul-
tiplication, to add the logarithms of the given quantities together for the
logarithmic sine of the required quantity. We have stated, that by dropping
the consideration of the right angle the solid figure consists of only five parts
that become the objects of calculation, namely, three sides and two acute
angles ; and in the case of the right-angled trehedral, when any two of those
five parts are given, the other three can always he found ; hence it follows,
that the solution of the problem is not yet complete, for our calculation has
hitherto had respect to the determination of the angles at the vertices of the
two perpendicular planes ; and having one of the acute angles given, it
therefore remains to determine the other acute angle ; that is, the angle
that we have designated by B in our notation, and the theorem for finding
its value in terms of the given parts, is cot. B = cos. a tan. C, which again
implies that the natural cosine of the angle at the vertex of the hypothenu-
sal plane is to be multiplied by the natural tangent of the given inclination,
and the product will be the natural cotangent of the required angles. The
natural cosine of 32° 30' is 0-84339, and the natural tangent of 62° is
1-88073; therefore, by multiplication we get 0-84339 x 1-88073 = 1-58617,
being the natural cotangent of 32° 14' ; this is the value of the angle sought ;
and the process, when performed by logarithms, is as underneath : —

Angle in the hypothenusal plane 32° 30' = <
Angle of inclination given 62° = C . .

Angle of inclination required 32° 14'=B

. log. cos. 9-9250292
. log. tan. 10-2743256

. . log. cot. 10-2003548

The solution of the problem here given may he considered as a general
one, since all the parts of the figure are represented in it ; but in practice it
is only particular cases that are required for any definite construction, and
this renders the solution a matter of extreme simplicity ; it will, therefore,
be useful to show, in a few instances, how those particular cases are to be
resolved ; but, in the first place, it may be proper to state what the cases are
for which the solutions are required. We reckon them according to the
manner in which the data are proposed, and not by the number of parts re-
quired to be found. By the latter method the varieties would be very nu-
merous— not less than eighteen ; and by the latter they are limited to six :
they are as follows : —

1. The hypothenusal plane, and its inclination to one of the perpendicular
planes or legs.

2. The hypothenusal plane, and one of the perpendicular planes or legs of
the solid.

3. One of the perpendicular planes, and its adjacent angle or inclination to
the hypothenusal plane.

4. One of the perpendicular planes and its opposite angle, or the inclina-
tion of the other perpendicular plane to the hypothenuse.

5. The two perpendicular planes or legs of the figure. And,

6. Their respective inclinations to the hypothenuse.

These are the several ways in which the data, or given parts of the figure,
may be combined ; but it must be observed, that for each combination there
are three parts of the figure to be determined, or three distinct operations to
be performed, i'n order to give a complete solution to the question ; but
since this variety of operations are seldom required to be performed in actual
practice, we shall at present confine our attention only to those that are most
useful, and the most likely to be applied in the constructive arts.

Case 1. Haviug given the angle at the vertex of the hypothenusal plane,

and the inclination of the hypothenuse to one of the perpendicular planes
or legs of the solid ; to find the angle at the vertex of the said perpendicu-
lar plane.

The attentive reader will readily perceive, that the case here proposed is
only a part of the general problem previously resolved ; and it is repeated
here for the purpose of separating the steps of the construction, by which
means the process will be more easily understood.

Let the straight line VC, fig. 3, be drawn in any direction, and of any
length, at pleasure, to represent the line of common section between the given
and required planes. At the point V, which may be considered as the ver-

Fig. 3.

tex of the pyramid or trehedral solid, make the angle AVC equal to the
given angle at the vertex of the hypothenusal plane. In VA, the other edge
of the given plane, assume any point A, no matter where situated in respect
of the vertex V ; and from the point A, thus assumed, let fall the straight
line AC to meet VC, the common section, perpendicularly in C ; and extend.
AC directly forward, to any length that may be required. At the point C
make the angle BCE equal to the given inclination between the hypothe-
nuse and the required plane, and set off CE equal to CA ; then from the
point E let fall the perpendicular EB, meeting AC produced inB, and draw
BV ; therefore BVC will be the required plane or leg of the solid, adjacent
to the given inclination.

The straight lines AC and BC are each of them perpendicular to VC, the
common section of the planes AVC and BVC, and they meet it in the same
point C ; but AC is equal to CE by the construction ; consequently, if the
planes AVC and ECB be respectively turned upon the lines VC and CB until
CA and CE coincide ; then will the plane BCE be perpendicular to the com-
mon section VC ; and for this reason the angle at C, in the plane BCE, must
measure the inclination of the given plane AVC to the required one BVC,
so that the latter is simply the orthographic projection of the former. The
method of calculation is perfectly obvious ; for if we consider VC as radius,
and assume its value equal to unity, then VC becomes the secant of the
angle AVC ; AC its tangent, and BC is, for the same reason, the tangent of
the required angle BVC : but CE is equal to CA, therefore CE is equal to
the tangent of the angle AVC, and is consequently given ; hence, in the
right-angled triangle BCE there are given all the angles and the side CE to
find the side BC ; which, as we have just stated, is the tangent of the required
angle at the vertex of the plane BVC.

If it were required to determine, from the same combination of data, the
side or leg of the trehedral that subtends-the given inclination, the operation
will be somewhat different, but not difficult, as will be seen by the following
process : —

Let AVC, fig. 4, be the given hypothenusal plane, and let VAbe the line
of common section between it and the plane which is required to be found ;

Fig. 4.

1844.]

Development of the Trehedral Solid as applied to the Constructive Arts.

VC being the common section between the given hypothenuse and the third
side of the trehedral, or that which is opposite the given inclination. In
VA take any point A ; and from A let fall the perpendicular AC, meeting
VC in C. At the point C in VC, make the angle ACB equal to the given
inclination, and from A let fall the perpendicular AB ; then, on VA
as a diameter, describe the semicircle AEV; and in A as a centre, with the
distance AB previously determined, describe the circular arc BSE, intersect-
ing the semicircle AEV in E, and draw AE, VE ; then shall AVE be the
required plane, which is opposite to or subtends the given inclination
ACB.

The method of calculation in this case is also obvious ; for, if we suppose
VA to be the radius, and assume its value equal to unity, then AC and AE
are respectively the sines of the angles AVC and AVE, at the vertices of the
given and required planes ; but AE is by construction equal to AB, conse-
quently the determination of the angle AVE depends upon that of AB.
Now, in the right-aDgied triangle ABC, right-angled at B, there are given
all the angles and the hypothenuse AC to find the side AB, which is oppo-
site to the given angle of inclination ; but, by the rules of plane trigonometry,
AB, the required side, is expressed by the product of the hypothenuse AC,
drawn into the sine of the angle ACB ; and we have seen above that AC is
equal to the sine of the angle AVC at the vertex of the given plane : the value
of AB, or its equal AE, is therefore expressed by the sine of the angle AVC,
drawn into the sine of the angle ACB, and from this the angle AVE becomes
known.

The composition of the solid in this construction is equally as simple as in
that which precedes it ; for we have only to elevate the planes AVE and ACB
upon the lines AV and AC, until AE and AB coincide in all their parts,
and the thing is done. The two planes that we have thus determined from
the same combination of data, have been directly obtained, without the
necessity of any subsidiary process, or the previous finding of any other part
of the figure ; but, in order to determine the angle of inclination between
the planes AVC and AVE, we must first assign the position and magnitude
of one or other of the perpendicular planes BVC, in fig. 3, or AVE, in fig. 4.
Indeed, the problem is most readily resolved by developing them both; but
we shall here show how it is found from that plane only whose inclination it
measures. Thus, in VA, the line of common intersection between the planes
AVC and AVE, take any point F at pleasure,* and through the point F,
thus assumed, draw the straight line GFH, perpendicular to AV, and meet-
ing VC and VE respectively, in the points G and H ; then, upon FH as a
diameter, describe the semicircle FIH, in which inflect the straight line FI,
equal to FG, and draw HI, 30 shall IFH be the angle of inclination between
the planes AVC and AVE.

The principles of calculation being so obvious, and having already been
given in the general construction, fig. 2, it is needless to repeat the details ;
we therefore proceed with the next case of the general problem, according
to the order of our arrangement, which is as follows : —

Case 2. — Having given the angle at the vertex of the hypothenusal plane,
and also that at the vertex of one of the perpendicular planes, to find the
angle at the vertex of the other perpendicular plane. Or the problem may
be briefly stated in the following terms : — Given the hypothenuse and one
leg to find the other leg.

The construction of this case, like those that have gone before it, is very
simple ; and the principles of calculation, as deduced from the development,
are almost self-evident. Thus, let AVC and BVC, fig. 5, be the given hy-
pothenuse and leg of the trehedral
solid respectively, and let it be re-
quired to find the other leg, or the
angle BVD. In VC, which is the
line of common section of the planes
AVC and BVC, take any point C at
pleasure, agreeably to the note for
the preceding case ; then, at the
point C thus assumed, let CA and
CB be drawn respectively perpendi-
cular to VC, and meeting AV and
BV in the points A and B, thus
limiting the planes AVC and BVC.
From the point C demit the perpen-
diculars CI and CF, intersecting
AV and BV in I and F ; then on
VF, as a diameter, describe the
semicircle VGF ; and in the point
V as a centre, with the distance,
VI, as a radius, describe the cir-
cular arc, I b G, intersecting the
semicircle VGF in G, and join VG.
At the point B, whose position has
been fixed by a previous process,
draw BD at right angles to BV, and
meeting VG produced in D ; then
shall BVD be the plane or leg of the
solid which the problem requires to
be found. The composition of the
solid is effected by simply turning

Fig. 5.

the planes AVC and BVD about the lines of common intersection, VC and
VB, until the lines AV and DV, which are equal, shall coincide in all their
parts, the point A falling upon the point D. The principles of calculation
will be readily deduced from the following considerations; viz., that if VC
be made radius, having its value represented by unity, the straight lines CI
and CF are respectively the sines of the angles AVC and BVC to the as-
sumed radius VC ; and VI, VF, are the cosines of the same angles ; but VG,
by the nature of the construction, is equal to VI, and, consequently, VG is
also equal to the cosine of the hypothenusal plane, AVC ; therefore, in the
right-angled triangle, BVD, there are given the hypothenuse VFand the side
VG to find the angle GVF, which by the rules of trigonometry is easily
found ; for we have only to multiply the cosine of the angle in the hypothe-
nusal plane by the secant of the angle in the other given plane, and the pro-
duct will be the cosine of the angle BVD, being that which the problem
requires to be found. To find the angle which measures the inclination be-
tween the given planes AVC and BVC, we must refer the reader to the figure
marked c, and the process of construction is as follows : — At the point B, in
the straight line CB, erect the perpendicular BE ; and atC, with the distance
or perpendicular, CA, intersect BE in E, and join CE ; then shall BCE be
the inclination sought. The principles of calculation are as follows : — Making
VC radius, then AC and CB are respectively the tangents of the angles AVC
and BVC ; but CE, by construction, is equal to AC ; therefore, in the right-
angled triangle BCE, we have given the hypothenuse CE, and side CB, to
find the angle BCE, or that which measures the inclination of the given
planes. Now, by referring to the rules of plane trigonometry, we find that
the cosine of the required angle is equal to the cotangent of the angle at the
vertex of the hypothenusal plane multiplied by the tangent of the angle at
the vertex of the other given plane. Lastly, to find the angle which is oppo-
site to the given plane BVC, or that which measures the inclination of the
two planes AVC and BVD. About the point C as a centre, with the dis-
tance, CI, as a radius, describe the circular arc IK meeting the straight line
BV in the point K, and draw CK ; then is CKF the angle sought. The cal-
culation is obvioss ; for if VC be made the radius, CI and CF are respec-
tively the sines of the angles in the given planes ; but CK is equal to CI by
construction ; therefore CK is equal to the sine of the angle in the given
plane AVC ; consequently, in the right-angled triangle CFK, right-angled at
F, we have given the hypothenuse CK, and the perpendicular CF, to find
the angle CKF ; and, by the rules of trigonometry, the sine of CKF is ex-
pressed by the product of the cosecant of the angle in the hypothenusal
plane, drawn into the sine of the angle in the given perpendicular plane.

We shall pass over the illustration of the third and fourth cases, as the
several particulars respecting them can easily be deduced from what has
already been done ; but the fifth case requires our particular attention, as we
mean to apply it to the solution of one of the most important and interesting
problems in Masonry : we allude to the construction of the Skewed or
Oblique Arch.

Case 5. — Given the angles at the vertices of the two perpendicular planes
or legs of the trehedral solid, to find the two inclinations and the hypo-
thenuse.

"•Let BVC, BVD, fig. 6, be the two given perpendicular planes, of which
BV is the line of common section ; and let it be required to determine the
angle of inclination between each of these planes and the hypothenuse, as
well as the hypothenuse itself. First, to find the angle BCE ; that is, the

Fig. 6.

* The circumstance of being enabled to assume any point at pleasure in the
lines of this kind of projection, without affecting the results, renders it extremely
simple in its nature, and convenient aB an instrument of calculation, while at the
same time it tends to show the universality of its principles. Our readers will be
benefited by attending to this remark.

24-6

Development of the Trehedral Solid as applied to the Constructive Arts.

[November,

angle of inclination between the hypothenuse AVC and the plane BVC. In
the straight line VC take any point C at pleasure ; and at the point C, thus
assumed, erect the perpendicular CB, meeting BV, the line of common sec-
tion of the given planes, in the point B ; and at the point B in VB erect the
perpendicular BD meeting DV in the point D. Through the point B, and
parallel to VC, draw the straight line BE, and make BE equal to BD ; then,
if EC be drawn to join the points C and E, the angle BCE thus formed is
that required by the problem. Having thus found the angle contained be-
tween the hypothenuse and the given plane BVC, the composition of the
solid, so far as it can be at present effected, is done by simply turning the
planes BVD upon the lines BV and BC, until BD and BE, which are equal,
coincide in all their parts ; then will the planes BVC and BVD be perpen-
dicular to one another. The hypothenusal plane not being yet determined,
the figure cannot be completed by turning the plane AVC about the straight
line VC until it is so. The calculation of the angle BCE is readily deduced
from this construction ; for, making BV the common section of the given
planes the radius whose value is unity, the perpendicular BC becomes the
sine of the angle BVC to that radius, while BD is the tangent of the angle
BVD ; but BE is, by construction, equal to BD ; consequently, BE is equal
to the tangent of the given angle BVD ; hence, in the right-angled triangle
BCE, rigbt-angled at B, there are given the two sides BC and BE to find
the angle at C, which is subtended by the perpendicular BE. Now, by the
rules of plane trigonometry, the tangent of the angle BCE is expressed by
the product of the cosecant of BVC into the tangent of BVD, and is there-
fore easily determined.

Next, to find the angle FKC ; that is, the angle of inclination between the
hypothenuse AVC and the given plane BVD. In the straight line VC take
any point C, from which let fall the perpendicular CF, meeting BV, the
common section of the given planes, in F. From the point F let fall the
perpendicular FG, meeting DV in G ; make FK equal to FG, and draw CK
connecting the point C with the point K ; then is CKF the required angle,
or that which measures the inclination between the hypothenuse and the
given plane BVD. The composition of the solid, in this case, is similar to
that which we have described above ; for we have only to turn the planes
BVD and CKF respectively about the lines BV and CF, until GF and FK
coincide in every part, then will the planes BVC and BVD be perpendicular
to each other, as before. The calculation, too, is similar to what it was, in
the foregoing step ; for if VF be made the radius whose value is unity, FC
will be the tangent of the angle FVC to that radius, and FG is the sine of
the angle FVG ; but FK, by construction, is equal to FG ; consequently, in
the right-angled triangle CKF, right-angled at F, there are given the' two
sides CF and KF to find the angle CKF ; which, by the rules of plane tri-
gonometry, is such, that its cotangent is expressed by the product of the
cotangent of the angle FVC drawn into the sine of the angle FVG.

Lastly, to find the hypothenuse AVC ; in the straight line VC, which is
the line of common section of the required hypothenuse and the given plane
BVC, take any point C at pleasure, and from C let fall the perpendicular
CF, meeting BV in F, and from F let foil the perpendicular FG, meeting
DV in G ; then, on VC as a diameter, describe the semicircle CIV, and
make VI equal to VG ; produce VI and BC to meet each other in the
yoint A, and draw CI ; then shall AVC be the required hypothenuse, where
it will be perceived that AV and AC are respectively equal to DV and CE.
The composition of the entire solid can now be effected, since all the parts
have been found ; and, to accomplish this, let the planes AVC, BVD, BCE,
and FKC, be respectively turned about the lines VC, VB, BC, and FC, until
AV and DV coincide in all their parts, the point A falling on the point D.
Mso, the straight lines AC and CE will then coincide, as well as BE, BD,
and FK, FG, the point E meeting, with D and K, with G : in this state of
universal coincidence, we have a perfect right-angled trehedral solid.

The principles of calculation for the hypothenuse are easily traced ; for if
VF be made the radius whose value is unity, then VC is the secant of the
angle AV, and VG the cosine of te angle BVD, both of which are given;
but VI, by the construction, is equal to VG ; therefore VI is equal to the
cosine of BVD, and VIC is a right angle : hence it follows, that in the
right-angled triangle CIV, there are given the hypothenuse VC, and the
base, VI, to find the angle IVC ; and for this purpose, the rules of plane
trigonometry instruct us to multiply together the cosines of the given angles
BVC and BVD, and the product will be the cosine of the required angle
AVC, being the angle at the vertex of the hypothenusal plane, or that which
subtends the right angle of the solid figure.

Such, then, is the process of development for the most important and
useful cases in which the triangular pyramid, (or as we have conventionally
termed it, the trehedral solid,) presents itself to our consideration in the
practice of the Constructive Arts. We have purposely omitted the delinea-
tion and details of the third, fourth and sixth cases in the order of arrange-
ment, and for this reason, that all the varieties of the third and fourth can
easily be deduced from those that precede them, and the sixth, having refer-
ence only to the inclinations of the perpendicular planes to the hypothenuse,
very seldom occurs in problems connected with the Building Arts, and con-
sequently, it is not of sufficient importance (b practical men, to entitle it to a
separate consideration ; the accompanying table however, contains the whole
of the formula: that can arise from the complete development of all the cases
and varieties of the right-angled trehedral solid, and from the very concise
and comprehensive form in which the equations are given, it is presumed that
the practical reader will find them of the greatest utility, not only as instru-

ments of calculation in what relates to their own professions, but as a code
of useful and interesting rules connected with other branches of science, such
as Sciagraphy, Geography , Astronomy, &c, &c.

Table of Equations for the Right-angled Trehedral Solid.

Equations for the hypothenuse a.

1

SB

2

cC

3

bC

4

Be

5

be

6

BC

sin. a = sin. b cosec. B
sin. a = sin. c cosec. C
cot. a = cot. b cos. C
cot. a = cot. c cos. B
cos. a = cos. b cos. c
cos. a = cot. B cot. C

to

Equations for the base b.

1

sB

2

cC

3

aC

4

Be

5

ac

6

BC

sin. b = sin. a sin. B
sin. b = tan. c. cot. C
cot. b = cot. a sec. C
cot. b = cot. B cosec. c
cos. b = cos. a sec. c
cos. b = cos. B cosec. C

Equations for the perpendicular C.

1

aC

2

JB

3

«B

4

bC

5

a b

6

BC

sin. c = sin. a sin. C
sin. c = tan. b cot. B
cot. c = cot. a sec. B
cot. c = cot. C cosec. b
cos. c = cos. a sec. b
cos. e = cos. C cosec. B

Equations for the angle B.

1

a b

2

cC

3

aC

4

be

5

a c

C

bC

sin. B = sin. b cosec. a
sin. B = sec. c cos. C
cot. B = cos. a tan. C
cot. B = cot. b sin. c
cos. B = cot. a tan. c
cos. B = cos. b sin. C

Equations for the angle C.

1

ac

2

bB

3

aB

4

be

5

a b

6

cB

sin. C = sin. c cosec. a
sin. C = sec. b cos. B
cot. C = cos. a tan. B
cot. C = cot. c sin. b
cos. C = cot. a tan. b
cos. C = cos. e sin. B

The formulae here tabulated, exhibit the solutions of all the cases and va-
. rieties that can occur in the application and development of the right-angled
trehedral solid, commonly known as the right-angled triangular pyramid.
The object attained by this arrangement is the ready and expeditious disco-
very of the particular theorem that applies directly to the resolution of the
problem in hand, the business of reference being reduced to the selection of
one of six formulas, which being placed in one compartment of the table, are
by this means brought immediately before the eye of the reader, and in con-
sequence the requisite theorem for any particular case is found at a single
glance. The equations are all resolved, and being represented in their ulti-
mate state can be applied directly according to the process indicated by the
combination of the terms composing the equation. The operation to be per-
formed is the same in every case, requiring nothing more to be done than the
simple multiplication of two given quantities or the addition of their loga-
rithms, the terms composing the equations only are varied according to their
names, which are known by the contractions sin., cos., tan., cot., sec., cosec,
which signify sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant respec-
tively. The quantity which is made the demand of the problem, is placed
alone on the left-hand side of each equation, and those that constitute the
supposition are found on the right-hand side expressed in such terms as
effect the resolution of the problem.

All the parts of the trehedral solid, fig. 7, are severally denoted by a single
letter of the alphabet, viz., the sides or plane angles at the vertex of the solid
by the small Italian letters, a, b, c, and the mutual inclinations of the planes
by the Roman capitals A, B and C ; the same letters are retained in the
formula;, and refer to the same parts of the figure ; but since the right-angle
at A is a constant quantity it does not affect the calculations, and for this
reason it is omitted in the tabulation, all the equations being composed of the
other five letters. The numbers 1 to 6 in the first column of each compart-
ment of the table, indicate the number of the equation employed in any ope-
ration, and refer to the combination of data in the second column, and to the
equation expressing the value of the required quantity in the third.

1844]

The Accident on Board the " Gijisy Queen"

247

Art. VI.— THE ACCIDENT ON BOARD THE " GIPSY QUEEN."

Fig. 1. Position of the pipe before the accident.

Fig. 2. Position of the pipe after the accident.

Our readers have, of course, all heard of the accident on board the steamer
" Gipsy Queen," by which Mr. Jacob Samuda, and several other persons,
lost their lives, in consequence of a faucet-joint in the steam-pipe yielding to
the pressure of the steam. We question, however, whether many persons
have reached a very just idea of the manner in which the accident arose, as
the evidence at the inquest was either purposely mystified, or was given by
persons who must be very ignorant of such subjects. For ourselves, we may
say, that we have puzzled over the evidence in vain ; and we should have
little enough to tell our readers respecting this calamity, if our remarks had
to be based upon the information given upon the inquest. We do not un-
derstand why the Coroner did not request some engineer of eminence to exa-
mine the machinery, and report to him the result, so that the public, and more
particularly engineers, might have some more reasonable solution of the cala-
mity than is to be afforded by the flounderiugs of unsophisticated blacksmiths,
or the petty sophistries of ambitious amateurs. It is not fair to throw upon
us the elucidation of such casualties ; and the Coroner, we do not hesitate to
say, has very imperfectly performed his duty in this instance. When an
accident of a similar kind next occurs, as sooner or later it certainly will, let
us have the evidence of skilful persons. We shall thus not only have a full
explication of the causes of the calamity to guide a jury to a just decision,
but shall be laying up a fund of information by which engineers may profit
for the future.

We visited the " Gipsy Queen" shortly after the accident ; and the scene

that presented itself was truly appalling. The bodies had been removed ;
but, scattered over the engine-room, were many of the remnants of mortality
— pieces of skin and hair, the skin of hands with the nails attached, and other
similarly distressing mementos. The steam- pipe was then resting in the po-
sition hi which the accident had left it, and which is shown in Fig. 2 ; the
position of the pipe before the accident being that shown in Fig. 1. The pipes
are of cast iron, and are provided with glands ; but these glands are incapable
of preventing the expulsion of the pipe from the socket, as there is no rim
around the edge of the pipe for the packing of the joint to press against.
Mr. Lowe says in his evidence, that this rim had been ignorantly removed
by some workman ; and this version of the story the Coroner appears to have
adopted. But the fact is, a rim of this kind could never have been intended,
as the joint is not adapted for its reception. We need hardly remind our
engineering readers, that there are two kinds of faucet-joints. The one kind
runs of the same breadth to the bottom ; and it is in this kind of joiut only
that the use of a projecting rim round the edge of the pipe is possible ;
whereas the other kind of faucet is of two different diameters in its depth —
the one part being of size enough to allow room for the packing around the
pipe, and the other of the diameter merely requisite to admit the pipe without
packing, and, therefore, incapable of admitting any projecting rim on which
he packing might press. This last kind of joiut is the kind employed in the
steam-pipes of the " Gipsy Queen ;" and it is, therefore, idle to attempt
laying the blame of the accident upon the workmen by whom the pipe was

248

Mr. Whitelaw's Experiments on Barker's Mill.

[November,

fitted, for the fault was not in the fitting, but in the plan. The exterior of
the pipe, where it enters the perpendicular faucet, has been chipped and filed
for a short distance from the mouth, as shown in the sketches, in order to
enable the pipe to enter the lower part of the faucet ; but all that this chip-
ping and filing accomplished was merely to reduce the diameter of the pipe
slightly ; and when the fit was so tight a one for the pipe itself, the faucet
certainly could not have been intended for the reception of a rim, which, to
be of any avail, must have been projected beyond the pipe considerably.
These considerations, we conceive, are sufficient to show that the evil did not
arise from the chipping of the pipe, but from the mal-formation of the joint ;
and, besides, the pipe was also forced out of the horizontal faucet, though no
chipping and filing of the pipe was there apparent.

It will not be difficult after these explanations to understand in what way
the accident arose. The pipe is hung by iron bands from the deck, and
makes a short right-angled bend horizontally, and then a short right-angled
bend perpendicularly, in order to carry the steam down to the cylinder. The
safety valve, it is stated, was loaded with a weight of 25 lbs. upon the inch,
though, while the engine was working, a pressure of only 10 lbs. had been
attained, but when the engines were stopped the pressure of the steam rose
and forced the pipe out of the perpendicular faucet. The rush of steam thus
occasioned, next drew the pipe out of the horizontal faucet, and it assumed
the position shown in fig. 2. Had the pipe been hung by means of hoops,
as is the common practice, instead of bands, the accident would not have
happened, for the pipe could not in that case have risen up in the joint ; and
although the same freedom to turn round would still exist, so far as the hoops
are concerned, yet before the pipe could have turned round sufficiently to
leave the faucet it would have jammed itself against the side of the joint.

Are then joints on this plan ineligible ? By no means ; for in some cases
they are indispensable, and all that has to be found fault with in this case is
their employment in such a situation. It was not necessary indeed to have
a faucet joint in the situation of the perpendicular faucet here figured, at all :
for even if the pipe expanded considerably, which in so short a distance it
would not do, no harm could arise, for there is nothing at the superior bend
of the pipe against which it necessarily abuts. In much larger vessels than
the " Gypsy Queen" a faucet is not introduced here, and there is no incon-
venience experienced in consequence of the omission. In every case, how-
ever, in which this kind of joint is used, it is essential that the ends of the
pipes shall be so circumstanced as to prevent the possibility of the separation
of the pipes at the joint. This will obviously be the case where a pipe, with a
joint of this description is employed to connect together two boilers, for a
boiler cannot be blown away by the high pressure of the steam in such a pipe ;
and a faucet joint of the other description, that is, with a projecting rim round
its mouth would not answer nearly so well in such a situation, as the packing
would require to be compressed before the joint would yield on the vessel
taking the ground, and such compression is impossible after the joint has
been for some time made. The best engineers in the country use joints of
this description in some cases ; and for the coroner to condemn the kind of
joint, instead of the injudicious application of it, is just about as reasonable as
it would be to condemn for the same reason the kind of iron of which the pipe
is made.

A drawing of the engines of the " Gypsy Queen" is given at page 93 of
the present volume of the Artizan. The plan, we understand, is not a new
one, and the workmanship is certainly nothing of which a boast can be made.
The vessel, which is of iron, and is also of Messrs. Samudas' fabrication, is of
about the same quality as the engines. A correspondent writes to us to say,
that the vessel is a most dangerous one, and if she goes to sea will probably
break in two, as she is nearly cut asunder by the holes of the rivets employed
for fastening in the watertight bulkheads. We do not know, of our own
knowledge, whether this is the fact or not, but certainly the statement is well
worthy of investigation. Our correspondent appears to be a working man,
and can hardly be supposed to have any interest in saying what is not the
fact. His letter runs as follows : —

" Myself and many others of your admiring and grateful readers have been
anxiously waiting your noti«e and remarks on the deplorable accident with the
' Gipsy Queen ;' however, our disappointment is much more than compensated by
the very delicate and humane reason you give in this week's Apprentice, for fore-
going the same until a more befitting opportunity. Meantime, I beg to call your
attention, in the more thorough investigation of the subject, to the construction of
the bull of the vessel itself. I saw her several times during the building ; and
neither foreman, nor workmen, nor any person having to do with the work, appeared
to me to have the skill required for carrying out the same. Lloyd's first sur-
veyor, who bad been invited to look at her while building, expressed himself, in
my hearing, ' that they all appeared new hands at the bellows, and had every thing
to learn,' at the same time shrugging up bis shoulders and shaking his head. Now,
having been myself employed at different places, on numerous iron ships, for the
last five or six years, I have acquired some knowledge of the subject ; but the hull
of the ' Gypsy Queen' is, without exception, in every part, one of the roughest and
weakest jobs of an iron steamer I have ever seen. The iron watertight bulkheads
of the engine-room are riveted to the angle iron ribs in the usual way ; but in ri-
veting the ribs to the outside plates, the rivets are so closely placed to each other
that the longitudinal strength of the vessel is materially injured ; indeed, so much
so, that, had I, as a workman, to cut the vessel asunder, I should introduce as many
more holes as are now in the vertical ribs of the bulkheads, and my object would be
accomplished. This vessel is intended to encounter every weather at sea !

" Again, some of the strips which are inside, over the flush-butts of the plates
(skin), have their ends cut square off, and abut against the lap-edge of the plate,
instead of the end being drawn down wedge-like, and passing under the lap, and
the rivets of the lap going through the 6trip. It is not possible to make tight or
sound work of the butts of the plates, forming the outside skin of the vessel, with
such a mode of joining the butts of the plates together. The laps and butts of the
plates do not appear to have been caulked at all inside; and I believe the whole
of the outside plates of which she is built were not hammered or slab-levelled pre-
vious to their being worked on the ship,— a process of first importance in detecting
defective iron, and making the work fair and even, or smooth.

" Again, there is not a foot of the work meeting the eye, even now she is
finished and painted, either of the wood or iron, but will disgrace the Thames so
long as she is a ship. Look at the set of the figure-head ; the stern, with its rails
rounding down instead of rounding up ; the shape and Bheer of the imitation windows
on the quarters ; the rails of the poop and the waist not adjusted to make the same
line of sheer ; the decks looking like the waves of the sea, particularly the poop-
deck. Look at the manner of framing the forehatchway.

" I fear I am trespassing too much upon your space ; but, for the public safety,
and for the credit of iron ship-building, which has suffered so much hitherto by
getting into bad hands, I do sincerely trust that the Club will take such steps
touching this unfortunate case as will prevent her from becoming both coffin and
grave to unsuspecting sailors and confiding passengers.

" On the launching of this vessel Messrs. Samuda made a statement in the
' Times,' that the weight of their engines, boiler with water, coal-bunkers, &c, com-
plete, would not exceed six hundred weight to the horse-power. It has since leaked
out that the weight was quoted with reference to a high pressure, which they in-
tended working at, and not by the nominal horse-power, as is the custom. I trust,
Mr. Editor, you will denounce this trick on the public, if it be a trick. As to the
novel scheme of the engines, Mr. Field had to do with the same scheme in a steam-
boat some thirty years ago, of which he will, I am sure, give you any inform-
ation you may require."

After such an exposure as this we think the sooner the attention of this
ill-fated firm is turned to some other subject than iron steam-ship building,
the better it will be for them. The American system of rough workmanship
and periodical explosions, will not do in England, and we are quite sure that
disengenuous newspaper puffs, and all other such cheap aids to notoriety,
will be quite as unsuccessful. It is by far different means that a name in
engineering science is to be won, and amid such a wealth of real skill, man-
kind has no need to fall back upon the hazards, rash inexperience, or the
equivocal perfections of well puffed bijouterie.

Art. VII.— MR. WHITELAW'S EXPERIMENTS ON BARKER'S

MILL.

The following table gives the results of a series of experiments performed
by Mr. James Whitelaw on a common Barker's mill, with two straight arms.
The diameter of the machine, or distance from centre to centre of the jet
pieces, is 15-6 inches. Each jet piece at the outer end is about 03 by 1-16
inches. The exact area of the outer end of the jet pieces may be determined
by the formulae given in our Number, page

The power of the machine was ascertained by means of Proney's brake. The

length of the arm of the brake is = lu = 1-59155 feet.

3-1416x2

The height of the fall is 8 feet. The water used by the machine was meaT
sured in a box barely 2-01 feet long, by 2 feet wide. Every foot of water, in
a box of these dimensions, will weigh 250 lbs.

When the eighth experiment was made, the friction-brake was taken off the
machine.

75-79 per cent., the result of the fourth experiment, proves that Barker's
mill is one of the best hydraulic motors.

TABLE.

4J>

e

° s
is

CU

Water

expended

in a

minute.

Weight

on
brake.

Revolutions

of the

machine in a

minute.

Power
of

water.

Power
of

machine.

Power of
machine

in
per cents.

1

2

3

4

5
6

7
8

lbs.
377-00

481-25
502-50

559-50
596-00

617-00
731-25

lbs.
1-84375
1-50000

1-00000
0-93750

0-87500
0-81250

0-62500
0-00000

0
67

280
325

366
405

455
580

3016-00

3850-00
4020-00

4476-00
4768-00

4936-00
5850-00

0000-000
1005-000

2800-000
3046-875

3202-500
3290-625

2843-750

oooo-ooo

00-00

72-73
75-79

71-55
69-02

57-61
00-00

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1814.]

Railway Fever.

249

Am. VIII.— SMOKE BURNING IN MANCHESTER.

The authorities of Manchester and Salford intend to prosecute all producers
of smoke, after the end of the year, — a wise determination in our opinion,
and one which, if resolutely carried out, will, we are assured, be productive of
the desired success, without occasioning any inconvenience worth mentioning
to manufacturers or other proprietors of steam-engines. There is no doubt
that smoke can be burned, and it will be burned so soon as its production is
punished with rigour, and the laws made for its suppression are no longer
made a mockery by the dishonesty of men who sit in judgment upon their
own transgressions. Some manufacturers are making no preparation to
enable them to comply with the provisions of the new law, in the expectation,

probably, that they will be able to evade it ; but others of more comprehensive
views have set themselves seriously to work to remedy the evil, in the con-
viction that they have no right to be manufacturers of a public nuisance.
The movement, however, though as yet only partial, has, as might be expected,
attracted the attention of the numerous tribe of smoke-burning patentees, and
these predatory itinerants are now hawking their wares through Manchester,
at a great expenditure of oratory and .perseverance. Most of the nostrums
thus offered, however, are worthless. Of Mr. C. W. Williams's argand
furnace, as it is called, we have on several previous occasions expressed our
opinion, but we may here give the results of its employment in Manchester,
as compared with other methods of working.

COMPARATIVE DUTY OF STEAM ENGINES IN FOUR OF
THE PRINCIPAL COTTON MILLS IN LANCASHIRE,
IN 1843.

AVERAGE OF THE YEAR.

1 Commercial or Nominal horse-power of the engines

9 J Gross consumption of coal per week of 70 hours, in tons.

Ditto per horse-power, per hour, in pounds

3 Gross indicated horse-power (i.e. including friction)

("Nett engine consumption of coal, (allowing three-tenths for getting up
steam, for heating the mill, and all other purposes save working the

| engines) in tons

[_ Ditto per horse-power, per hour in pounds

5 Effective indicated horse-power (allowing one pound per square inch

for engine friction)

6 Nett engine consumption, reckoned on ditto, per horse-power, per

hour in pounds

7 Cornish duty in millions of lbs. lifted a foot high by each bushel of

Lancashire coal of 94 lbs

Make a little

smoke in
the usual way.

160
80
16

318

56
5*

297
6

30| or 31

Make a little

smoke in
the usual way.

206
100
15^

390

70
5$

360
6*

29J

Burn all the

smoke by
Parkes's plan

and work
expansively.

100
50
16

195

35

180
6i

29-i

D.

Burn

three-fourths
of the smoke

by the
patent argand.

40
25
20

71

171

66
8$

21J

Note. — A and D use the same kind of coal from the same pit. The coal used by C and B is of a slightly superior quality. All are fired by hand,
but C and D have the greatest proportion of boiler room, and work with a slow draught. C saves nearly 20 per cent, by working expansively. The
engines of B and D are by the same maker, and work in the same manner.

This shows that the plan is attended with no economy, and in other respects
it is very injurious, so much so, we understand, that every boiler to which it
has been for any considerable time applied, has had to be furnished with a new
boiler bottom, and in some cases with two or three. This arises from the frequent
heating and cooling incidental to the plan, in consequence of the pressure of
cold air, at some times, at the diffusion orifices, and of flame at other times. We
have no doubt that the boilers provided with Parkes' contrivance would ex-
hibit even a greater extravagance in fuel than the " patent argand," but for
the expansive action by which a saving of 20 per cent, is effected. We can-
not therefore recommend either of these two plans for burning smoke, but we
recommend plenty of boiler room, and slow combustion, which will be found
both to burn the smoke and to save fuel. For new boilers we recommend
the revolving grate, and the plan of boiler with upright tubes, shown in
Club's Treatise on the Steam Engine, which see.

Mr. Armstrong, of Manchester, whose excellent treatise on steam-boilers
i3 known to every engineer, has carefully investigated the action of Williams's
Argand, as well as of a vast number of other furnaces, and the conclusion at
which he has arrived is precisely that which we have reached, viz., that the
Argand scheme is idle. In consequence of this conviction, and the unreserved
expression of it, Mr. Armstrong has received the following letter, which we
publish for the amusement of our readers.

59, Chancery-lane, London, 13ft Nov., 1844.
Sir, — I am instructed by Messrs. Dircks and Co., of King William-street, City,
(sole proprietors of Mr. C. Wye Williams's Patent for his Argand Furnace,) to
apprise you that they have information of your having for some time past, and up
to the present period, called at various establishments in Lancashire where their
furnaces are erected, under the plea of wishing to examine the boilers, to see whe-
ther they are burnt out by the application of the Argand Furnaces. You must be
aware that your gratuitous offers of this nature are of a character not to be mis-
taken, particularly when it is known that you have uniformly pursued a line of
conduct evincing personal hostility towards Mr. Williams, the patentee. Having
been professionally engaged by Messrs. Dircks and Co., in the assignment to them
of the entire right in this patent property, I have to inform you, that your proceed-
ings are now calculated to damage their, and not Mr. Williams's, interest ; and,
provided this intimation has not its due weight with you, they will be compelled to
institute legal proceedings, to stay such unwarrantable conduct on your part.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
To Mr. R. Armstrong, Engineer W. St. Rvmer.

Victoria Arches, Manchester.

VOL. II.

We certainly never before met with a more splendid specimen of impudence
than this. Because Mr. Armstrong disapproves of Williams's nostrum, he
therefore makes himself liable to an action ! We suppose we shall next have
Drs. Morrison and Co., or the venerable Parr, bringing actions against all
who doubt the efficacy of their pills, or Messrs. Moses and Son pursuing the
same magnanimous course towards all who may be incredulous of their
superiority to Stultz. If Williams's scheme be a good one, and if it does not
burn out boilers, why not prove Mr. Armstrong to be in the wrong ? or why
should such an unwillingness be manifested that Mr. Armstrong should be-
come acquainted with the results of the application of the Argand scheme if
those results were favourable ? If any additional proof were wanted to show
the badness of the Argand plan this foolish letter would have afforded it, and
what is worse, it not only shows that the plan is bad, but that Messrs. Dircks
and Co. must themselves have been half of that opinion, else why talk of aa
action, when proofs are what is needed ? We hope Messrs. Dircks and Co.
bought the plan cheap ; it was offered to the Government cheap, as it is said,
but was not taken, even at an honorary sum ; and indeed in our eyes the plan
would not be cheap at any other price than contempt.

Art. IX.— RAILWAY FEVER.

On a former occasion we adverted to the unprecedented eagerness of capi-
talists to invest money in Railway speculations. The number of schemes
before the public has increased considerably since those remarks were made,
and the innumerable legal notices which crowd the Gazette, and which are
required by the Standing Orders of Parliament, show clearly and fully the
violence of the present paroxysm of the Railway fever. There never was, we
believe, such a multitude of notices of public bills, and certainly never before
was there such a number of Railway schemes, representing so large an amount
of capital. The London Gazette has been so overburthened with advertise-
ments, that, instead of two numbers being published weekly, as is the usual
practice, it has been found necessary to issue more than double that number
during the time that the "November Notices" have, by the Standing
Orders, to be printed. Even with this increased number of issues, there has
been experienced some difficulty in accommodating the host of applicants,
and we have heard of some bills having been lost for the present session,
in consequence of the impossibility of getting the needfal notifications

K K

250

Marvels of the Day.

[November,

inserted. There are few but can remember a former time of similar, though
less extensive excitement in the money market, and the consequent depression
•which ensued in the value of Railway property ; and we have not the slightest
doubt that similar consequences will attend the present undue elevation of
that species of investment, in the estimation of capitalists. A very remark-
able anomaly did very recently, and, we presume, does still obtain in the
cotton markets of Liverpool, which gives a decided corroboration of our
views upon this subject. The price of cotton is exceedingly low, even while
there is a fair demand for it in the manufacturing districts ; and this can only
he accounted for by the great eagerness for Railway investment, which has
unduly withdrawn capital from its accustomed channels. Nothing can be
clearer than the inference that there must be a subsidence of Railway enter-
prise to its proper position in the market, and it is almost equally certain,
that before that event arrives, there must be an undue depression, and many
subsequent oscillations in the value of Railway shares, which will exert a
deranging influence on other branches of enterprise, and will be productive
of great loss and perplexity.

Art. X.— FALL OF A MILL AT OLDHAM.

During the last month a new mill lately erected at Oldham fell to the ground
with a terrific crash, killing twenty persons in its fall. At the inquest which
followed this calamity the coroner very properly availed himself of the aid of
two experienced engineers, Mr. Fairbairn and Mr. Bellhouse, and from their
investigation it appears that the accident was caused by the fracture of one
of the cast-iron beams by which the internal part of the structure was
upheld. Brick arches had been thrown across, between the beams, with a
very small rise, and as one of these arches had sunk, it was removed for
repair, without the interposition of aDy adequate stay or support between the
beams, to counteract the thrust of the other arches. The consequence was,
that one of the beams adjoining the faulty arch was broken sideways, and
the whole structure then came down, like a house of cards. We are unable
here to give the report made by the engineers who investigated the causes of
the accident, but shall probably give it in the Apprentice.

Art. XI.

-COMPARISON OF THE TUBULAR WITH THE
COMMON BOILER.

Messrs. Bury, Curtis, and Kennedy, of Liverpool, are now making two
steam vessels for the Russian Government, the boilers of one of which is to
be of the tubular, and that of the other, of the flue description. The vessels
and engines are as nearly as possible the same, and the result will be to esta-
blish a very fair comparison between the merits of the different kinds of
boilers. The flue boilers are, as might be expected, something larger than
those upon the tubular plan. Drawings of both will probably be given in
the next part of the Treatise on the Steam Engine, though as yet it is im-
possible to tell the result, as the boilers have not been tried. We have no
doubt that both boilers will be found very effectual, and will sustain Messrs.
Bury and Co.'s high character in this department of engineering.

Art. XII.— MARVELS OF THE DAY.

Mesmerism. — Miss Harriet Martineau has addressed a letter to the editor of the
' Athenaeum,' in which she states that she has been cured of a painful and lingering
malady by means of mesmerism, after all other remedial means had failed. This
announcement is one of the most important on the subject of mesmerism that has
yet been made, and will go far to counteract tlie discredit thrown upon it by itine-
rant tricksters and juggling empirics. The public is greatly indebted to Miss Mar-
tineau for coming forward to state the results of her experience on this interesting
subject — an alternative most women, and indeed men, would have declined, of
however great importance to society. Such philanthropy will, we are sure, be uni-
versally appreciated, and will contribute to raise Miss Martineau to a still higher
pitch in the public estimation, if that be possible. In whatever way this cure may
be explained, it is impossible, at least, to doubt the fact.

Iron Steamers. — The Peninsular and Oriental Steam Company are about to
construct another new iron vessel, of about 600 tons burden. This vessel should,
we think, be fitted with the screw. The engines we would make of the oscillating
kind, coupled direct to the screw shaft; and this shaft, with its cranks, should, we
think, be made all in one piece, so as to be capable of withstanding the forward
thrust of the screw, by means of a pivot at the end, and without throwing any strain
upon the shaft collars. In the Clyde about twenty-two iron steamers have been
built within the last year: and great numbers have also been built in London,
Liverpool, and other places.

Facts touching Tubular Boilers. — Mr. Robert Napier is making his tubular
boilers without ferules ; but a collar is welded on the tube, which is then turned
down to fit the hole in plate, and riveted over after its insertion. If these collars

have any considerable projection, they will prevent the access of the water to the
neck of the tube, and the pivot will be liable to be burned out in consequence. It
would be better, we think, to have the tubes screwed.

Messrs. Bury and Co. have tried brass tubes, of five inches in diameter and eiaht
feet long, in a steam boiler ; but they have been found not to answer. The expan-
sion starts the tubes at the ends. When the tubes are small in diameter, the v will
bend a little in the middle if the expansion be too great; but tubes of a larger dia-
meter, and correspondingly thick, will not bend, and therefore start at the cuds.

Messrs. Rcnnie are making tubular boilers with some of the tubes screwed to act
as stays. Iron appears to be more in favour for tubes than brass. Mr. R. Napier
is making some boilers, with iron tubes about four inches and a half in diameter.
The general size, however, is three inches.

Public Bailis and Walks. — A m eeting has recently been held at Birmingham, to
promote the establishment of public baths and walks in that town ; and the desire to
form such establishments is fast becoming universal throughout the kingdom. The
extent of the benefit of such improvements it is by no means easy to define ; and,
indoed, it is only by such measures that the aristocracy can conciliate the working
classes ; who, it requires little penetration to foresee, must, before long, hold the
keys of power in their grasp. We are thoroughly assured, that, but for such ame-
liorations, the working classes would, before long, either overturn the aristocracy,
or emigrate en masse, manufacturers and all, to some country less oppressed with
taxation. If this alternative were to be entertained — and if entertained, it would
be carried into effect — who would pay the interest on the national debt ? Let our
landlords think of this ; and let the Anti-Corn-law League hold out the alternative
of free trade or emigration en masse.

New Method of Railway Propulsion. — We noticed, in our last number, a scheme
of M. Andraud's, for propelling carriages upon railways by means of compressed air,
and of which we hinted our belief was visionary and impossible. We suppose M.
Andraud has, by this time, arrived at the same conviction ; for we find he has since
brought forward "another new system," and that one is quite as hypothetical as the
one which preceded it. This new plan consists in leading a flexible pipe along the
line, on which pipe a roller presses ; and air being forced into the pipe behind the
roller, the carriages are urged forward by the pressure of the inflated pipe on the
roller.

Railway Accidents. — Railway accidents are becoming frightfully numerous, so
that, indeed, it becomes impossible for us to record them all. What is the
railway department of the Board of Trade about ? If it have not enough power,
let it ask Parliament for more ; and additional powers must be given, if required ;
for the present state of things is intolerable, and cannot be suffered to continue.
Certainly these accidents must lend great force to the advocates of the atmospheric
and other systems, where they cannot occur; and will be seized upon as au argu-
ment to justify the formation of rival lines on that ground alone.

Kamptulicon Life-Boat. — We paid a visit, last Saturday, to the premises of the
Elastic Pavement Company, for the purpose of inspecting the life-boat which has
been recently constructed there. The material of which it is formed is composed
of ground cork, mixed and cemented with dissolved India-rubber. The length of
the boat is 34 feet, breadth 12 feet, and depth at centre 4 feet. The frames are
alternately of oak and Kamptulicon, as the new material is called. The keel, stem,
and stern-post, are partly of oak and partly of Kamptulicon ; the former being used,
not only for the sake of the requisite Btiffness, but also for the purpose of attaching
the iron fastenings more securely. The exposed parts of the stem and stern, which
are convertible, are covered with a layer of Kamptulicon, which will, by its elas-
ticity, deaden the shocks which the oak posts may receive. The planking, if we
may still retain the phrase, consists of three layers of the new material, which are
laid on at different angles ; the first running longitudinally, and the oilier two run-
ning diagonally, in opposite directions. At the gunwale there is a riband of cak,
which is also covered by a thick riband of Kamptulicon, to art as a fender; and
additional stiffness is given to the sides of the boat by diagonal stringers of irno.
The bottom of the boat is covered with air-vessels, which are firmly retained in their
respective places by a false bottom, which lies upon them. One or more plugs are
fixed in the bottom of the boat, which, by turning a handle, may be withdrawn,
and a communication opened, which will be useful in speedily clearing the boat if
it should have happened to fill with a sea breaking over it. In this case it is ob-
vious that the water will continue to run out of the boat until it has attained tho
same level as that outside, when the plug may again bo fixed, and the pump which
is provided may effect a thorough clearance. The boat is adapted to cany about
60 persons, and could, without danger, accommodate a larger number. It is pro-
vided with two masts and lug-sails, which may be serviceable in some circumstances.
The boat is altogether very creditable to Mr. Walter, of the Elastic Pavement
Company, both in design and in construction; and we hope that its working capa-
bilities may be speedily and satisfactorily tested, and honour given to whom honour
is due.

FROM OUR OWN CORRESPONDENTS.

Calcutta. — The White 'Ant. — In a recent letter I stated that the white ant was
very impartial to the Otaheite sugar-cane. My information was, however,, drawn
from only one source, and applied to only one district ; as I find that, on some
soils, the white ant does attack this cane. It has not yet been ascertained what is
the peculiar difference in the soils, or in the climate, or under what circumstances
this destructive insect refuses the Otaheite cane. In some places I believe it has
been found that it has only attacked the weak and sickly plant, and not the flou-
rishing and healthy cane. It is said, that in the West Indies there is a certain
small black ant, which not only clusters round the plant without injuring it, but
has a great antipathy to the white ant, and will kill the latter. Should this be
true, the introduction of this black ant into the East Indies would be of vast

1844.]

Marvels of the Day.

benefit. Oue of the public prints here had lately what appeared to be a very good
sugsestion for the purpose of protecting sugar lands. The plan is, however, only
applicable to such lands as are subject to inundation at certain seasons of the year,
by the gradual overflow of the rivers, and not to such as are liable to sudden in-
undations— to the influence of spates. As upon such low lands the ants will not
come, it is proposed to surround the field with a clay wall — say six feet high, and
six thick- — which would cost about 100/. per mile. Should the ants appear at
any future period, a gap has only to be made in the wall, to allow the field to be
inundated — although, indeed, the rainy season would of itself be sufficient. Such
a wall would also keep out the jackals, a species of animals that do much damage
to the cane. In many factories, both the indigo and sugar plants are cultivated ;
and it is said that the water from the indigo vats is admirable manure for the
sugar cane.

Metcalfe Hall. — The Building Committee of Metcalfe Hall having now closed
up accounts, it has been found that the cost of construction has exceeded the esti-
mated expense by about 1530/., and that the total amount remaining due to the
builders is upwards of 2000/.

Railways in India. — You will probably have heard by last mail, that a railroad
is about to be begun in India — that the grand era of civilization, as said to be con-
sequent on the introduction of railway locomotion, has at length arrived. The
Bombay people have begun the enterpiize, and deserve much credit for the spirit
•with which they have entered upon it. The mercantile classes there appear far
more energetic than those in Calcutta ; probably because they have fewer artificial
aids than those who rely upon court favour, and also because theParsees who there
predominate are incomparably superior to the apathetic and effeminate Hindoos which
predominate in Calcutta. That energetic spirit which the Bombay people have so
lately manifested, appears, indeed, to extend to their local government ; for it, I
believe, has given powerful support to the railway project, while the government
here has given scarce any. The projected Railway Company is to be called " The
Bombay Great Eastern Railway Company." It is composed of 7000 shares, of SO/.
each, making a capital of 350,000/. To illustrate the energetic manner in which
the scheme has been taken up, I may mention that, about three weeks ago, the
news arrived here that not only had all the 7000 shares been subscribed, but that
three thousand more had been applied for ! Think of that, Master Brooks ! How
the Calcutta steady-goers stared ! If such a spirit spreads through India, she will
soon cease to be the supine and degraded nation she is at present. The Bombay
railroad is to be 53-^- miles in length; to be a double line for 22^- miles from
Bombay to a little beyond a place called Thannah, and there, where the road
branches off in two different directions, to be a single line. These branching roads
lead respectively to the Boreghat, in the Deccan, and the Thull Ghat in Kandcish,
and are the great arteries of the Bombay trade with the interior of the country.
On the road to the first-named station, it is calculated the annual traffic amounts
to 1,110,000/.; and on that to the Thull Ghat, no less than 1,640,000/. The
gradient, in the worst place, does not exceed 4 feet per mile, and in many places
the road is a dead level. There will be neither tunnelling nor deep cutting re-
quired, and no embankment higher than from 2 to 4 feet above the surface of the
ground. There is good stone, for blocks and general masonry, found along the
whole course. The terminus will be without the town walls of Bombay, and the
line will thence continue through the neighbourhood of Sion Causeway, and the
villages of Pomare and Bandoop. The only works required, involving any extra-
ordinary expenditure, are, merely a bridge over a creek at Thannah, and the ap-
proach to the Fort at Bombay. India does certainly possess one very signal ad-
vantage over England in carrying out railway schemes, viz., the facility with which
land can be obtained, for, I may say, almost.any line that can be formed through-
out the whole country. Along this Bombay line, the land is chiefly in the hands
of government ; and the freeholders in Salsette, through which the line passes,
have given their assent freely to the scheme, and, indeed, covet the propinquity to
the railroad, as a manifest advantage to their property. The terminus being out-
side the town, does not interfere with any valuable house property. Locomotives
are to be used, but only for the passengers' trains ; the goods' trains are to be
drawn by bullocks, and this part of the plan appears exceedingly judicious, not
only because it will lessen materially the expenditure and the cost of transit, but
that the saving of a few hours in the passage of a bale of goods is not of so great
moment ; while the natives will soon appreciate the many advantages attendant on
railroad travelling. They will be surprised at the rate at which bullocks can drag
a huge railway-train, bearing perhaps a hundred bales of merchandize, as compared
with the Bnail-pace at which five or six bales are painfully dragged through their
rutty roads on the present system, and henceforth they will have no fear of
pilferers or dacoits, of rainy seasons or tigers. It strikes me that this railroad is
much more likely to return profitable dividends in consequence of the employment
of bullocks instead of engines for luggage-trains, inasmuch as the increased ad-
vantages to be gained by the adoption of the latter are not proportionate to the
increased expense necessarily incurred. At all events, it is a good scheme to com-
mence upon, were it only to avoid a large, outlay at the beginning. There will, of
course, be a trivial expense in digging tanks, and preparing grazing grounds at the
■different stations.

The estimated amount of annual traffic, or gross receipts, is . . . ,£123,600

The 'annual cost of working and maintaining road, including all ex- "1 , ,. ^^

penses, is estimated at j '

Giving for the annual receipts the sum of £78,600,

or 22£ per cent, upon this capital. This large dividend will, I dare say, not be
realised. Many people dislike to see such great pretensions put forward by any
company at starting, and suspect that it must be merely a " got up" affair; but I
do not imagine that there exist grounds for any such suspicions, though I think it

251

would have been wise to estimate the profits more moderately. It is calculated
that the Bombay portion of the line will be opened in two yearsj and the remainder
in 2-J or 3 years, from the time of commencement. I believe that the Company
has petitioned, or is about to petition Government to grant the necessary lands,wl
remit the import duties on the materials and machinery required for the raay, to
to grant the Company a Corporation Act to limit the responsibility of shareholders
to the respective amount of their shares, and to enable the Company, after ex-
pending a certain portion of their capital, to raise the remainder by loan. When
all this is settled, and no great difficulty is expected to arise in doing so, as the
Government have entered very warmly into the scheme, then will the Bombay
Great Eastern Railway be commenced in earnest; and curiously and anxiously
will people look forward to the results of this scheme. As the first railroad in the
vast territory of British India — as a grand experiment— its completion will solve
many important problems. It will show us the real effects of rapid and safe com-
munication, of the establishment of railway travelling in India,- arid we shall be en-
abled to see whether these effects fall short of, or exceed, those brilliant revolutions
so often anticipated, by able and eloquent writers, as its natural and necessary con-
sequences. It will also enable us to settle the approximate cost of the construction
of railways in India ; for upon this point we are yet miserably in the dark. The
expense ought certainly to be small, even more so than in the United States or
Belgium. There is but little chance of obstacles being thrown in the way by every
petty landed proprietor, who has either to be soothed by an enormous bonus, or else a
costly litigation has to be entered upon. The land itself demands but little embank-
ing, and less excavating ; many of the materials are close at hand, and easy of ac-
cess; and above all, labour is amazingly cheap. Government, also, must see the
advantage, in a military point of view, in furthering the construction of railways.
Their troops will have a speedy transit, instead of the tedious river journeying, or
the fatigues and dangers of long marches ; and they will be relieved from the great
expense of sustaining numberless depots for commissariat stores ; which, from the
effects of climate, are periodically condemned as unfit for use.

But to turn to the eastern side of India, and although I cannot tell you of the actual
formation of a company here, still I can tell you something which promises fair for
it. Mr. R. M. Stephenson, to whom I have before referred, has addressed the Go-
vernment at some length, with the view of ascertaining to what extent it would give
rts support to a railway project, supposing a company to be formed by private capi-
talists at home, for the construction of any particular line ; and especially whether
Government would authorise the company to treat with the proprietors of land, so
as to avoid disputes in purchasing such ground as may be required ; and whether
they would grant a charter to such a company, Government appointing a certain
portion of the directors, in order that the scheme may be fairly carried out. You
will observe, from this last clause, a beautiful illustration of what I lately mentioned
to you, respecting the jobbery which unfortunately prevails here, as this part of the
application is obviously introduced as a proviso against such practices.

The Deputy Governor has given a very favourable reply to the communication.*
He says, that although Government cannot authorise a railway company to treat
for the purchase of land, as for a public office, yet, if a company were formed, he
would apply for such an enactment. A charter would be granted. The Govern-
ment would also ascertain, through their own officers, that the undertaking was
carried out consistently with the interests of the parties concerned and of the public
at large. And finally, the Deputy-Governor promises to such a scheme his best
support. All this is satisfactory enough ; and, as I understand, Mr. Stephenson pro-
ceeds home by this month's steamer, and he intends, on his arrival in England, to
set about the formation of a railway company ; it is well that he can show to the
cautious leaders of the money market how far the Government of India will "iwe
its support to railway speculation.

He has also, I believe, received favourable reports upon the subject from many
of the commercial people here, who, of course, view such projects through a com-
mercial eye-glass, which includes in its compass the probabilitv of paying good divi-
dends. Such reports from merchants in Calcutta were, indeed, necessary, if the
object in view was only to disabuse the minds of people at home of the bad impres-
sions they must have received touching joint stock companies in Bengal ; and which
impressions they would naturally attach to schemes really feasible in themselves,
and really likely to be honestly carried through.

Should a railway company be formed, I believe it is Mr. Stephenson's intention
to commence on a line from Calcutta toMinjapore and Allahabad ; which, for dif-
ferent reasons, appears, at first sight, to be the route most likely to answer. Min-
japorc is a great mart, both for native produce and British manufactures ; the road
to it passes through flourishing districts, famous for the production of indigo, sugar,
and silk ; and it is the highway for the trade with the territories to the northward.'
Upon this road the traffic is certainly greater than upon any other one which could
be chosen, branching from Calcutta ; and whatever may be the lines of railway
formed throughout India, it can only be by the connection of important marts and
cities— although by this plan deviations will sometimes occur from the direct route
— that such railways can prove ultimately successful.

The trade to and from Calcutta and Allahabad, via Minjapore, is computed to
amount to no less than 500,000 tons annually. The number of passengers on
this route who would adopt the railway as a mode of transit cannot so ea°sily he
ascertained. There are always persons, both in the civil and military service, pass-
ing to and fro ; and besides the native merchants, who, one would suppose, would
be glad to avail themselves of railway speed, provided the expense be not raised too
high, there are always a vast number of pilgrims proceeding to Benares, Allahabad
and many other places in the north, as well as those who are travelling from the in-
terior to visit Juggernauth, upon the coast ; and such persons would probably, to a
great extent, adopt the railway conveyance. It is, however, to be observed, in'enu-
meratmg the pros aud cons of this railway scheme, that the New Indian General

* This correspondence has already appeared in the Apprentice.

252

Marvels of the Day.

Steam Navigation Company propose to run their steamers from Calcutta to Alla-
habad, and that another company (name unannounced), who have been forming
their plans in the quietest manner possible, for this some time past, also intend
placing steamers upon this line. This new company has arisen under the auspices
of Mr. Robinson, whose name I mentioned in my last, I think, as connected with
sugar mills ; audit appears they have ordered three steamers from England, which
are shortly expected to anive at Calcutta. The shares in this company are said to
Lave been all taken up ; and if so, this must have been done at home, for few people
here know anything about it. This, indeed, may prove to the detriment of (he Com-
pany, inasmuch as many of the merchants here, being connected with the India
General Steam Navigation Company, they will be much more likely to lend their
support to their own undertaking. However, be this as it may, the steamers will cer-
tainly prove formidable competitors to the railway. Upon the difference in the
comparative rates of charges a good deal will undoubtedly depend ; and supposing
these rates should even be a little in favour of the steamers, individuals may prefer
patronising the railway to incurring the risk always attendant upon our river navi-
gation. And again, as to the comparative periods in which the distances may be
accomplished by the rival powers, I expect that even if bullocks were employed to
drag the heavy luggage-trains, that goods would be transported from Allahabad to
Calcutta in as short a time as they could be brought by a steamer. This is chiefly
owing to the steam- vessels being obliged to remain at anchor during the night.

The India General Steam Navigation Company, who, it is said, intend appointing
Mr. Stephenson their agent at home, to look after the building of vessels, &c,
lately offered to purchase the "Assam" steamer for 9,000?., but this offer was
refused. This vessel brought, in her last downward trip, produce to the value of
70,000?., and insurance upon this was effected by the native merchants in the ba-
zaar, at the low rate of •£ per cent.

I have heard objections stated against railways generally in India, to the effect
that great difficulties would be experienced in crossing nullahs and ravines ; and that
the sudden inundations would make a clean sweep of bridges, piers, and battlements.
But, with judicious management and contrivance, such mishaps ought rarely, if
ever, to occur.

In the line from Calcutta to Allahabad the only great difficulty to be overcome
will he the bridging the river Soane, which is three miles broad ; hut it is to be
hoped there will be engineering skill in the country sufficient to span the stream.

Engineer in Chief for India.— There are two great services the Club could ren-
der to the people of India, and which I sincerely trust it will graciously be pleased
to take into its early consideration. The first of these is, urging upon the atten-
tion of the Government the great accession that would arise to the commerce and
productiveness of the country by the appointment of a skilful engineer, whose duty
it should he to traverse the length and breadth of the land, to devise simple and
effectual means of improving internal communications, by removing obstructions
out of rivers, cutting canals, and constructing roads and railways — an arrangement
being made for the completion of such works by private enterprise, where that can be
done; though in other cases they would have to be made at the expense of the Govern-
ment. It should also be the duty of this functionary to ascertain the capabilities of
particular districts for the production of different articles of commerce ; to note the
defects in its arts, mechanisms, and methods of agriculture ; and to give publicity to
expedients for obviating such evils in those several districts ; and, at the same time,
apprise mechanists and other people at home of the existence of imperfect modes in
these regions, on the improvement of which their ingenuity may find a profitable
exercise.

The most of the barbarian methods of a country such as India arise from imper-
fect information respecting what is done in other places : and to correct this evil,
the first step is to apprise the one party — that is, the native agriculturists and ma-
nufacturers— of what is obtainable ; and the other party — the European mechanist
or speculator — of what is wanted. English contrivances are not always suitable to
Indian wants ; but the skill exists in England to satisfy those wants, if their pre-
cise nature be only defined ; and a functionary who accomplished this mutual trans-
fer of information would realise vast benefit to the whole country, at a very incon-
siderable expenditure. The first service of the Club, then, would be to make the
Government sensible of the advantage of such an office ; and the second, to find out
a man qualified to fill it efficiently ; for if the choice were injudicious no good
would he done. I trust you will not lose sight of this weighty requisition.*

* Our opinion on this subject coincides with that of our correspondent. We
recommend for the office Mr. Smith, of Deanston.

Discovery of a Teak Forest in Arracan, — A teak| forest has lately been disco-
vered in Arracan, to the northward of the celebrated teak districts of Moulmein.
It lies upon the Kulladyne river, 100 miles from the mouth, and, of course, it lies
higher than any traveller has hitherto penetrated. The natives are said to be a
very tractable race, the soil along the bank of the river to he a rich alluvial
deposit ; and the forest itself is about three days' journey through a wilderness from
the civil station of Chittagong. The discoverer has got a grant of the land, of
course, from Government, who, in their wisdom, knew not, perhaps, that a tree
grew upon it, or that a man dwelt there; but, of course, they could easily grant the
land.

I observe that the Government has declined to assist in the project of the long-
proposed pier at Madras, but that the private committee still holds together.

Another grant has lately been made by Government, to a private individual in
Calcutta, of a vast coal-field at Cherra Poonjee, to the north of Sylhet, latitude
26° north ; and it is said the only reservation in the grant is, that the grantee
must supply the Government with coal, should they require it at any time.
There is no rent ; and the only payment to he made is one rupee to the rajah
of the district for every 100 maunds (under four tons) of coal excavated. There
will be little expense attending the excavation, as the coal has to be dug out of the
side of the hill, and thus steam-engines, shafts, etc., are avoided. Cherra Poonjee is
distant from Calcutta 360 miles, by dak route ; and the rivers are navigable to
within seven miles of the coal-field, during the whole year. A boat will take about
a month to traverse the distance. There is no road from the coal-field to the
place where the boats will require to remain. But when the expense of excavating
and the amount of the impost are so insignificant, the proprietor may certainly
affoid to construct a decent road. He is very sanguine as to the result of his spi-
rited experiment, and expects to sell his coals in Calcutta at four annas the maund
(6<Z. for 821bs.) The English and Scotch coals sell from five to nine annas a
maund. I have not seen any samples of this new coal, but am told that it
is better than that brought from Burdwan.

Advertised Sale of the ' India'' Steamer. — The ' India' Steamer is advertised by
her agents for sale ; and it is questioned whether, if 20,000?. were to be received for
her, that that would repay her expenses. It is a lamentable thing to see her lying
rotting in the river.

The " Hindoslan" was lately in dock ; and all the repairs she wanted for her two
years' work was the renewal of some six or seven sheets of copper.

Tlie Indian Iron Company. — The Indian Iron Company have again commenced
operations at Porto Novo, under the auspices of the Court of Directors.

New Black Dye. — The black dye discovered in the Shan country (on the
other side of the bay of Bengal, in the interior,) has been pronounced, by a late
traveller, to be a vegetable, and not a mineral dye ; but no information has been
received as to the quantity that can he obtained.

Analysis of the Soil of the Tea Districts of Naga. — The following has been given
as the analysis of the soil of those portions of the Naga hills (north-west of Assam,)
where the tea-plant has been found : —

In 200

parts —

Water

. .

37

Fresh fibre

. .

1

Vegetable matter

5

Silex

. 135

Alumina . •.

11

Oxide of iron .

.

4

The tea from these hills is said to be superior to that cultivated in Assam, having
a " strong high flavour and a remarkable aroma."

New Saw-mill at Moulmein. — A new saw-mill has arrived at Moulmein from
Singapore. There are now two of these machines at the former place, which are
hardly sufficient to saw the 2,700 tons of timber monthly brought from the
interior.

Mac.

ANALYTICAL INDEX.

A word on the mathematics ; their importance ;
beauty, how to study them ; their engrossing
character; 221

Accident to steamer " Tay ;" salvation attributable
to engineer ; nautical management on board of;
presence of mind and foresight of engineer ;
exertions of ; means adopted to staunch vessel ;
parsimony of Royal Mail Company ; elegant ac-
complishments not essential to engineers ; evils
of naval system in Royal Mail Company ; de-
ficient pay of engineers ; parsimony, false eco-
nomy; 207, 8

Accident on board the " Gipsy Queen ;" one dia-
gram ; 247

Alexandria, new dock ; its formation, difficulties
in; 190

Analysis of books : Polygraphia Curiosa, or Book
of Initial Letters; Observations on the Sana-
tory Arrangements of Factories, with remarks
on present methods of warming and ventilation,
and proposals for their improvement; the Se-
quential System of Musical Notation ; a Pro-
posed New Method of Writing, in strict con-
formity with nature ; SteiU's Pictorial Geogra-
phy ; 211

Anchor, Porter's patent. See Porter.

Animal Mechanics ; mechanism of circulation ; ex-
planation of, 111 — 3

Arch. See Equilibriated arch.

Architectural taste and opinions. See Changes in.

■■ topics of the day ; house of assembly

for the Hungarian diet, competition for ; re-
marks on ; 179, 80

Architecture and the arts, monthly record of. See
Monthly record.

•^—— and building. See Promiscuous notes on.

See Promiscuous notes on.

— — — styles of ; Roman, its origin and charac-
ter ; identification with particular religious opi-
nions ; Gothic, origin and character ; defective
character of present practice, want of originality;
general remarks ; national peculiarities of style
determined by nature of materials ; 6, 7

Art, essays on. See Hazlitt.

Arts and architecture, monthly record of. See
Monthly record.

Artificial illumination, importance to society ; ex-
planation of the principle of the illuminating
power of flame ; oil gas, lamp, candles, relative
cost ; argand lamps, camphine lamps, naphtha,
remarks on ; 61, 62

Assurance. See Life assurance.

Athenaeum, reviews of, 24, 95, 119

Atmospheric Railway. See Principles of.

Augmentation of electro-magnetism, method of
producing, 99

B

Bar harbours, examination of different theories

thereon ; their fallacy, 41 — 43
— cause of formations of bars; means of

prevention ; 59, 60
■ treatise on, with a demonstration of the

theory of bars, criticism of, 133
Barker's water mill, formulae for computing the

power, speed, and right dimensions of the parts

of, 180
Barker's mill. See Whitelaw's experiments on.
Baths and wash-houses. See Marvels of the Day.
Bell crank steam engine. See Samuda.
" Black Eagle" steamer. See Engines of.
Blackwood's Magazine, review of, 48, 94
Board of Trade. See Railway department.
Bookbinders' cutting press, plough, and other

machinery for cutting paper, descriptions of,

172—3
Boilers, steam boat. See Steam boat.

See Tubular.

Boulton and Watt, new double cylinder engine by ;
drawing ; description of ; remarks on, 66

British Museum, apathy regarding ; homely cha-
racter of; Sir Robert Smirke, unimaginativeness
of; his sameness of treatment ; 199 — 200

Building. See Notes on.

Building arts; materials — magnesian limestone,
oolite of Caen, Sussex marble, Surrey firestone,
Portland stone, Bath oolite, granite ; their du-
rability ; carving ; Sylvester hardening process,
suggestions ; 10, 11

Bury, Curtis, and Co., engines of " Nimrod." See
Engines.

Calcutta (from our own correspondent), overland
journey, 25, 26

Red Sea, as a port of departure, supe

riority of Cosseir to Suez ; the isle of Perim ;
conveyance of mails ; the " Hindostan" and
"Bentinck;" 49, 50

route of the mails ; Madras lighthouse

and harbour ; mechanics' institution ; 73

Indian General Steam Navigation Com-

pany, origin, plans, and prospects of; the go-
vernment accommodation and cargo boats, re-
marks on ; 95 — 96

new steam company ; steam yacht on

the Ganges; steam boat engineers ; new dock ;
shipwreck at Mauritius ; pilot charges, 120

Literary and scientific institution ; canal

between the Hooghley and the Ganges ; dock
company ; new steam company ; sacrifice of
Hill Coolies ; 144

■ ocean steam navigation ; Ragmahl canal

recovery of articles from the wreck of the
" Memnon ;'' coal mine in the Punjaub ; Assam
Tea Company ; new church in Calcutta, 168

her Majesty's birth-day; steam tug

companies ; steam navigation ; transports for
the Indus ; Hooghly spinning mills ; bonded
warehouse association ; iron mines in the Con-
can ; salt lake in Scinde ; free kirk in Calcutta ;
189—90

inland steam navigation ; timber trade

of Moulmein; 212

Oriental steam navigation ; the

Fire

Queen ;" Steam Tug Company ; coal monopoly
in Calcutta ; wet docks ; a slip canal ; Metcalfe
Hall ; sugar machinery ; new lighthouse at
Moulmein ; 231—2

Canal across the Isthmus of Suez, expediency and
possibility of; fallacious objections to; duty of
England to promote ; other projects for facili-
tating intercourse considered ; construction of
canal ; suggestions ; probable cost ; Ali Pacha's
interest in; 13

Carpentry ; architecture of roofs ; introductory
remarks ; theory of construction ; nine illustra-
tions ; 213—8

architecture of roofs ; varieties of the

hipped or pavillion roof ; principles of construc-
tion of, 233—8

Changes in architectural taste and genius, remarks
on, 136

Chemical Society. See Societies.

Chimney flues, general inefficiency of; circular
earthenware flues; M. Denley, inventor of;
description of ; superiority and advantages of ;
68

" City of London" steamer, dimensions of, 162

plate, manner of putting this vessel to-
gether, 189

Claims, the, of labour : an essay on the duties of
the employer to the employed, examination of,
239

Coal trade, historical, geological, and descriptive
view of coal trade, by Mathias Dunn, analysis
of; Belgian coalfield ; 173 — 4

Cog wheels. See Forms of.

Colonial economy ; the doctrine of demand and
supply ; fallacy of; necessity of something over
and above to regulate human actions ; import-
ance of free intercourse ; colonization ; duty of
the government to new settlements ; its repre-
hensible system of land letting ; evidence of ;
suggestions ; 27 — 29

Communication between London and Paris, the
three routes, by Folkestone or Dover, Shore-
ham, and Southampton, examined, 32 — 33

Completion of the South Eastern Railway to
Dover ; advantages of railways ; geological cha-
racter of country about Dover ; description of
the line and works ; remarks on ; 29 — 30

Constantinople, lighthouse at Congo, in the Me-
diterranean ; remarks on ; 190

Cotton Manufactures, French. See French.

Cuttings. See Remarks on.

D

Description of Peter Borrie's patent self-acting
safety friction wheel, for disconnecting paddle-
wheels and other machinery, 115

Design, impulse to arts of; deficiency in, due to
removable causes ; advantages of artists in
Greece and Rome ; art exhibitions ; taste not
absolute ; folly of servile imitation of ancients ;
definition of design ; requisites for ; secret of a
great artist's power ; significancy of art derived
froijn association ; form and colour, emotions
suggested by; Reubens and Rembrandt, nation-
ality of; Hallam's letter to Commissioners of
Finit Arts ; weakness of Lord Mahon's reply ;
201—3

Development of trehedral solid, as applied to the
construction of roofs, 242

Direct action engine, relative merits of ; Gorgon,
objections to, short stroke, consequent waste of
steam, increased friction from oblique thrust of
connecting rod, excessive diameter of paddle,
consequent waste of power ; varieties of Gorgon,
Boulton and Watt's ; Miller and Ravenhill's,
compactness of; Fairbairn and Co.'s ; Rennie's ;
Seaward's, introducers of Gorgon ; Robert Na-
pier's ; Scott, Sinclair, and Co.'s, objectionable
nature of air pump connection ; steeple engine,
inventor of; David Napier's ; Dod and Macgre-
gor's, long air pumps objectionable ; Maudslay
and Field's, defects of annular species, increased
friction, leakage, radiation ; Bury, Curtis, and
Kennedy's, superiority of ; original merit, due
to David Napier ; double acting air pumps, re-
marks on ; 4 — 6

Scott, Sinclair, and Co.'s, long1 connect-

ing rod and strokes, description of plan, 206
Disconnecting gear for paddle wheels, 19
Dock gates. See Specification of.
Double cylinder engine. See Boulton and Watt.
Dublin University Magazine, reviews of, 23, 95,

119, 143

E

Earthenware pipes. See New uses of.

Earthworks. See Remarks on.

Ecclesiology, Cambridge Camden Society, remarks
on, 171

Economic geology, the lias formations and its
mineral products ; localities of; characteristics
of; 76

" Ebberfeldt," iron steamer, accident to ; insuffi-
cient strength of iron steamers, 60 — 61

Electrical Magazine, reviews of, 94

Electric printing telegraph, Mr. Bain's discovery ;
vast importance of ; historical notice of electric
telegraphing ; description of system of ; con-
troversy between Professor Wheatstone and Mr.
Bain, 82—83

Electricity, Noad's lectures on, analysis of; stati-

INDEX.

cal electricity ; disturbance of electrical equili-
brium ; lateral discharge ; continuous action of
electricity ; 8

Electro-metallurgy, manual of ; analysis of; 153.

Embankments. See Remarks on.

Encouragement of fine arts; conduct of England
compared with Continental governments ; Atlie-
riseum, letter from Rome, in ; national encou-
ragement, 67 — 68

Engine, Cradock's universal condensing. See
. Cradock.

direct action, marine. See Direct ac-
tion.

Engines of the " Great Western" steamer, re-
marks on ; drawing; 10

of steam vessel " Nimrod," remarks on ;

plate ; 18

of her Majesty's steamer "Black Eagle ;"

plate, explanation of; objections to oscillating
engines answered ; elegance and refinement of
Messrs. Penn's productions ; 92 — 93
See Rotary

Engineering, monthly record of, and practical sci-
ence. See Record.

Equilibriated arch, considered in reference to its
practical construction ; important applications of
the curve of equilibrium ; formula by which the
curve is calculated ; rules ; three diagrams ;
83—85

Essays on art. See Hazlitt.

" Evenings of a Working Man," notice of, 184 — 5.

Excavations on site of ancient Nineveh. See Mar-
vels of the Day.

Experimental brigs of 12 guns, remarks on ; com-
parative dimensions of ; 101

the rival constructors ; Sir Willam Sy-

monds' explainsd ; a diagram ; table of dimen-
sions, comparison with old 18 -gun brigs;
126—8

Explosions in coal mines, remarks on, 229

Forms of Cog Wheels ; to procure steadiness of
motion, Mr. Lewis Gompertz' methods of cog
wheels ; examination of common method, in-
sufficiency of ; description of ; Mr. Lewis GomT
pertz' ; two illustrations ; 129 — 30

France, internal communication of. See Internal
communication.

silk trade of. See Silk.

Frazer's Magazine,. reviews of, 69, 95

French Cotton Manufactures; notice of the indus-
try of Lowel in the United States ; manufac-
turing districts of France ; Rouen the Manches-
ter of France ; description and statistics of its
trade ; Lisle, misery of its inhabitants ; causes
of; Mulhausen, description of; comparative
amount of steam power of France and England ;
statistics of the trade of Lowel ; 124 — 6

Frigates, (46 guns) dimensions of, 93

Fuel, present means of employing. See Loss of
Mechanical Effect.

G

Gardner's Magazine, reviews of, 23

Geographical Society. See Societies.

Geometric Principle of Beauty, by D. R. Hay, his
theory that the quality of beauty is proportion,
refutation of, 90—92

Geology. See Economic.

German sculptors ; influence of foreign art on ;
infirmity of the German mind; John Henry
Damecker, particulars of ; character of his
works; Conrad Gerhard, works of, remarks on ;
Schwaushaler, celebrity of; character of his
works ; 54 — 55

" Gipsy Queen." See Accident on board of.

Gray's Epistles to the Engineers of the Universe,
No. I., on heat, explanation of; latent, specific ;
steam ; the atomic theory ; 20

" Great Western" steamer, engines of. See En-
gines.

Gresham Club-house, description of, cost of, 42

H

Harbours. See Bar.

Hazlitt's Essays on Art, excellence of; congruous
emotions necessary to success iu ; the ideal ;
204—6

Health of Towns ; first report of the Commis-
sioners for inquiring into the state of large
towns and populous districts; remarks on
analysis of; sewerage, remarks on ; supply o
water, bad quality of; how to obtain better
improvements, suggestions for carrying out
surveys, contour lines, explanation of; dwel
lings for the poor ; sickness and mortality, in
fluential causes of; fever districts, Dr. South-
wood Smith on ; benefits of irrigation ; scientific
elucidation of ventilation and consumption ; Mr.
T. Hawksley on the supply of water, statistics
of; method of filtration, Mr. Thorn's; general
remarks ; 191 — 6

Heating of brasses, one cause of, 187

How to spoil steam boats ; artifice of engineers ;
economisation of fuel, remarks on; 118

1

Illumination, artificial. See Artificial Illumination.

Illustrations of Windsor Castle, architectural, by
M. Gandy and B. Band, history of the works;
analysis of; history of Windsor Castle; 138 — 9

Improvements in instruments of warfare ; Society
of Practical Science and private military School
of a new and noble Science of Warfare, first
experimental exhibition of ; remarks on ; 230

Inland steam navigation. See Calcutta.

Internal communication of France and Ireland ;
discours de M, Magnier de Maisonneure, dans
la discussion du projet du loi relatif a l'eta-
blissement des grandes lignes de chemins de fer ;
observations on, as important in the state of
Ireland, and the want of employment for its
population ; with a description of the naviga-
tion of the river Shannon ; letter to his Excel-
lency Earl de Grey on the ameliorated condition
of Ireland, &c. &c. ; analysis of; a map, 64 — 66

Institution of Civil Engineers. See Minutes of.

Inventions of the Month ; atmospheric hydro-
meter; improvements in photography; orna-
mental tiles ; electro-plating by thermo-electri-
city ; application of animal power on railways ;
prevention of incrustation ; descriptions of; 23

Ireland, internal communication of. See Internal
Communication.

" Iron Duke," the. See Marvels of the Day.

Iron manufacture and mining employments of
South Staffordshire ; iron trade, history and
importance of; statistics of; coalfields; sta-
tistics of; extent of; sea yard coal ; method of
working ; description of country ; condition of
mines ; system of working ; increase of popu-
lation ; neglected education ; truck system ;
evils of ; necessity of legislative interference ;
1—4

Iron and wood steamers. See Relative Merits of.

Iron dwellings for the east ; memoir on wrought
iron roofing as applicable to every description of
building; showing modifieation necessary to
adapt the system to European dwellings in
India, by Capt. H. Goodwin ; analysis of; 175

Iron or wood, should future ships of the navy be
of ? See Ships of the Navy, &c.

steamer. See Specification of.

Iron steamers, in progress, 229 — 30

Iron ship building, &c. See New System of.

Jeffrey's cement, application to "Shannon" fri-
gate, 61

K

Kalsomine paper hanging, claims to popularity ;
details of kalsomine process ; 225

Kane on the industrial resources of Ireland, no-
tice of, 188

L

Labour. See Claims of.

Lectures, Noad's, on electricity. See Electricity.

Leipsic and its fairs ; description of Leipsic ; its
manufactures ; fairs ; dependence of its present
prosperity on the Prussian Commercial Union ;
abstract of Dr. Bowring's report on the
Union ; the book fair of Leipsic ; 33, 34

Life assurance; definition of; importance of;
origin of; history of; tables of mortality;
various systems ; explanation of; exhibition of
the conditions and advantages of some of the
chief insurance offices ; system of annuities ;
examples of the benefits of ; 76 — 81

Light, researches on. See Researches on.

Literary Gazette, 24, 48, 119

Literary and Philosophical Institution, Preston,
description, dimension, cost, 208 — 9

Locomotives with variable power ; plan of Mr.
Gompertz ; ingenuity of; inutility of; diagram;
application of; 135

London; communication between, and Paris. See
Communication.

Institute. See Societies.

Journal of Arts, Sciences, reviews of,

23, 48, 69

Interiors, remarks on, 152 — 3

Polytechnic Magazine and Journal of

Literature and Fine Arts, reviews of, 23, 69

Loss of mechanical effect ; incident to the means
of employing fuel ; advantage of surcharged
steam ; 210

Lowel, notice of. See French Cotton.

Lyons, silk manufacture of. See Silk.

M
Magical Reporter. See Stray Leaves from.
Manufactures. See French Cotton.
March of art ; increased devotion to the elegant

arts ; different modes of mural decorations ;

fresco ; tempera ; encaustic ; details of ; 218 —

20
Marine engines, direct action. See Direct Action.
Marvels of the Day, the " Iron Duke," Pelleton

light, 25

Glasgow ; iron as a material for house

building; cotton mill disaster; decay of the
wooden bridge ; cylindrical carriage wheels ;
iron steamers ; Artizan at Constantinople ; 50

Mesmeric wonders; gelatine not nutri-

tious ; proposed iron bridge at Westminster ;
self-regulating ventilator ; large expenditure
and small returns; "Waterman," No. 11;
French improvements in the atmospheric rail-
way ; Southampton to Constantinople ; 71 — 72
Wood engravers ; patent fuel, Sir James

Murray's hydrometer ; Metropolitan improve-
ments ; 120

The Duke of Wellington statue ; the

" Princess Mary" ; a holder for the Artizan ;
decorations for the Royal Exchange ; 143

The clay cure ; railway between Prague

and Brunn ; great Hungarian railway ; Bavarian
railway ; statistics of German locomotives ;
H.M.S. " Camperdown," frigate, of 50 guns;
retribution; 168

Victoria and Albert steam yacht ; grow-

ing potatoes by electricity ; Westminster-hall
exhibition ; a new method of copying oil paint-
ings ; 189 _
Ruined cities of Mexico ; a new de-

structive power ; baths and wash-houses for the
operative classes in London ; excavations on the
site of ancient Nineveh ; 211 — 12

Steamer "Braganza," screw rudder;

Altona and Ariel railroad ; early closing of
shops ; canal across the Isthmus of Suez through
Syria; fire at New Cross : royal carriage ; 231

Mathematics. See A Word on.

Mechanical arts in Morocco ; manufacture of mus-
kets ; coinage ; jewellery ; soap manufacture ;
leather manufacture ; flour mills ; weaving ;
miscellaneous manufactures ; public works ;
structure of the houses ; agriculture and horti-
culture

Method of compounding the metallic alloy, now
being introduced for lining bushes and other
bearings, inventor's receipt, 113

INDEX.

Microscopical Society. See Societies.

Mines arid mining regulations in Hungary. See
Hungary.

Mines of Cornwall ; " Transactions of the Royal
Geological Society ;" analysis of; 7,8

Mining employments of South Staffordshire. See
Iron Manufacture.

Minutes of Institution of Civil Engineers, remarks
on, 94

Miscellanea, 190

Moliere; monument to; description of; its in-
auguration; M. Etienne's and M. Arago's
harangues on the occasion of Arago's commen-
tary on the writings of Moliere ; 62, 63

Monthly record of architecture and the arts ; in-
troductory remarks; the British Museum and
Sir Robert Smirke ; church architecture ; dis-
puted existence of Saxon architecture ; Mr.
Stevens and the Saxon literature ; the Americans
and the Washington memorial ; the Nelson
monument ; obituaries of David Hamilton, Mr.
Thomas Hollis ; their characters ; 9, 10

• Villa architecture ; remarks on ; the

hall and library for the society of Lincoln's-inn ;
criticism on ; Royal Exchange, criticism on ;
new cathedral, Berlin ; improved character of
London street architecture ; Mr. Steele's statue
of Her Majesty ; burgesses of Folkestone, mo-
nument to Dr. Harvey ; French sculpture ;
Moliere's statue ; Napoleon's tomb ; 34, 35

Monthly record of engineering and practical
science ; depression of trades connected with the
manufacture of iron ; expected restoration ;
railway projects ; influence of railways on the
mass of society ; too great power of the direc-
tories ; legislative restrictions ; remarks on
General PasJey's report on the South Eastern
railway from Folkestone to Dover ; Calcutta,
supply of fresh water for ; geological structures,
particulars of; drainage of the Fens; Mr.
Walker's plan ; general system of agricultural
drainage ; communication with Ireland ; 35 —
37

Montrose. Sec Specification of Dockgate of. (

Moral influence of the Fine Arts, remarks on,
180,1

N

National Polytechnic; advantages of; existence
in foreign countries ; lectures; utility of; 207

Nature of beauty, Mr. Hay, versus the Artizan ;
99—101

Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle, reviews
of, 23, 94, 118

Naval statistics, 82

Naval architecture ; application of rules, to cal-
culate areas of vertical and horizontal sections
to obtain displacement ; three illustrations ;
38—41

Tardy introduction of scientific princi-
ples; French superiority; Portsmouth school
of ; imitation of French ; sheer plan, body
plan, and half-breadth plan ; calculation of dis-
placement; three illustrations ; 11 — 13

centre of gravity, displacement, load

water, and midship sections ; investigation of
the expression of a ship's stability ; metacentre ;
five illustrations ; 57 — 59
method of calculating the moment of

stability of a ship to a given angle of inclina-
tion ; calculation of the distance of metacentre
from centre of gravity of displacement; three
illustrations; 85 — 86

analysis of ships, 106

to prepare construction drawing of a

ship ; to construct parabolic line for the line of
sections of a frigate ; one illustration ; 153 — 5
to prepare construction drawing of a

ship; load water line, &c. ; 178

Navy, should future ships of, be iron or wood.
See Ships of the Navy.

New destructive power. See Marvels of the Day.

— — — sj'stem of iron shipbuilding ; introduc-
tory remarks ; the new system ; substitution of
diagonal arrangements of ribs for the perpendi-

cular ; remarks on ; a diagram ; form of rib ; an
illustration ; attachment of external plating ;
a diagram system of notching rib ; water. tiglit
bulk heads ; advantages of new method ; 89 —
90

New telegraphs at the exhibition of French
industry, one illustration, 175 — 6

uses of earthenware pipes ; chimney

flues ; distribution of water ; drains ; strength ;
gas pipes, use in Oriental countries ; 206

Niagara, water power of, amount of, 63

" Nimrod," steam vessel, engines, of. See En-
gines.

Noad's lectures on electricity. See Electricity.

Notes on building ; mortars and cements ; English
plagiarism on the subject of; French success;
concrete, remarks on ; concrete sea-wall at
Brighton, particulars of ; 75 — 76

Nunhead competition, remarks on, 155

O

Occupations of the people ; rate of increase of
population ; comparative numbers agricultu-
rally and commercially employed ; numbers em-
ployed in different trades ; 210 — 11

Our Club, No. X. : the Jubilee anniversary of the
Artizan; guests, Lord Jeffrey, Dr. Lardner ;
Scalpel's song, "The Artizan ;" Montgomery's
serenade, sequel by Lord Jeffrey ; another song
by Montgomery ; Scalpel's " Crumbs of comfort
for a love-sick swain ;" Gray's Rhymes for the
Poor; 14—18

No. XL ; Sir Jonah, Scalpel, and three

strangers ; discussion, interests of the working-
men, their distress, its cause, plans of ameliora-
tion, &c. ; 86—89

No. XII. : the experimenting room ; Sir

Jonah, Montgomery, Scalpel, Gray, Jeffrey,
Lardner, &c. ; steam verses, Scalpel's ; 140 — 2

Paddle wheels, disconnecting gear for. See Dis-
connecting.

Paddle wheel, new, of " Great Western," plate ;
peculiarities of ; 230

Page on ornamental drawing, " Guide for drawing
the Acanthus," analysis of; eight illustrations ;
113—15

Paris, communication between London and. See
Communication.

Patent laws of England ; justice of a patent law ;
injustice of present ; suggestions for reforma-
tion of; 56 — 7

Pelletan light. See Marvels of the Day.

Pendulum floats, Rev. R.Wilson, inventor of;
experiments on ; one illustration ; 221 — 2

People. See Occupations of.

Philosophical Magazine, 24, 48, 94, 118

Photographic Lithography, means of fixing the
image; advantages of the process ; 210

Pictures of the exhibition of Royal Academy,
notices of, 134 — 5

Pipes, earthenware. See New uses of.

Plea for engineers of the navy ; importance of
extending and perfecting- steam navy ; degraded
condition of engineers, responsibility of their
position, and claim to distinction ; 115, 116

Pole on the Cornish engine, strictures on ; ana-
lysis of; 169—71

Porter's patent anchor, description of; importance
of; 110, 111

Practical science, monthly record of engineering
and. See Record.

Preston. See Literary and Philosophical Institu-
tion at.

Principal transverse vertical sections of the expe-
rimental brigs of 12 guns ; their dissimilarities,
peculiarities ; table of dimensions ; two dia-
grams; 172

Principles of atmospheric railway, established prac-
ticability ; first experiments on ; opposition to ;
examination of ; 121—124,159—161.

Promiscuous notes on steam machinery ; horses'
power, want of a fixed standard ; that it is the

duty of the Institution of Civil Engineers to
establish one ; Mr. Watt's rules ; 22
Promiscuous notes on overhung paddles, advan-
tages of; new bush, description of; 67

sole plate of condenser, importance of

to side lever engines; Messrs. Maudslay and
Co., and Messrs. Miller's management of ; the
practice in Scotland ; 110

architecture and building, duration of

brickwork ; general defectiveness of railway
constructions, explanation of ; superiority of
old canal works ; 42, 43
Prussian commercial league ; history, object, and
tendencies of, 31, 32

Q

Quarterly Review, notice of, 95

Questions and answers, interesting to naval officers
and steam boat engineers ; vacuum, explanation
of ; indication of ; boilers, deposits in, means
of preventing ; brine pumps ; blowing off ; con-
stant efflux ; danger of these methods, means of
obviating ; use of hydrometer ; steam, insuffi-
cient supply of ; how to increase it; short fire
bars ; water casing round funnel ; hanging
bridge ; boiler clothing ; expansive working ;
how to obtain without expansive gear ; paddle
wheels, loss of power from slip of ; comparison
with screw ; superiority of screw, best method
of driving ; provision against accidents to en-
gines, to boilers ; 203, 204

tubular boilers, comparative merits of

"Braganza's" and " Tagus's ;" flue and furnace
surface, most effective proportions ; corrosion of
boilers, causes of, remedies for ; collecting ves-
sels ; most economical power for sea-going ves-
sels ; economy of fuel ; machinery and mechan-
ism best adapted for ; expansion ; efficacy of
long stroke ; screw; "Rattler," result of ex-
periments with ; boilers, construction of; 222 —
224

R

Railway administration, exposure of, in Westmin-
ster Review ; sophistical reply of Railway Chro-
nicle ; railway monopoly, oppressive nature of;
removal of ; 207

Department of the Board of Trade, re-

port of; analysis of; beneficial influence of;
General Pasley on railway accidents ; width of
gauge, Macneil's, George Stephenson's, Robert
Stephenson's, Rennie's, Bury's, Field's; 97,98
islation ; rapid progress of railways ;

importance and utility; present misgovernment,
examples of; necessity of legislative interference;
Mr. Gait's " Railway reform," analysis of ;
agitations for reform ; parliamentary move-
ments ; appointment of committee ; extracts of
evidence; 146 — 159

projects, mania for ; fields of enterprise ;

Portugal, Spain, Italy; inventions, M. An-
draud's, M. Selligue's, M. Arnou's, De Jouf-
froi's, Prosser's, Kollman's, Seguier's, peculi-
arities of, 225, 226

— South-eastern. See Completion of.
Yarmouth and Norwich. See Yarmouth.

Record, monthly, of architecture and the arts. See
Monthly record.

Relative merits of wood and iron steamers ; supe-
riority of iron ; objections to answered ; injury
to " Phlegethon," a drawing of; accident to
"Nemesis," means to repair; a drawing of;
19, 20

Remarks on cuttings, embankments, and other
earthworks; description of oolite district, with
reference to laying out lines of earthwork ; Ox-
ford, its oolite formations ; Kimmeridge clay,
mineralogical characters of ; locale; Heddington
oolite, mineralogical characters of; Oxford clay,
character of ; one illustration ; 36, 37

to relieve the trenches of the water per-
colating into them, description of system ; in-
efficiency of surface draining to prevent slips;
liabilitv of railways to slips from vibration ;
128, 129

INDEX.

Remedies for the Perils of the Nation, notice of,
185, 186

Repertory of inventions, reviews of, 23, 94

Report of the New Building Act, 226—229

Researches on Light ; an examination of all the
phenomena connected with the chemical and
molecular changes produced by the influence of
the solar rays, by Robert Hunt ; perplexing na-
ture of the investigation ; Sir Isaac Newton's
suggestion that light enters into the constitution
of all bodies ; analysis of Mr. Hunt's work ;
history of the daguerreotype and photographic
processes, 133, 134

Resistance of fluids, considered in relation to the
screw propeller and paddle wheel ; calculations
of; paddle wheel, principles of operation, illus-
tration of; to find diameter of the circle of
rotation in feet ; to find the distance of the
centre of pressure from the upper edge of
paddle ; method to find the resistance ; method
to find horses' power ; advantages of the screw,
examination of principles of ; rules ; 145 — 152

Roofs. See Carpentry.

Roofs, architecture of. See Carpentry.

Royal Academy. See Pictures.

■ Exchange, opening of ; foundation of ;

dimensions of ; 221

• navy, ships for, by various constructors.

See Ships.
steam-vessels of.

See Steam vessels.

Rotatory engines, plates, explanations of; Horn-
blower's second rotative engine, description of ;
three diagrams ; two diagrams of Mr. Samuel
Clegg's patent, description of ; Turner's rotatory
engine, structure of ; four diagrams, explanation
of; Mr. Joseph Eve's patent, particulars of; nine
diagrams ; Earl of Dundonald's patent ; Beale's ;
Peter Borrie's engine, superiority of ; description
of; 162—167

Ruined cities of Mexico. See Marvels of the Day.

Samuda's bell crank engine, peculiarity of ; plate
of; 93.

Screw propeller, how is it to be driven ? 186.

Sequential system of musical notation. See Ana-
lysis of books.

Ships for the royal navy, by different constructors,
particulars of, 21, 22.

Simmond's Colonial Magazine, reviews of, 24, 118.

Sketches in the Levant, by a Member of the Club ;
Gibraltar, description of ; Algiers ; Malta ;
Athens ; Smyrna ; Dardanelles ; Constantinople.

Smoke nuisance, report from select committee on
smoke prevention, remarks on, 231

Societies : Society of Arts : M. Claudet on the Da-
guerreotype ; M. Fizeau's means of fixing the
mercurial shading ; Dr. Roth's automaton cal-

culator. Geographical Society : Hong Kong,
description of ; explorations in North-Eastern
Africa. Microscopical Society : appearance of
mercury on a Daguerreotype plate, description
of; parasites in dogs. Chemical Society : fer-
mentation in closed tuns, advantage of. London
Institution : Mr. Grove's lectures on the relation
of physical forces. French Academy of Sciences :
M. Faye's comet; the supposed fabulous animal,
the coipo, peculiarity of ; M. S. Bernard's im-
proved musket barrel, experiments with ; curious
experiments of M. Baudrimont on incubation ;
22, 23

Societies, Royal Geographical : excursion into Ha-
dramant, by the Baron de Wrede ; character of
country ; adventures. Institution of Civil En-
gineers : properties of the arch, the Greeks'
knowledge of, why less employed by them than
by the Romans ; Mr. James Hay on " the for-
mation of the townlands of Musselburgh, on the
Frith of Forth ;" hydraulic traversing frame at
Bristol terminus of Great Western Railway, de-
scription of, by Mr. A. J. Dodson ; Mr. J. S.
Thomson, land slips in Ashley cutting of Great
Western Railway, explained by; papers to be
read, 68, 69

Something about tubular boilers, difficulty of main-
taining the feed, remarks on ; " Tagus," en-
gineers' arrangement for maintaining the feed,
illustration of ; 66

Southampton to Constantinople, journal of a voy-
age made in steamer " Tagus," 72, 73

Specification of an iron steamer, 196, 199

of a pair of gates for the entrance of the

wet dock, Montrose ; two plates ; 238, 239

Staffordshire (South), iron manufacture and mining
employments of. See Iron manufacture.

State trials, the, must we stand this ? 43 — 48

Steam boat boilers ; " Great Western's ;" " British
Queen's ;" " Internal's ;" tubular boilers ; re-
marks ; 20, 21

Steam communication with the East ; ship canal
across Suez, utility of; practicability of; railway
project, expense and inutility of ; Socotra, ad-
vantages as a coal station ; superiority to Aden ;
advantages of the island of Perim, 206, 207

machinery. See Promiscuous notes.

See Surcharged.

vessels of the Royal Navy, early charac-
ter ; improvements in, particulars of; "Ter-
rible" and " Watt," dimensions of; new class of
brigs of 12 guns, construction of; dimensions of;
46-gun frigates ; 60

vessel " Nimrod," engines of. See En-

gines.
Steemer " Great Western," engines of. See En-

gines.
Steamers, iron and wood. See Relative merits of.

Stephenson's Report on Atmospheric Railway,
analysis of ; principle of the atmospheric system,
explanation of ; 117,118.

Stray leaves from the Magical Reporter ; something
about coal ; Gray and Donohue's conversation
on; Montgomery and Sir Jonah upon steam
boat owners and steam boat makers ; and on the
influence of the fine arts ; 21

on taste ; beauty ; friendship ; boiler

furnaces ; 66, 67

Styles of architecture. See Architecture.

Suez, Isthmus of, canal across. See Canal.

Surcharged steam, economy of; investigation of;
200, 201

Tabulated specifications of dimensions, mode of
construction, quality of materials, and weight of
the marine engines, represented in Figs. 1, 2, 3,
4, Plate XIX., 102, 103

Tait's Magazine, review of, 23

Tank, plan of, adopted in steamer "Tay;" plate ;
230

" Tay," steamer. See Accident to.

Telegraph. See Electric printing.

Theory and Practice of Ventilation, illustrations of,
and remarks on warming, exclusive lighting, and
on the communication of sound, by Dr. Reid,
examination of ; Dr. Reid's investigation ; effect
of good air, illustration of; Dr. Reid's system of
ventilation, as applied to the Houses of Parlia-
ment, description of; remarks on ; ventilation of
ships; importance of ; 51 — 53

Throttle valves, on the effect of partly closing them,
184

Timber trade of Moulmein. See Calcutta.

Trihedral solid. See Development of.

Tubular boilers, plate of "Tagus's;" description
of; 142

boilers, their growing popularity, 186

boilers ; " Braganza's ;" " Tagus's ;"

"Sydenham's;" brine pumps blow off; neces-
sity of barometer gauge where brine pumps are
employed ; 209, 210

W

Warming by Hot Water, a practical Treatise on,
by Charles Hood ; analysis of ; principles of ap-
plication ; 178, 179
Warner's explosive force, remarks on, 161, 162
Westminster Review, notice of, 143
Whitelaw's experiments on Barker's mill, 248
Wood and iron steamers. See relative merits of.
Wood paving, disrepute of; remarks on ; 230

Yarmouth and Norwich Railway, remarks on ;
electric telegraph, system of working ; 101

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

TLATE
I

Longitudinal Section of the Engine
of the " Great Western" . . 10

II. Boilers of the " Great Western"

Steam-ship . . . . .20

III. Pair of direct action Marine Engines 18

IV. Boilers of the Steam-ship "Infer-

nal" 20

V. Gresham Club . . . .42

VI. Basement plan of .42

VII. Ground plan of . . 42

VIII. London and Paris communication —

Sketch of Shoreham Harbour . 32

IX. Double cylinder Beam Engine, pa-
tented by Boulton, Watt, and Co. . 66
X. Denley's Improved Flues . . 68

PLATE P

XI. Pair of oscillating Engines, by
Messrs. Penn and Sons
XII. Ditto

XIII. Peter Borrie's patent self-acting

Safety Friction Wheel

XIV. Varieties of Marine Engines .
XV. Projects of Rotative Steam Engines

XVI. Boilers of Steam-ship " Tagus"
XVII. Westminster Abbey looking cowards
Henry Seventh's Chapel
XVIII. Boilers of the " Sydenham" .

XIX. of the " City of London"

XX. Plan for a new set of Boilers for
the " Braganza"

AGE

PLATE

XXI.

92

XXII.

92

XXIII.

115

102

XXVI.

162

XXVII.

142

XXVIII.

XXIX.

186

162

XXX.

XXXI.

186

XXXII.

PAGE

Borrie's Revolving Engine . .167
Details of the "City of London"

Iron Steamer .... 189
Plan for rebuilding " City of Lon-
don" 196

Proposed back to back Houses . 195
Map with contour lines . . 196

Plan of Tank adopted for staunch-
ing the steamer " Tay" . . 230
Paddle-wheel of '' Great Western"

Steam-ship . . . .230

45 ton crane .... 241

Dock gates for Montrose . . 238
Ditto.

C